Fact-checked by Grok 2 weeks ago

Casting

Casting is a manufacturing process in which molten metal is poured into a mold containing a hollow cavity of the desired shape, where it solidifies to form a solid part that can be further processed as needed.^[1] This technique allows for the production of complex geometries, including internal features and undercuts, that may be difficult or impossible to achieve with other methods like machining or forging.^[2] The origins of metal casting trace back to ancient civilizations, with evidence of copper casting in Mesopotamia around 3200 BCE, including the oldest known cast object—a small copper frog statue.^[3] Sand casting, one of the earliest and most versatile forms, emerged during the Shang Dynasty in ancient China around 1300 BCE and remains a dominant method today, accounting for approximately 45% of the metal casting market as of 2024.^[4]^[5] Over millennia, the process evolved from rudimentary lost-wax techniques used in the Chalcolithic period (pre-4000 BCE) to sophisticated industrial applications, enabling advancements in tools, weapons, and machinery across cultures from ancient China to medieval Europe.^[6]^[7] Metal casting encompasses a variety of processes tailored to factors such as material properties, part complexity, production volume, and cost. Common types include sand casting, which uses expendable sand molds for high-volume, intricate parts; die casting, employing reusable metal molds under high pressure for precise, thin-walled components in alloys like aluminum and zinc; permanent mold casting, involving heated metal molds for improved surface finish and mechanical properties; investment casting (or lost-wax), ideal for high-precision, detailed shapes in aerospace and jewelry; centrifugal casting, which rotates the mold to distribute molten metal for tubular parts; and continuous casting, a modern method for producing long sections like billets or slabs in steel production.^[1]^[8] The metal casting industry plays a pivotal role in modern manufacturing, with cast components integral to over 90% of all durable goods and 100% of manufacturing machinery, from automotive engines and aircraft structures to medical devices and consumer appliances.^[9]^[10] The global metal casting market was valued at approximately USD 153 billion in 2024.^[11] It supports key sectors including transportation, energy, defense, and infrastructure, contributing significantly to economic output while facing ongoing challenges in energy efficiency, environmental impact, and material innovation.^[12]^[13]

History

Ancient and medieval casting

The origins of metal casting trace back to ancient Mesopotamia around 3200 BCE, where the lost-wax technique (cire perdue) was first employed to produce intricate tools, ornaments, and small figurines. This method involved creating a wax model coated in clay to form a mold, melting out the wax, and pouring molten copper or bronze into the cavity, allowing for detailed and complex shapes unattainable through simpler forging or hammering. Archaeological finds, such as bronze axes and jewelry from sites like Uruk, demonstrate this innovation's role in enabling the production of durable artifacts for both practical and ceremonial purposes during the Early Dynastic period.^[6] In ancient China, during the Shang Dynasty (circa 1600–1046 BCE), advanced mold-casting techniques emerged for creating elaborate bronze ritual vessels, marking a significant evolution in foundry practices. Unlike the lost-wax method, Chinese artisans developed the piece-mold process, using multiple ceramic sections assembled around a clay core to form the vessel's intricate designs, such as taotie masks and cloud motifs symbolizing ancestral and cosmic themes. This approach, evidenced by artifacts from sites like Anyang, allowed for large-scale production of ding cauldrons and gui bowls, integral to sacrificial rites and royal authority, with foundries operating as state-controlled workshops by 1300 BCE.^[14] The Romans advanced casting on a monumental scale from the 1st century BCE onward, particularly for bronze statues and bells, utilizing two-part or sectional molds to achieve greater precision and size. For statues like the colossal equestrian figures of emperors, such as Marcus Aurelius (circa 176 CE), lost-wax casting was refined with internal armatures and chaplets to support large pours, enabling lifelike proportions and dynamic poses up to several meters tall. Bell founding similarly progressed, with two-part clay-sand molds producing tuned sets for temples and public spaces, as seen in the Campana reliefs depicting foundry scenes; these innovations supported imperial propaganda and urban infrastructure across the empire.^[15] During the medieval period in Europe (circa 500–1500 CE), casting guilds formalized artisanal knowledge, driving refinements in bell founding and early cannon production amid rising ecclesiastical and military demands. Guilds, such as London's Founders' Company established by the 14th century, regulated apprenticeships and quality for bronze and bell metal (a tin-lead alloy) casts, producing massive church bells like those at Notre-Dame (cast circa 1350) using loam-sand molds tuned by ear for harmonic resonance. By the late 14th century, these skills adapted to iron and bronze cannon founding, with guild masters like those in Flanders casting bombards for sieges, such as the 1449 Mons Meg, which weighed over 6 tons and fired stone shot, fueling the era's military revolutions.^[16]^[17] In Africa, the Benin Kingdom exemplifies sophisticated lost-wax casting from the 13th–14th centuries, with guild artisans producing commemorative heads and plaques that captured royal lineage and historical events. Techniques imported from neighboring Ife involved multi-stage wax modeling over clay cores, encased in fine clay molds, and cast in brass alloys, yielding thin-walled, highly detailed works like the ivory-beaded heads of obas (kings) that adorned ancestral altars. These artifacts, such as those dating to the reign of Oguola (circa 1280–1295 CE), highlight the guild system's role in court patronage, blending technical mastery with symbolic iconography.^[18]^[19]

Industrial and modern developments

The Industrial Revolution marked a pivotal shift in casting technology, transitioning from labor-intensive, small-scale operations to mechanized production capable of supporting widespread industrialization. In the late 18th century, Abraham Darby III and his family at the Coalbrookdale ironworks in England integrated steam-powered blowing engines into their blast furnaces, enabling more efficient smelting and larger-scale iron casting that fueled infrastructure projects like the Iron Bridge completed in 1779. This innovation, building on earlier coke-smelting techniques pioneered by Abraham Darby I in 1709, dramatically increased output and quality of cast iron, laying the groundwork for the mass production of components essential to machinery and construction.^[20] The 19th century saw further mechanization with key inventions that enhanced precision and efficiency. Centrifugal casting emerged in the 1850s, when Alfred Krupp applied the technique to produce seamless steel railway tires, leveraging rotational forces to distribute molten metal uniformly and reduce defects in cylindrical parts. Similarly, die casting was invented in 1838 for producing movable printing type, with the first related patent granted in 1849 to John W. Sturges for a manually operated machine that injected molten metal under pressure into reusable molds, initially limited to lead alloys but soon expanding to other metals. These developments allowed for faster production rates and intricate shapes, supporting the growth of printing, machinery, and consumer goods industries.^[21] Entering the 20th century, advancements focused on higher pressures and new materials to meet demands from emerging sectors like automotive and aviation. High-pressure die casting was pioneered in the 1910s by H.H. Doehler, who in 1905 patented an early machine and by 1914 adapted it for aluminum alloys, enabling the rapid production of lightweight, complex parts with improved mechanical properties. Post-World War II, the rise of aluminum alloys in casting accelerated due to their strength-to-weight ratio, driven by surplus wartime production capacity repurposed for civilian applications; by the 1950s, aluminum castings became integral to automotive engines and aircraft components, with global adoption spurred by innovations in alloy compositions like A356.^[21]^[22] From the post-1950s onward, computer integration revolutionized casting design and precision, particularly for aerospace applications. The introduction of computer-aided design (CAD) in the 1960s allowed engineers to simulate mold filling, solidification, and defect prediction, leading to investment casting techniques that achieved tolerances as fine as ±0.005 inches for turbine blades and structural parts. This digital shift reduced trial-and-error iterations and enabled complex geometries unattainable by traditional methods, with early adopters like NASA incorporating CAD for high-integrity castings in rocket engines. Globalization further amplified these trends, as emerging markets in Asia invested in automated foundries; global metal casting output exceeded 100 million tons annually by the 2010s, reaching 103.64 million tonnes in 2014 and reflecting a tripling from mid-20th-century levels, underscoring the industry's role in supplying over 90% of manufactured metal products. As of 2020, production exceeded 110 million tonnes, with China accounting for nearly half.^[23]^[24]^[25]^[26]

