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Manjanggul

Manjanggul (Korean: 만장굴) is a prominent lava tube cave located in Gimnyeong-ri, Gujwa-eup, Jeju City, on Jeju Island, South Korea, renowned as one of the world's finest and best-preserved examples of volcanic cave formations.^[1] Formed approximately 8,000 years ago by the flow of molten basaltic lava from the Geomunoreum volcano toward the sea during eruptions associated with Hallasan, the island's central shield volcano, it exemplifies the geological processes that shaped Jeju's volcanic landscape.^[2]^[3] The tube stretches about 7.4 kilometers in total length, with a main passage up to 18 meters wide and 23 meters high, though typically only the first 1 kilometer is accessible to visitors via a well-maintained path when open; as of 2025, the cave is temporarily closed for safety maintenance due to rockfall risks and is expected to reopen in 2026.^[1]^[4] As part of the Geomunoreum Lava Tube System, Manjanggul contributes to the Jeju Volcanic Island and Lava Tubes UNESCO World Heritage Site, inscribed in 2007 for its outstanding universal value in illustrating volcanic features and providing insights into global volcanism under criteria (vii) and (viii).^[2] The cave boasts exceptional geological formations, including the world's tallest known lava column at 7.6 meters, as well as stalactites, stalagmites, flowstones, lava shelves, and rafts, many adorned with rare multi-colored carbonate decorations that highlight post-formation chemical processes.^[1] These features make it a key site for scientific research in vulcanospeleology and a popular ecotourism destination, drawing visitors to explore its cool, dimly lit interior while emphasizing sustainable practices to preserve its delicate ecosystem.^[4] Additionally, Manjanggul holds cultural significance in Jeju's heritage, reflecting the island's volcanic origins and its designation as a Global Geopark.^[1]

Location and Formation

Geographical Setting

Manjanggul is situated in Gimnyeong-ri, Gujwa-eup, Jeju City, South Korea, at coordinates 33°31′42″N 126°46′12″E.^[5] This location places it within the northeastern region of Jeju Island, along the path of lava flows that originated from the nearby Geomunoreum volcano (approximately 10 km southwest) and traveled about 13 km toward the sea to form the tube.^[6] As a key component of the broader Geomunoreum Lava Tube System, Manjanggul exemplifies the interconnected network of volcanic conduits originating from this cinder cone, recognized for its exceptional preservation and scale.^[2] The surrounding terrain features a gently sloping landscape characteristic of Jeju Island's shield volcano morphology, with the site embedded in a mosaic of basaltic fields and parasitic volcanic cones known as oreums. Nearby coastal areas along the northern shoreline of Jeju lie just a few kilometers to the north, where ancient lava flows reached the sea, forming dramatic columnar joint formations.^[4] The island's overall shield volcano structure, with its broad, low-angle slopes rising from Hallasan mountain to the south, enhances accessibility to Manjanggul via well-maintained roads and trails, allowing visitors to approach from Jeju City or nearby villages without steep inclines.^[7] Manjanggul integrates seamlessly into Jeju's volcanic geology as part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site "Jeju Volcanic Island and Lava Tubes," inscribed in 2007 for its outstanding representation of shield volcanism and lava tube formation processes.^[2] This designation encompasses over 18,000 hectares across the island, highlighting how Manjanggul's position within the Geomunoreum system contributes to the global understanding of Quaternary volcanic activity in a subtropical setting.^[2]