Fundamentals

Principles of casting

Casting is a manufacturing process in which molten material, typically metal, is poured into a mold cavity and allowed to solidify, taking the shape of the cavity to form a desired component. This method leverages the transformation from liquid to solid state to achieve complex geometries that are difficult or costly with other techniques like machining. The core principles governing casting include the fluidity of the melt, heat transfer during solidification, and shrinkage compensation. Fluidity refers to the ability of the molten metal to flow easily into intricate mold details before solidifying, influenced by factors such as temperature, viscosity, and surface tension.^[27] Heat transfer drives the solidification process by dissipating latent and sensible heat from the melt to the mold and surroundings, primarily through conduction at the interface, with convection and radiation playing secondary roles.^[27] Shrinkage compensation addresses the volume contraction that occurs as the metal cools and solidifies, typically 2-7% depending on the alloy, requiring design features like risers to supply additional molten metal and prevent voids.^[28] During pouring, fluid dynamics control the flow of molten metal into the mold via the gating system. The continuity equation governs the volume flow rate as Q = A v, where Q is the volumetric flow rate, A is the cross-sectional area, and v is the flow velocity.^[29] Bernoulli's principle applies to ideal, incompressible flow, stating that the total mechanical energy per unit volume remains constant:

\frac{p}{\rho} + \frac{v^2}{2} + gh = \text{constant},

where p is pressure, \rho is density, g is gravity, and h is height; this helps predict velocity increases as the metal falls through the sprue, reaching terminal speeds up to \sqrt{2gh} under frictionless conditions.^[29] Turbulence or friction losses must be accounted for in practice to avoid defects like entrained air.^[29] Solidification mechanics involve two sequential stages: nucleation and growth. Nucleation initiates the phase change, where stable solid clusters form in the undercooled melt; homogeneous nucleation occurs rarely in pure melts due to high energy barriers, while heterogeneous nucleation predominates at mold walls, inclusions, or impurities, lowering the required undercooling.^[30] Growth follows as atoms attach to these nuclei, often forming dendritic structures that propagate against the heat flow direction until impingement creates grains.^[30] The overall solidification time for simple castings is described by Chvorinov's rule, empirically derived as

t_s = C \left( \frac{V}{A} \right)^2,

where t_s is solidification time, C is a mold constant depending on material and mold properties, V is casting volume, and A is surface area; this highlights that thicker sections (higher V/A) solidify slower.^[31] Cast quality is significantly influenced by cooling rate, thermal gradients, and phase transformations. Faster cooling rates promote finer grain structures and reduce segregation but can induce stresses leading to cracks.^[32] Thermal gradients across the casting cause directional solidification, where the outer chill zone solidifies first, followed by columnar and equiaxed zones, but excessive gradients exacerbate warping or porosity. In alloys, phase transformations during cooling—such as peritectic or eutectic reactions—can alter microstructure and mechanical properties, with slower rates allowing diffusion-controlled transformations that improve homogeneity but risk defects if not managed.^[33]

Materials and properties

Casting processes utilize a variety of materials, primarily metals, but also non-metallics, selected based on their ability to melt, flow, and solidify into desired shapes while meeting performance requirements.^[34] Ferrous metals, such as cast iron and steel, are commonly used due to their high melting points ranging from 1150°C to 1530°C and excellent fluidity, which allow for robust structural components in applications like automotive and machinery parts.^[35]^[36] Non-ferrous metals, including aluminum and copper alloys, offer lower melting temperatures between 660°C and 1085°C, enabling energy-efficient casting for lighter-weight or corrosion-resistant products, such as aluminum engine blocks or copper fittings.^[34]^[35] Non-metallic materials expand the scope of casting to lower-temperature processes. Polymers and resins are employed in low-temperature casting methods, where they cure rather than fully melt, producing prototypes or intricate parts with minimal thermal stress.^[37] Ceramics serve as high-precision mold materials, valued for their heat resistance and dimensional stability, which prevent deformation during high-temperature pours.^[38] Selection of casting materials hinges on key physical and chemical properties that influence flow, solidification, and final part integrity. The melting point determines the required furnace temperature and energy input, while viscosity—or fluidity—affects how well the molten material fills complex molds without defects like porosity.^[39] Thermal conductivity governs heat transfer during cooling, impacting solidification rates, and the coefficient of thermal expansion influences compatibility between the casting material and mold to avoid cracking.^[40] For instance, aluminum's low density of 2.7 g/cm³ facilitates the production of lightweight components, such as aircraft structures, while maintaining adequate strength.^[39] Alloying elements are strategically added to enhance castability and mechanical properties. In aluminum alloys, silicon additions, as in the A356 alloy (Al-7%Si-0.3%Mg), improve fluidity and reduce shrinkage, making it suitable for sand and die casting in automotive and aerospace applications.^[41]^[42] Environmental factors play a growing role in material selection for casting. Metals like aluminum and iron exhibit high recyclability, with scrap metal often reused in new castings to minimize resource extraction and energy use.^[43] In contrast, polymer resins can release toxic fumes during curing or disposal, necessitating ventilation and safer alternatives to mitigate health and ecological risks.^[44]^[45]

Types

Expendable mold casting

Expendable mold casting encompasses manufacturing processes where the mold is typically destroyed or broken apart to extract the solidified casting, allowing for the production of complex shapes that would be difficult with reusable molds. These molds are commonly formed from materials like sand, plaster, or ceramic investments, which provide flexibility in design but require recreation for each casting cycle. This approach is particularly suited for low-to-medium production volumes, prototypes, and parts with intricate geometries, as the expendable nature avoids the need for mold release mechanisms or draft angles in many cases.^[46]^[1] Sand casting, one of the most versatile and widely used expendable mold techniques, employs molds made from silica sand bonded with clay and water (green sand) for moist, room-temperature use or dried for added strength. The process begins with the creation of a pattern—often wooden or metallic—placed in a flask to form the mold cavity by ramming sand around it; cores, made similarly from sand mixtures, are inserted for internal features like holes or passages. It is ideal for producing large components, such as automotive engine blocks, due to its ability to handle ferrous and non-ferrous metals in sizes ranging from small prototypes to massive structures. Green sand molds are cost-effective and reusable within a production run through sand reclamation, while dry sand variants offer better rigidity for higher-precision needs.^[47]^[48] Investment casting, also known as the lost-wax process, enables the fabrication of highly precise and intricate parts by first forming a wax pattern of the desired component, which is then repeatedly dipped in a refractory ceramic slurry and stucco to build a shell mold. The assembly is heated to melt out the wax (leaving a hollow ceramic investment), after which molten metal is poured into the mold, which is subsequently broken away post-solidification. This method excels in creating fine details and thin walls for applications like aerospace turbine blades and delicate jewelry, where surface finishes as smooth as 1.6–3.2 μm Ra and tolerances down to ±0.076 mm are achievable, minimizing the need for secondary machining. It supports a wide range of alloys, including high-temperature superalloys, but is more labor-intensive than sand casting.^[49]^[50]^[51] Plaster mold casting utilizes molds composed of gypsum (plaster of Paris) mixed with water and additives, poured around a pattern or directly formed, then dried to create a rigid cavity suitable primarily for non-ferrous metals like aluminum, zinc, and magnesium alloys. The process mirrors sand casting in pattern use and core insertion but leverages the fine grain of plaster for superior surface quality, often achieving finishes comparable to die casting without additional polishing. It is favored for decorative or functional parts requiring smooth surfaces and moderate complexity, such as lighting fixtures or ornamental hardware, though the molds' lower heat resistance limits it to lower melting-point materials and smaller production runs.^[1]^[52] These expendable mold methods offer significant advantages, including low tooling costs for prototypes and one-off parts, versatility for complex geometries, and adaptability to various metal types without specialized equipment. However, they generally provide lower dimensional accuracy—typically requiring ±1.0–1.5 mm tolerances for sand castings, with machining often needed for tighter fits—along with rougher surfaces that demand post-processing. Compared to permanent mold techniques, expendable processes excel in flexibility but incur higher per-unit costs for high volumes due to mold remake.^[53]^[54]

Permanent mold casting

Permanent mold casting is a metal casting process that employs reusable molds constructed from durable materials such as steel, cast iron, or graphite, capable of withstanding multiple pouring cycles to produce castings with superior dimensional accuracy and surface finish compared to expendable methods.^[55] These molds facilitate rapid cooling due to their high thermal conductivity, resulting in finer grain structures and improved mechanical properties in the cast parts.^[56] Die casting, a prominent variant of permanent mold casting, involves injecting molten metal under high pressure—reaching up to 150 MPa—into the mold cavity to create thin-walled components with intricate details, commonly used in automotive parts like engine blocks and transmission housings.^[57] This process features two primary machine types: hot-chamber die casting, which submerges the injection mechanism in the molten metal bath for alloys with low melting points such as zinc and magnesium, and cold-chamber die casting, where the metal is ladled into a separate chamber before injection, suitable for higher-melting-point alloys like aluminum and copper.^[58] The high pressure ensures complete mold filling and minimizes porosity, enabling production rates of hundreds of parts per hour.^[59] In permanent mold gravity casting, also known as gravity die casting, molten metal is poured into the mold solely under the influence of gravity, promoting uniform filling and solidification for medium-volume production of robust components such as aluminum wheels and valve bodies.^[56] This method is particularly effective for non-ferrous alloys, offering better mechanical integrity than sand casting while avoiding the complexity and cost of pressure systems, with cycle times typically ranging from 30 seconds to several minutes depending on part size.^[60] Centrifugal casting, another form of permanent mold casting, rotates the mold at high speeds to generate centrifugal forces—often 15 to 120 times gravity—that force the molten metal against the mold walls, producing dense, cylindrical parts like pipes, bushings, and rings with minimal inclusions and enhanced radial strength.^[61] The process excels in applications requiring uniform wall thickness and high material density, such as industrial piping, where the rotational forces segregate lighter impurities toward the center for easy removal.^[62] Although efficient for high-volume manufacturing, permanent mold casting incurs substantial upfront costs for mold fabrication and maintenance, often limiting its economic viability to production runs exceeding thousands of units, and it is generally confined to simpler geometries due to challenges in mold release and undercutting.^[63] In contrast to expendable mold methods, which favor prototyping and complex designs, permanent mold approaches prioritize repeatability and efficiency in mass production.^[64]

Process

Preparation and molding

In the preparation phase of casting, pattern making is essential to define the shape of the mold cavity. Patterns are replicas of the final casting, typically constructed from materials such as wood for low-volume production due to its ease of machining, plastic for moderate durability and precision, or metal for high-volume applications requiring longevity and accuracy.^[47] To account for the contraction of metal during cooling, shrinkage allowances of approximately 1-2% are incorporated into the pattern dimensions, varying by alloy—for instance, 1.3% for aluminum alloys and 1.6-2.1% for carbon steels.^[65] Mold creation follows pattern making and differs based on the casting type. In expendable mold processes like sand casting, molding sand—primarily silica sand mixed with binders such as clay (5-11%) and moisture (2-8%)—is compacted around the pattern using techniques like jolting or squeezing to achieve uniform density and prevent defects.^[66] The pattern is then removed, leaving a cavity, and cores made from similar sand mixtures are inserted to form internal features like holes or undercuts.^[67] For permanent mold casting, reusable metal dies (often steel or iron) are machined to the desired shape and assembled by clamping or bolting halves together, sometimes with cores for complex geometries. Concurrently, the metal is melted in furnaces suited to the alloy and scale of production. Cupola furnaces, traditionally used for gray iron, operate by coke combustion to reach temperatures exceeding the metal's melting point, while induction furnaces—coreless or channel types—are preferred for ferrous and non-ferrous metals like steel and aluminum due to their efficiency and precise control.^[68] The melt is superheated to 50-100°C above the liquidus temperature (e.g., 710-760°C for aluminum alloys melting at ~660°C) to ensure fluidity during pouring without excessive oxidation.^[69] To achieve high-quality castings, the molten metal undergoes fluxing and degassing to remove impurities and dissolved gases. Fluxes, such as chloride salts, are added to separate oxides and non-metallic inclusions, while degassing involves injecting inert gases like argon through the melt via rotary impellers or lances, particularly effective for aluminum to reduce hydrogen content and prevent porosity.^[70] Safety protocols are critical given the extreme temperatures of molten metals, ranging from ~700°C for aluminum to ~1600°C for steels. Workers must wear personal protective equipment (PPE) including flame-resistant clothing, heat-resistant gloves, face shields with spatter protection, and safety footwear with metatarsal guards to mitigate burns and splashes.^[71] Adequate ventilation systems, such as local exhaust hoods over furnaces and pouring areas, are required to control fumes and metal vapors that pose respiratory risks, with monitoring to ensure compliance with exposure limits.^[72]