Geological History

Manjanggul formed approximately 100,000 to 300,000 years ago during the eruptive period of Hallasan, South Korea's largest shield volcano, as part of lava flows originating from the nearby Geomunoreum scoria cone.^[8] This parasitic volcano produced basaltic eruptions that contributed to the island's volcanic landscape, with Manjanggul emerging from one such extensive flow.^[9] The lava tube developed through the classic process of pahoehoe lava flow, where molten basaltic lava advanced rapidly across the terrain, allowing the outer surface to cool and solidify into a crust while the interior remained fluid and continued to move.^[10] As the flow progressed, the underlying liquid lava drained away toward the sea, leaving behind an empty tunnel roofed by the hardened exterior; subsequent flows sometimes entered this space, eroding floors and forming secondary layers or accretions on the ceiling.^[9] This mechanism resulted in Manjanggul's characteristic multilayered structure, with some sections featuring stacked tubes from repeated episodes of flow and drainage.^[10] Manjanggul constitutes one primary branch of the larger Geomunoreum Lava Tube System, a network of several interconnected caves, of which Manjanggul itself spans 7.4 kilometers.^[8]^[1] Geologically, it exemplifies well-preserved pahoehoe lava tubes with complex internal layering, offering insights into Quaternary volcanic processes and serving as a benchmark for similar formations worldwide.^[9]

Physical Description

Dimensions and Features

Manjanggul Lava Tube measures 7.4 kilometers in total length, making it one of the longest known examples of such geological formations.^[8] Of this extent, approximately 1 kilometer is accessible to visitors through a designated pathway.^[1] It ranks as the 12th-longest lava tube worldwide among those exceeding 7 kilometers and the second longest on Jeju Island.^[8] The cave reaches a maximum width of up to 23 meters and a height of up to 30 meters, with the main passage typically up to 18 meters wide and 23 meters high, though cross-sections vary along its path.^[8]^[1] The structure is partially multilayered, with multiple levels formed during its volcanic origin from the Geomunoreum area.^[1] Three primary entrances characterize the tube, resulting from ceiling collapses that exposed sections to the surface; Entrance No. 2 serves as the main access point for tourism.^[1] Externally, Manjanggul features notable collapse points that define its entrances and contribute to its fragmented profile.^[1] The surrounding landscape includes expansive basalt fields, remnants of the ancient lava flows that shaped the tube.^[8]

Internal Structures

The interior of Manjanggul lava tube features a prominent lava column measuring 7.6 meters in height, recognized as the world's tallest known example of this formation, which developed through the pooling and subsequent cooling of molten lava that dripped from an upper chamber onto the tube floor below.^[1]^[11] This column, located approximately 1 kilometer from the main tourist entrance, exemplifies the tube's preserved volcanic morphology, standing as a solidified remnant of the intense heat and flow dynamics during its formation approximately 100,000 to 300,000 years ago.^[2] A diverse array of lava formations adorns the tube's interior, including stalactites, stalagmites, flowstone, rafts, shelves, and benches, all resulting from differential cooling rates of the basaltic lava as it interacted with the surrounding environment. Lava stalactites and stalagmites, for instance, formed when molten drips from the ceiling solidified upon contact with cooler air, while flowstone sheets and rafts emerged from slower-cooling surface layers that hardened into thin, floating-like structures on molten pools.^[12] Shelves and benches developed along the walls and floor where lava adhered and cooled unevenly against the tube's boundaries, creating stepped ledges that highlight variations in flow velocity and thermal gradients.^[1] Additionally, the cave features rare multi-colored carbonate decorations on roofs, floors, and walls, formed by secondary mineralization from leached overlying sands, providing a unique contrast to the primary lava structures.^[8] These features collectively illustrate the tube's complex internal architecture, preserving the primary igneous origins while showcasing post-formation chemical processes. The tube's walls exhibit smooth surfaces in sections indicative of sustained, laminar lava flows that maintained consistent pressure and temperature, allowing for polished textures without significant disruption.^[13] In contrast, irregular ceilings and overhead features reveal episodes of structural collapses during or after the primary flow, where roof segments failed due to overburden or cooling-induced contraction, contributing to the multilayered configuration observed in parts of the system.^[1] These morphological variations provide direct evidence of the dynamic eruptive processes that shaped Manjanggul, from initial tube insulation by outer crusts to later instabilities. Manjanggul maintains a stable microclimate, with consistent temperatures ranging from 15 to 20°C year-round and high relative humidity levels of 87 to 100 percent, fostering a cool, moist environment that aids in the preservation of its delicate formations.^[11] This steady internal atmosphere, insulated from external fluctuations, underscores the tube's role as a natural archive of volcanic history, where minimal post-formational alteration has occurred.