Pouring, solidification, and extraction

Once the mold is prepared, the molten metal is poured into the cavity to initiate the casting process. Common pouring techniques include gravity pouring, where the melt flows naturally under its own weight into the mold; low-pressure casting, which uses applied gas pressure to gently push the molten metal upward into the mold for reduced turbulence; and vacuum-assisted casting, where negative pressure draws the melt into the cavity to improve filling and minimize air entrapment.^[1] The gating system, consisting of the sprue, runner, and gates, is designed to direct the flow smoothly and minimize turbulence, which can lead to oxidation, gas absorption, and mold erosion if not controlled.^[2] Solidification occurs as the poured metal cools and transitions from liquid to solid, typically starting at the mold walls and progressing inward. Directional solidification is the preferred mode, where the solid-liquid interface advances progressively from the extremities of the casting toward the risers and gates, ensuring that the last areas to solidify receive feeding from reservoirs of molten metal.^[73] In contrast, random solidification, where multiple regions solidify simultaneously without a clear progression, increases the risk of internal stresses and cracks due to uneven contraction.^[74] To compensate for volumetric shrinkage during solidification—typically 2-7% for most metals—risers are strategically placed at thick sections or hot spots to act as reservoirs, supplying additional molten metal as the casting contracts and preventing voids.^[74]^[73] Cooling rates during solidification significantly affect the resulting microstructure and mechanical properties. Faster cooling promotes finer grain structures and potentially higher strength but can exacerbate shrinkage issues, while slower cooling allows for more controlled phase transformations; for instance, in ductile iron castings, cooling rates of 15-80 °C/s in thin-walled sections (2-5 mm) favor the formation of spheroidal graphite nodules, enhancing ductility and toughness compared to rapid cooling that yields brittle pearlite.^[75] Mold materials and chills are often used to manipulate these rates and promote directional solidification.^[76] After solidification, the casting is extracted from the mold to complete this phase. In sand casting, extraction involves shakeout, where the mold flask is vibrated or mechanically shaken to separate the solidified casting from the sand, typically once the metal has cooled sufficiently to maintain integrity.^[77] For permanent mold or die casting, ejection pins or plates push the part out of the die once it has contracted slightly away from the mold walls. Timing of extraction is critical to prevent hot tearing, a crack-forming defect that arises from tensile stresses in the semi-solid state (solid fraction 85-95%) due to restrained contraction; extraction too early, before adequate rigidity, or too late, after excessive stress buildup, can induce tears, so optimal removal occurs when the casting temperature allows deformation without fracture.^[78]^[79]^[77] Common defects arising during pouring, solidification, and extraction include porosity and misruns. Porosity manifests as gas holes or voids from entrapped air or dissolved gases that evolve during solidification, often due to inadequate venting in the mold that traps bubbles or fails to allow gas escape.^[80] Misruns occur when the mold cavity is incompletely filled, resulting in short shots or incomplete sections, typically caused by insufficient metal volume, low pouring temperature, or excessive cooling in thin sections that solidifies the melt prematurely.^[80] Proper gating, venting, and temperature control mitigate these issues.

Post-Processing

Fettling and finishing

Fettling refers to the post-casting cleanup process that removes excess material, such as risers, gates, and flash, from the casting to prepare it for further use or finishing.^[81] This step follows the extraction of the casting from the mold, where excess material from the feeding system adheres to the part, necessitating removal to achieve the desired shape and surface condition.^[82] Common techniques include sawing for larger risers, grinding for precise edge removal, and pneumatic chipping tools for flash and fins, ensuring minimal damage to the base metal.^[83] Additional cleaning methods, such as abrasive blasting, are employed to remove scale, sand residues, and oxidation layers from the casting surface, improving cleanliness and preparing it for subsequent operations.^[82] For defect repair, welding techniques like tungsten inert gas (TIG) or metal inert gas (MIG) are used to fill porosity or cracks, followed by grinding to blend the repair seamlessly with the surrounding material.^[83] Surface finishing enhances the casting's performance and appearance; shot peening, for instance, bombards the surface with spherical media to induce compressive residual stresses, thereby increasing fatigue resistance in components subjected to cyclic loading.^[84] Machining is applied for achieving tight dimensional tolerances, ensuring compliance with design specifications.^[85] In high-volume production, automation has revolutionized fettling through robotic systems equipped with grinders and sensors, which adapt to casting variations and reduce manual labor while maintaining consistency.^[86] These robotic setups, often integrated with elastic tool suspensions or active feedback controls, are particularly effective in automotive and heavy machinery foundries.^[87] Waste management during fettling emphasizes sustainability; sprues, gates, and other metal scraps are collected and recycled back into the melting furnace, while spent sand from cleaning is reclaimed for reuse in molding, minimizing landfill use and resource consumption.^[88]

Inspection and quality control

Inspection and quality control in metal casting involve systematic methods to verify the integrity of cast parts, detect defects, and ensure compliance with design specifications. These processes are essential to identify issues such as surface cracks, internal voids, and dimensional inaccuracies that may arise during solidification and cooling, often originating from the pouring phase.^[89] Visual and dimensional inspections form the initial stage of quality assessment. Visual examination detects surface imperfections like cracks or inclusions, while dimensional checks use gauges, calipers, or coordinate measuring machines to confirm adherence to tolerances. Dye penetrant testing enhances detection of surface-breaking defects by applying a liquid dye that seeps into cracks and becomes visible under developer, commonly used for non-porous castings.^[90]^[89] Non-destructive testing (NDT) methods are employed to evaluate internal quality without damaging the casting. Ultrasonic testing sends high-frequency sound waves through the material to detect internal voids or inclusions by measuring echo reflections, particularly effective for thick sections. Radiographic testing uses X-rays or gamma rays to produce images revealing density variations, such as shrinkage cavities or gas porosity, allowing for precise defect characterization. These techniques ensure the casting's structural soundness for critical applications.^[91]^[92] Industry standards guide inspection criteria and defect classification. ISO 8062 specifies dimensional tolerances for castings, defining grades CT1 to CT16 based on size and process, with tighter grades for precision requirements. ASTM standards, such as E155 for reference radiographs and E446 for internal defects, classify casting discontinuities by type and severity, aiding in acceptance criteria. These standards promote consistency across manufacturing.^[93] Statistical process control (SPC) monitors production quality by tracking variables like defect rates over time. In foundries, SPC charts analyze porosity levels to maintain high yield and reliability, using tools like control limits to identify process deviations. This data-driven approach enables proactive adjustments.^[94] If inspections reveal residual stresses contributing to distortion or cracking, corrective actions such as heat treatment are applied. Stress-relief annealing heats the casting to 500–600°C, holds it to allow relaxation, and cools slowly, mitigating internal stresses without altering microstructure. This post-inspection step enhances durability for service.^[95]

Simulation and Advances

Casting process simulation

Casting process simulation employs computational methods such as finite element analysis (FEA) and computational fluid dynamics (CFD) to predict molten metal flow, heat transfer, and solidification during casting, enabling optimization of process parameters to minimize defects like porosity and shrinkage.^[96]^[97] These techniques model the complex interplay of fluid dynamics and thermal fields, allowing engineers to virtually test designs and reduce reliance on empirical trials.^[98] In CFD simulations of melt flow, the Navier-Stokes equations govern momentum conservation, coupled with the continuity equation for mass balance:

\frac{\partial \rho}{\partial t} + \nabla \cdot (\rho \mathbf{v}) = 0

where \rho is density and \mathbf{v} is velocity.^[99]^[100] For solidification modeling, the heat equation describes thermal conduction:

\frac{\partial T}{\partial t} = \alpha \nabla^2 T

with T as temperature and \alpha as thermal diffusivity, often solved using FEA to account for phase change and latent heat effects.^[101]^[102] These equations, discretized via finite volume or element methods, predict filling times and temperature distributions critical for defect prevention.^[103] Commercial software like MAGMASOFT and ProCAST implements these models to simulate the full casting sequence, including mold filling, cooling, and residual stress prediction.^[104]^[105] MAGMASOFT supports autonomous engineering with virtual test plans for processes like die casting, optimizing gating and thermal controls to forecast filling dynamics and temperature fields.^[106] ProCAST similarly evaluates feeder placements and insulation effects, providing detailed visualizations of solidification fronts and potential hot spots.^[107] As of 2025, updates in related software such as THERCAST® include advanced models for inclusions, segregation, and electromagnetic stirring to enhance defect prediction accuracy, while FLOW-3D CAST 2024R1 improves permanent mold simulations with enhanced cooling channel visualizations.^[108]^[109] Validation of these simulations involves comparing predicted results—such as defect locations and mechanical properties—with outcomes from physical casting trials, often confirming accuracy within 10-20% for temperature and flow predictions.^[110]^[111] This approach substantially reduces the number of physical iterations required for process optimization, with studies reporting up to 50% fewer trials by identifying issues virtually early in design.^[112]^[108] Despite these advances, limitations persist in turbulence modeling, where assumptions in low-Reynolds k-\epsilon models or simplified boundary conditions can overlook interactions with the moving solidification front, leading to inaccuracies in high-velocity flows.^[113]^[114] Such approximations necessitate ongoing refinements to enhance reliability for complex geometries.^[98]

Recent innovations

Since the 2000s, innovations in casting technology have focused on enhancing precision, sustainability, and efficiency by integrating emerging manufacturing paradigms. Additive manufacturing has revolutionized mold production, enabling the creation of intricate sand molds that support complex internal geometries unattainable with traditional patterning methods. For instance, General Electric (GE) has employed 3D-printed sand molds in collaboration with voxeljet AG to cast large-scale components for offshore wind turbines, demonstrating the scalability for aerospace applications like engine brackets in the LEAP engine series, where such molds reduce lead times by up to 75% compared to conventional tooling.^[115]^[116] In 2025, voxeljet's VX9000 system further advanced this by enabling multi-ton sand molds in weeks rather than months for wind and hydropower applications.^[117] Hybrid processes combining casting with forging have gained traction in the automotive sector to produce parts with superior mechanical properties. Squeeze casting, a prominent hybrid technique, involves injecting molten metal into a die under high pressure to achieve forging-like density while retaining casting's design flexibility, resulting in near-net-shape components with minimal porosity. This method has been applied to automotive suspension arms and transmission housings, improving fatigue strength by 30-50% over standard die-cast equivalents without requiring extensive post-machining.^[118]^[119] Sustainability advancements address environmental concerns in foundry operations through reduced emissions and greener materials. Low-emission electric arc furnaces (EAFs) have become integral to steel casting, recycling scrap metal with electricity to cut CO2 emissions by over 70% relative to blast furnaces, as exemplified by Nucor's operations producing low-embodied carbon steel for castings. Complementing this, bio-based binders derived from renewable sources like vegetable oils or biomass replace traditional phenolic resins in sand molding, slashing volatile organic compound (VOC) emissions by up to 90% during core-making and pouring, thereby minimizing air pollution and improving worker safety.^[120]^[121] As of 2025, trends include the revival of semi-solid casting techniques like rheocasting for aluminum parts, reducing energy consumption and emissions by enabling lower-temperature processing, and increased adoption of low-carbon alloys in die casting to further lower the industry's environmental footprint.^[122]^[123] Nanotechnology introduces additives to refine microstructure during solidification, promoting finer grain structures that enhance overall performance. In aluminum casting, nanoparticle inoculants such as nano-TiC or Al2O3 dispersed in the melt act as heterogeneous nucleation sites, reducing grain size by 40-60% and boosting tensile strength by approximately 20% in alloys like Al-Si-Cu, as demonstrated in squeeze-cast automotive pistons with improved wear resistance.^[124] Under Industry 4.0, AI-driven systems leverage sensor networks for real-time process monitoring and proactive defect mitigation. In die casting, embedded sensors collect data on temperature, pressure, and flow, feeding into machine learning models like XGBoost that predict defects such as porosity with 80-90% accuracy, enabling adjustments mid-cycle to achieve near-zero scrap rates in low-pressure aluminum production. These innovations often build on advanced simulation tools for predictive optimization.^[125]