Ecology

Flora

The flora of Manjanggul is predominantly confined to the cave's entrance zones and surrounding areas, where light penetration and humidity support limited plant growth. In the shaded, humid twilight zones near the entrances, vascular plants are scarce, with pteridophytes such as ferns representing a key component; surveys of the commercial entrance region have identified 14 species of ferns across five families, adapted to the moist, low-light conditions of these transitional areas.^[14] Mosses and bryophytes also thrive here, including liverworts like Riccia beyrichiana and Riccia bifurca, which colonize shaded soils and gravel along dirt roads adjacent to the lava tube in evergreen broad-leaved forests.^[15] Lichens and bryophytes play a prominent role in colonizing the basalt surfaces around the entrances, with species such as the newly described Jejulea byssolomoides growing on shaded volcanic rocks, contributing to pioneer vegetation that breaks down rock and stabilizes entrance soils against erosion.^[16] These non-vascular plants, including Jeju-specific lichens, are well-suited to the nutrient-poor, humid basalt substrates, forming crusts that facilitate soil development in the otherwise barren volcanic terrain. Deeper within the cave, vegetation is entirely absent due to the complete lack of light, limiting photosynthetic life to the illuminated fringes.^[17] The surrounding landscape influences the entrance flora, incorporating elements of Jeju Island's broader vegetation, such as temperate grasslands and low shrubs from the angiosperm taxa recorded in the area, including 157 species that blend with the cave's edge communities.^[14] This external influence supports a diverse array of 204 vascular plant taxa in the commercial zone, encompassing gymnosperms and monocotyledons adapted to the island's volcanic soils.^[14]

Fauna

Manjanggul lava tube serves as a critical habitat for Korea's largest known colony of Schreiber's long-fingered bats (Miniopterus schreibersii fuliginosus), with populations estimated at up to 30,000 individuals that primarily use the cave for roosting and maternity purposes.^[18]^[19] These bats, endemic to the region as a subspecies, migrate seasonally and rely on the stable, humid conditions within the tube for reproduction and shelter, contributing to the cave's status as a key site for chiropteran conservation in South Korea.^[18] The fauna of Manjanggul is dominated by specialized invertebrates adapted to the cave's dark, stable environment, including over 38 identified species, many of which are troglobites with traits such as reduced pigmentation and enhanced sensory structures for navigating perpetual darkness.^[19] Notable among these is the endemic Jeju cave spider (Nesticella quelpartensis), a small orb-weaver restricted to Jeju's lava tubes, which constructs webs to capture flying prey in the dim passages.^[18] Other troglobitic invertebrates, including endemic huntsman spiders like Sinopoda koreana, further exemplify the cave's unique biodiversity, with adaptations suited to the low-nutrient, aphotic conditions.^[18] Occasional troglophiles and accidental visitors, such as insects, millipedes, and small mammals, enter the cave from its multiple entrances, where they exploit temporary resources; Entrance No. 3, in particular, offers the most favorable microhabitats for these species due to its access to surface-derived organic matter.^[8] The ecological dynamics are sustained by bat guano deposits, which provide essential nutrients for detritivores and fungi, facilitating nutrient cycling in this otherwise oligotrophic subterranean ecosystem.^[8]