References

[1]
[PDF] FUNDAMENTALS OF METAL CASTING 0. Alloys and Phase ...
7. Introduction. • Casting (process) – melt the metal, pour into a. mold by gravity or other force and solidify. • Casting (Part)
[2]
[PDF] Fundamentals of Casting - Mechanical & Industrial Engineering
Casting involves melting, treating, pouring molten material into a mold, and solidifying. It can produce complex shapes, hollow sections, and large parts.<|separator|>
[3]
[PDF] History of Metals
The first tools, implements & weapons were made from copper. The oldest known casting in existence, a pure copper frog, was cast in Mesopotamia. Bronze was the ...
[4]
Transforming Metal Casting Science for the 21 st Century
Jan 28, 2020 · Sand casting is a manufacturing process that dates back to 1000 BC and accounts for 70% of all cast parts. Sand casting has several critical ...
[5]
The early history of lost-wax casting - Academia.edu
Lost-wax casting originated in the Chalcolithic period before 4000 BC, predating earlier assumptions. Research indicates broad geographical spread of lost-wax ...
[6]
Early progress in the melting of iron - Dallas R. Trinkle
Mar 12, 2000 · According to history, cast iron was first produced succesfully by the Chinese 800-700 B.C.(1) Even though iron was produced many centuries ...
[7]
Metal Casting Processes: Permanent Mold Casting - ESM Intranet Site
Classification of die casting involves the types of machine used, the two primary types being hot-chamber machines and cold-chamber machines. Hot-Chamber ...
[8]
[PDF] Metalcasting Industry Technology Roadmap - OSTI.GOV
Castings are essential building blocks of U.S. industry. More than 90% of all manufactured, durable goods and 100% of all manufacturing machinery contain ...
[9]
[PDF] Metal Casting--Industry of the Future - eere.energy.gov
In its short history, the Metal Casting initiative has provided nearly $20 million in cost-share support for close to 100 research projects involving over 300 ...
[10]
[PDF] A Vision for the U.S. Metal Casting Industry - Department of Energy
The metalcasting industry will communicate its essential value to the U.S economy, improve casting design methods to open new markets and applications, improve ...
[11]
Bronze Age Casting - Smithsonian's National Museum of Asian Art
Their discovery confirms foundries for smelting and casting metal were active in northern China between 1300 and 900 BCE, a highpoint of early Chinese casting.Missing: sand invention Shang dynasty
[12]
[PDF] Guidelines for the Technical Examination of Bronze Sculpture
|. Summary: “This illustrated volume offers a new framework for advancing the understanding of bronze sculpture, explaining how to identify the evidence of ...Missing: advancements | Show results with:advancements
[13]
Occupations - Medieval Londoners
Craft in 1406 (Memorials, 563). founder, Cast metal, including bells and cannons, but also made other metal items (Veale, 'Craftsmen,' 135-6). Fraternity and ...
[14]
[PDF] Medieval & Early Modern Europe Iron & Milling Technology
c1350-The first cast iron cannons appear. -The earliest known blast furnace is built in Europe, at Lapphytten, Sweden. 1351-The application of water-power ...
[15]
African Lost-Wax Casting - The Metropolitan Museum of Art
Oct 1, 2001 · Some of the earliest and most accomplished bronzeworks found in Africa date to the tenth century and are from a site called Igbo-Ukwu. The ...
[16]
Edo Spaces, European Images: Iterations of Art and Architecture of ...
While metalwork in Benin dates to at least the thirteenth century, archaeological evidence suggests that Edo artisans began using lost-wax casting techniques to ...
[17]
Abraham Darby | Industrial Revolution, Iron Casting, Coal-Fired ...
Sep 23, 2025 · Abraham Darby was a British ironmaster who first successfully smelted iron ore with coke. Darby, who had used coke in smelting copper in ...Missing: late 18th
[18]
(PDF) History and Trends of Metal Casting - ResearchGate
Volume 15 is a comprehensive reference on the principles and practice of metal casting, covering the fundamentals, process selection and parameters, and ...<|separator|>
[19]
[PDF] Aluminum Association History: 1930 - 1981
May 3, 2023 · Uses of aluminum rapidly increased during World War II. Aluminum castings had been previously used in airplane engines during World War I. Now ...
[20]
Aluminum Alloy Casting: A Perfect Fusion of Tradition and Innovation
Jul 23, 2024 · World War II: The aviation industry drives rapid advancement in aluminum alloy casting technology; 1950s: Widespread adoption of die casting ...
[21]
[PDF] Precision Casting via Advanced Simulation and Manufacturing
Task 1.0 developed advanced simulation technology for core molding. Ford headed up this task. On this program, a specialized core machine was designed.
[22]
(PDF) Trends in the Production of Castings in the World and in ...
Mar 24, 2016 · In 2001–2021, global casting production increased from ca. 68 million tons to ca. 97 million tons (i.e. by ca. 42%), whereas the European one ...
[23]
Heat Transfer Studies on Solidification of Casting Process
In the early stage of solidification, the fluidity of the molten metal conformance and contact between the cast and mold surfaces is good. At this early stage ...
[24]
Solidification Shrinkage - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Solidification shrinkage is defined as the reduction in volume that occurs in materials as they transition from liquid to solid during the solidification ...
[25]
[PDF] Metal Casting
Bernoulli's Theorem Under steady well-developed flow conditions, the total energy of a unit volume of material must be a constant at every part of the system. ...
[26]
[PDF] Fundamentals of Solidification, Nucleation and growth
Jan 21, 2017 · The mechanism of solidification of metals/alloys and its control for obtaining sound castings is the most important problem of foundry men.
[27]
Chvorinov - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Chvorinov's rule suggests that sections of the casting having a large volume-to-surface area ratio will take a long time to solidify.
[28]
Effect of cooling rate on grain refinement of cast aluminium alloys
Cooling rate is a critical factor controlling the grain size of cast metals. Generally, it is accepted that higher cooling rate leads to smaller grains due ...
[29]
The effects of heating/cooling rate on the phase transformations and ...
Jun 23, 2015 · During the heating process, the phase transformation rate of ferrite to austenite first decreases and then increases as the temperature rises.
[30]
6 Casting Materials and Their Properties - Thomasnet
Sep 23, 2025 · Nonferrous casting materials, such as aluminum, copper alloys, magnesium alloys, and zinc, contain little to no iron and offer advantages like ...
[31]
Melting Point of Common Metals, Alloys, & Other Materials
Melting point of iron: 1538 °C / 2800 °F; Melting point of lead: 327.5 °C ... Iron, Cast, 1204 °C, 2200 °F. Iron, Cast (Gray), 1175 - 1290 °C, 2150 - 2360 °F.
[32]
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2589152918300681
[33]
[PDF] UNIT IV NON-METALLIC MATERIALS 4.1 POLYMERS:( Define the ...
E.g. Wood, Nylon, Resin. Characteristics of Polymers: ➢ Light weight. ➢ High corrosion resistance. ➢ Low density. ➢ Low coefficient of friction.
[34]
Ceramics 101: Your Complete Guide to Technical Ceramic Properties
Ceramics are neither metallic nor organic (eg, polymeric). They are typically harder, more chemically inert, and capable of withstanding higher temperatures ...
[35]
Material Properties - The Engineering ToolBox
Material properties include densities, specific heats, viscosities, boiling points, melting/freezing points, and properties of gases, fluids, and solids.
[36]
Thermophysical Property - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
The properties most relevant to casting simulations3 are heat of fusion, heat capacity, electrical resistivity, density, thermal conductivity and diffusivity, ...Missing: key point
[37]
A356 Aluminum: Properties, Applications, and Advantages
Oct 15, 2025 · A356 is used primarily in sand casting, permanent mold casting, and die casting, offering excellent fluidity and resistance to hot cracking. Key ...
[38]
A356 Aluminum Casting Specs and Properties
A356 is a versatile aluminum alloy used in aircraft and structural castings, mainly composed of aluminum, silicon, and magnesium, and is used in applications ...
[39]
[PDF] Process and Material Selection for Product Recyclability
Recycled material reduces the amount of material that needs to be extracted from the ground, which reduces the environmental impact. All die casting metals ...Missing: considerations resin toxicity
[40]
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/materials-science/thermophysical-property
[41]
The Eco-Friendly Aspects of Resin Sand Casting – ZHY Casting
Aug 17, 2023 · The use of water-based resins in resin sand casting results in a lower level of hazardous chemical emissions compared to solvent-based systems, ...Missing: considerations | Show results with:considerations
[42]
[PDF] Principles Of Metal Casting
Metal casting can be defined as the process of shaping metal by melting it into a liquid state and then pouring it into a pre-formed cavity or mold. Once the.
[43]
[PDF] Expendable-Mold Casting Process
Figure 12-1 Sequential steps in making a sand casting. a) A pattern board is placed between the bottom (drag) and top. (cope) halves of a flask,.Missing: definition | Show results with:definition
[44]
[PDF] Optimized Design of Gating/Riser System in Casting Based on CAD ...
Figure 2.3 Examples of sand casting ... One engine block is used to illustrate the optimization process. Its current gating/riser system is shown in the ...
[45]
[PDF] Casting - MIT
15. The investment-casting process, also called the lost-wax process, was first used during the period. 4000-3500 B.C. The pattern is made of wax or a plastic.
[46]
Investment Casting | Product Realization Lab - Stanford University
Investment casting is also called lost-wax casting. It is typically used in the Product Realization Lab for small, jewelry-scale designs.
[47]
[PDF] Chapter 11: Applications & Process. of Metal Alloys
Mold formed by pouring plaster of paris (CaSO4.2H2O) around wax pattern. Plaster allowed to harden. • Stage II — Wax is melted and then.
[48]
[PDF] Metal-Casting Processes and Equipment; Heat Treatment
The squeeze-casting process consis ts of a com bination of casting and forging. The pressure applied to the molten metal by the punch, or upper die, keeps the ...
[49]
Metal Casting Processes: Expendable Mold Casting
Consistent olerances are possible, but machining is necessary for dimensional accuracy. This cheap, quick, most widely used method is helpful for single ...
[50]
[PDF] Dimensional Variability of Production Iron Castings
The ISO 8062 specification recognizes that closer tolerances can be specified for long-produc- tion-run castings, and that more dimensional control can be ...
[51]
Permanent Mold Casting - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
From West and Grubach (1998), reproduced by permission of ASM International. Advantages and Disadvantages. Permanent mold casting is typically selected for ...
[52]
Uses and Benefits of Permanent Mold Castings - IQS Directory
Permanent mold casting involves creating highly-engineered molds using durable metals like tool steel, cast iron, graphite, or copper-based alloys. These ...
[53]
High-pressure Die Casting - Engineering.com
May 7, 2020 · In Cold-Chamber die casting, the shot chamber is not heated, and the molten metal is poured into it. Pressures can be as high as 150 MPa.
[54]
Die Casting Machines - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
(a) Hot chamber die casting and (b) cold chamber die casting. From Piwonka (1998), reproduced by permission of ASM International. The metal die is comprised ...
[55]
Permanent Mold Casting | Casting | Handbooks - ASM Digital Library
THE PERMANENT MOLD CASTING PROCESS involves the production of castings by ... There are many sources of information available, including ASM International ...
[56]
Permanent Mold Casting - Metal Casting | CustomPartNet Library
Permanent mold casting is typically used for high-volume production of small, simple metal parts with uniform wall thickness. Non-ferrous metals are typically ...
[57]
Centrifugal Castings and G Force
Oct 24, 2018 · G Force required is dependent on material being cast and the size of the casting, typical G Force range 15 – 120g. Speeds of up to 3000rpm are ...
[58]
Centrifugal Casting: Definition, Importance, How It Works ... - Xometry
Sep 8, 2023 · Centrifugal casting is a manufacturing process that produces cylindrical parts with high-quality, dense, and uniform characteristics.
[59]
[PDF] Plaster Molding, Permanent Mold Casting and Die Casting
• Simple part geometries compared to sand casting because of the ... • Due to high mold cost, process is best suited to automated high volume production.
[60]
Expendable vs. Permanent Mold Casting: Key Differences
Because permanent molds amortize over thousands of cycles, their per-part tooling cost drops rapidly as volumes climb. In contrast, expendable patterns require ...Missing: limitations | Show results with:limitations
[61]
[PDF] 2.008 Metal Casting Outline Some Facts
Pattern Design Considerations. (DFM). ▫ Shrinkage allowance. ▫ Machining allowance. ▫ Distortion allowance. ▫ Parting line. ▫ Draft angle. Page 6. Typical ...
[62]
[PDF] MOLD AND CORE MAKING - MVSR Engineering College
The main constituents of molding sand involve silica sand, binder, moisture content and additives. Silica sand in form of granular quarts is the main ...
[63]
Foundry 101: Understanding Molds and Cores in the Sand-casting ...
A traditional sand-casting mold is made by packing sand around a pattern and then removing the pattern to leave behind a cavity in the shape of the part to be ...Missing: insertion | Show results with:insertion
[64]
[PDF] Theoretical/Best Practice Energy Use in Metalcasting Operations
The melting methods utilized by iron metalcasting facilities are primarily cupola and induction furnace melting. Induction furnaces (EIF), and to some ...
[65]
[PDF] (12) United States Patent - UNT Digital Library
Jan 11, 2000 · melting progressed and stabilized at a superheat of about. 50-100 degrees C above the alloy melting point, the ingot I. 50 was withdrawn from ...
[66]
[PDF] Solid Salt Fluxing of Molten Aluminum - OhioLINK ETD Center
The most commonly employed technology for impurity removal is gas fluxing, which involves the use of chlorine and argon injected into the aluminum melts ...
[67]
Considerations for PPE in Melting & Pouring for Foundries
Nov 1, 2017 · If laced boots are worn, spats or leggings that cover the lacings must be used whenever molten metal or sparks could lodge in the tongue area of ...Missing: protocols ventilation 700-1600° C
[68]
Health risks in the molten metal industries - HSE
Apr 4, 2025 · Molten metal fume (foundry fume) is hazardous to health. Ferrous foundry fume can cause lung cancer. Other foundry fume and spray mists can cause lung diseases ...
[69]
Directional Solidification - Steel Founders' Society of America
When metal solidifies, it shrinks in volume from the molten state. It is common casting practice to use a "riser" as a reservoir of molten metal .<|separator|>
[70]
Metal shrinkage in castings and why it matters - Novacast
Mar 19, 2024 · Liquid-to-solid shrinkage (also known as solidification shrinkage) occurs as the alloy changes from a liquid to a solid. This is significant for ...
[71]
Effect of Cooling Rate on Microstructure and Mechanical Properties ...
May 8, 2012 · The study shows that the cooling rate of thin-walled castings varies in a wide range (80-15 °C/s) when changing the wall thickness from 2 to 5 mm.
[72]
Effective Management of Shrinkage in Sand Casting
If the geometry of the casting prevents directional solidification from occurring naturally, items such as chills can be used to promote optimal cooling.
[73]
https://www.sfsa.org/tutorials/snubberarm/SSA_13.htm
[74]
casting defects hot tearing | Total Materia
Hot tearing represents the formation of irreversible cracks in semisolid castings. This phenomenon occurs when the solid fraction reaches 85-95% and the solid ...
[75]
Prevent Hot Tearing - Modern Casting
Oct 5, 2014 · A combination of inadequate feeding and the strain rate has been qualitatively described as a cause of hot tearing. Rappaz, Drezet, and Gremaud ...
[76]
22 Casting Defects and How to Prevent Them in Your Products
Jul 12, 2023 · Casting defects can occur for a wide variety of reasons such as pouring conditions, environmental conditions, alloy composition, and much more.
[77]
Fettling of castings: degating, cleaning, finishing - Chicago Pneumatic
Fettling turns a raw casting into a functional component. After removing the molds, the process starts with degating and surface cleaning to remove excess ...Missing: definition | Show results with:definition
[78]
Processing and Finishing of Castings - ASM Digital Library
This article describes the general operations of shakeout, grinding, cleaning, and inspection of castings, with particular emphasis on automation technology. It ...
[79]
Casting fettling: Procedure methods of machining - AGTOS
Common methods include soldering, welding, filling, metal spraying and impregnation. Casting cleaning in detail. Cast components undergo a long process before ...
[80]
What is Shot Peening and How Does it Work? - TWI Global
The advantages of shot peening include improved strength and fatigue resistance, even when processing complex geometric parts. The process is well-known and ...
[81]
What is Machining Tolerances? - Dandong Foundry
Machining tolerances are the dimensional allowances casting producers leave for machining, typically 2-10mm, depending on the casting process and size.
[82]
Fettling of Castings with Industrial Robots - ScienceDirect.com
Until today, the application of industrial robots in fettling shops caused considerable problems, due to the tolerances of the castings and the variation of ...
[83]
Robotic Fettling for Iron Castings! - The Machinist
Jun 30, 2018 · A process of removing excess material from casting formed by the divided lines by the casting process using robot as a positioning tool.
[84]
Recycling and Beneficial Use of Foundry Byproducts
There are many byproducts from the metalcasting process and its related finishing and machining processes which have value when beneficially re-used onsite.Missing: fettling | Show results with:fettling
[85]
[PDF] DESIGNING RELIABLE CASTINGS
Surface inspection of a part can be visual examination or the use of magnetic particle or liquid penetrant techniques.
[86]
[PDF] Quantitative surface inspection methods for metal castings
quality. Implementation of the quantitative inspection standard will increase the quality of metal cast surfaces by improving communication between ...
[87]
Non-Destructive Testing - Steel Founders' Society of America
Ultrasonic Testing: Although the ultrasonic method of inspection has not been in common use for as long as radiographic methods, it nevertheless is a valuable ...
[88]
Radiograph Interpretation - Castings - NDE-Ed.org
ASTM E155, Standard for Radiographs of castings has been produced to help the radiographer make a better assessment of the defects found in components. The ...
[89]
ISO 8062:1994 - Castings — System of dimensional tolerances and ...
Applies to cast metals and their alloys produced by various casting manufacturing processes. Is applicable both to general tolerances and/or required machining ...<|separator|>
[90]
(PDF) Assessing Process Control in the Foundry - ResearchGate
The information collected during quality testing can and should be combined with statistical information gathered at the front of the foundry (design, tooling, ...
[91]
Heat Treatment: Stress Relief - Eagle Group Blog
Feb 6, 2024 · Stress relieving is a heat treatment that eliminates residual stresses while ensuring the material's microstructure and mechanical properties ...
[92]
FEA and CFD Based Simulation and Design of Casting - Enteknograte
The metal casting simulation using FEA and CFD based technologies, enable us to address residual stresses, part distortion, microstructure, mechanical ...
[93]
Finite Element Analysis and Computational Fluid Dynamics ... - NIH
The numerical simulation approach helps in understanding the material solidification behavior and determining the optimal process parameters more effectively ...Simulation Methods · Cfd Modeling · Comparison Of Cfd And Fe
[94]
Flow modelling in casting processes - ScienceDirect.com
In this paper, we have described the SPH method and the application of SPH to simulate the three-dimensional die filling in high pressure die casting.
[95]
Progress in numerical simulation of casting process - Sage Journals
May 17, 2022 · The key problem of filling simulation is the simultaneous solving problem of flow and pressure in Navier-Stokes (N-S) equation.
[96]
[PDF] Computer Simulation and Analysis of Investment Casting of Thin ...
manufacturing system developed for jewelry applications. This specific machine is able to build slices thickness between 0,01 – 0,10 mm with a maximum speed ...Missing: turbines | Show results with:turbines
[97]
Solidification Simulation - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Mathematical modeling of casting solidification involves combining fluid flow and heat transfer with phase change. ... heat conduction equation using FEM.
[98]
[PDF] Thermal Simulation of Solidification Process in Continuous Casting
In this study, a mathematical model is introduced to simulate the coupled heat transfer equation and Stefan condition occurring in moving boundary problems ...
[99]
[PDF] Development of a CFD Code for Casting Simulation January 15 ...
Jan 15, 1993 · "3D Finite Element Simulation of Filling Transients in Metal Castings," Mark. Samonds and David Waite, UES, Inc. 3. "ProCAST, The ...
[100]
MAGMASOFT ® autonomous engineering
MAGMASOFT is an optimization tool for metalcasting, using simulations for automated virtual test plans, and covers the complete process chain.Missing: features | Show results with:features
[101]
ProCAST | Casting Simulation Software - ESI Group
It enables users to study the effects of feeder locations, filters, chills, insulation & exothermic sleeves on the casting process and quality. Different ...Die Casting · Sand Casting · Investment Casting · Mega Casting
[102]
Die Casting - MagmaSoft
MAGMASOFT optimizes die casting by establishing robust process conditions, including gating, thermal control, and parameters like shot profile and pressures.Missing: features | Show results with:features
[103]
ProCAST: ESI's Casting Simulation Software for Sand Casting
ProCAST is a best-in-class casting simulation software, enabling foundries to evaluate, validate and master their casting processes.
[104]
Implementation and Validation of Casting Simulation Methodology ...
Oct 8, 2022 · This paper describes and validates a methodology for implementation of full-scale sand-casting simulation in a general-purpose finite element software.
[105]
Simulation and Validation of Castings in Shop Floor - IntechOpen
Casting simulation software simulates the way how casting engineers decide the casting process in a virtual platform and also analyzes each decision.
[106]
Optimize Sand Castings with Haworth's Simulation Expertise
Oct 23, 2024 · Reduced trial costs: the use of casting simulation software reduces the number of physical prototypes needed by optimising the process virtually ...
[107]
Recent Developments in THERCAST® software
Oct 21, 2025 · ... casting). By enabling virtual design before physical trials, simulation reduces development errors, costs, and lead times while helping ...
[108]
Turbulence Modelling In Casting Processes - The Challenges And ...
An engineering approach to modelling turbulent flows in the presence of solidification is presented based upon the widely used low-Reynolds &-e turbulence ...
[109]
[PDF] Turbulence modelling in casting processes - WIT Press
Limitations in the approach are discussed as well as the challenges of incorporating the complexities of the moving solidification front into turbulence models ...
[110]
GE, voxeljet Team for Large-Scale Sand Printing
Oct 16, 2023 · GE Research selected voxeljet AG as its partner in a project to develop and commercialize large-dimension binder-jet printing of sand molds, ...Missing: geometries LEAP engine
[111]
GE Research select voxeljet for US-funded project
Oct 11, 2023 · The project aims to produce 3D-printed large scale sand molds to cast components for the nacelle of the GE Haliade-X Offshore Turbine. The ...Missing: LEAP engine
[112]
Squeeze Casting - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Squeeze casting, also called liquid forging, is a hybrid metal forming process that combines permanent mold casting with die forging in a single step where ...
[113]
The Ultimate Guide To Squeeze Casting - Xavier
May 28, 2024 · Squeeze casting is a hybrid process that combines casting and forging to produce metal parts with low porosity and high mechanical strength.
[114]
How the Electric Arc Furnace (EAF) Works | Circularity in Steel Part 2
A circular and more sustainable process that uses recycled scrap steel as the primary input and is powered by electricity to produce low-embodied carbon steel.
[115]
[PDF] The environmental performance of biobased resin within phenolic ...
The emissions of GM Bond™ have been reduced by 90% compared to those emitted by. PUNB binders (Siak, Whited, Schreck, Biederman, & Datte, 1996). This renders ...<|separator|>
[116]
Influence of Nanoparticles Introducing in the Melt of Aluminum ...
Mar 30, 2016 · Yield strength is increased with 7 % and specific elongation up to 60 %. Tensile strength changes less. Most favorable is the influence of 0.1 ...Investigated Alloys Castings · Results And Discussion · Alsi12cu2mgni Alloy
[117]
Industry 4.0 Foundry Data Management and Supervised Machine ...
Mar 14, 2022 · In this paper, industry 4.0 cloud-based systems are used to extract data. With these data, supervised machine learning classification models are proposed.