History and Recognition

Discovery

Prior to its formal discovery, Manjanggul was part of a broader network of lava tubes on Jeju Island known to local residents for centuries, with historical records documenting similar formations as early as 1702 in the Tamna Sullyeokdo. Residents utilized these underground structures for practical purposes, including shelter during harsh weather and resource gathering such as ice from insulated caves.^[20]^[21] The official discovery of Manjanggul occurred in 1946, when schoolteacher Bu Jong-hye and approximately 30 students from Gimnyeong Elementary School explored one of its natural entrances during a field trip equipped with torches. This expedition marked the first systematic human entry into the main tunnel, previously uncharted despite local awareness of surface features. The group named the cave "Manjanggul," meaning "long, long cave" in the Jeju dialect, reflecting its impressive extent.^[20]^[22] During their explorations in 1946 and 1947, the discovering party conducted initial measurements and rudimentary mapping, estimating the main S-shaped tunnel at about 700 meters in length, 25 meters in height, and 18 meters in width. These early assessments provided the foundational documentation, though later surveys revealed the full system to be significantly longer at over 7 kilometers.^[22] In the post-World War II era, Jeju Island faced political instability under U.S. military administration, culminating in the Jeju Uprising of 1948–1949, which limited scientific and administrative documentation of natural sites like Manjanggul until the 1960s. Formal recognition began with its designation as Natural Monument No. 98 in 1962, enabling more structured studies thereafter.^[20]

UNESCO Designation

Manjanggul Cave was inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List in 2007 as a key component of the "Jeju Volcanic Island and Lava Tubes" serial site, which encompasses three distinct areas totaling 18,846 hectares. This designation recognizes the site's exceptional representation of volcanic landforms and processes from the Quaternary period, meeting criteria (vii) for containing superlative natural phenomena and areas of exceptional natural beauty, and (viii) for being an outstanding example of major stages in Earth's geological history, including significant ongoing processes in landform development.^[2] The Geomunoreum Lava Tube System, of which Manjanggul forms a prominent part, is regarded as the finest such system globally, showcasing diverse features like hydromagmatic tuff rings, cinder cones, and extensive lava tubes that illustrate basaltic shield volcanism.^[18] The UNESCO recognition highlights Manjanggul's critical role in demonstrating volcanic processes, such as the formation of multilayered lava tubes through successive eruptions on a stationary continental crust, a rare phenomenon among the world's shield volcanoes.^[2] Internationally, Manjanggul is often compared to lava tubes in Hawaii Volcanoes National Park, such as those in Kīlauea, and is noted for its structural complexity and accessibility, providing unparalleled opportunities for study without the challenges posed by active volcanism.^[8] UNESCO and its advisory body, the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), conduct ongoing monitoring of the site through periodic reports and assessments, evaluating threats like urban development in buffer zones to ensure the preservation of its outstanding universal value. This monitoring framework supports international research collaborations, fostering advancements in volcanology, geomorphology, and cave ecology.^[23]

Tourism and Management

Visitor Facilities

Manjanggul features an on-site museum that provides educational exhibits on lava tube formation processes and the broader geology of Jeju Island, offering visitors insights into the volcanic origins of the site before entering the cave.^[24] The museum entrance is included in the overall site admission, which costs 4,000 KRW for adults and 2,000 KRW for teenagers and children as of 2023.^[4] Additional amenities at the site include a convenience store and beverage stand for refreshments, along with free WiFi access to enhance the visitor experience.^[25] Access to the lava tube begins at Entrance No. 2, where tourists can explore a designated 1 km section via boardwalks, metal pathways, and wooden trails equipped with railings for safety.^[26] These paths are illuminated by ground-level lights and colorful overhead fixtures that highlight key internal features such as stalactites and lava shelves, though a personal flashlight is recommended for dimmer areas.^[26] The infrastructure supports a round-trip walk of approximately 2 km on mostly even terrain, with some uneven sections and initial staircases leading down into the tube.^[24] Practical facilities include ample public parking lots located a short 7-minute walk from the entrance, as well as on-site restrooms for convenience.^[25] The site operates seasonally with adjusted hours, open from 9:00 AM to 6:00 PM daily (closing at 5:00 PM in winter), and is accessible year-round except on the first Wednesday of each month.^[26] Accessibility provisions include free entry for individuals with disabilities and their caretakers, though the staircases and uneven paths may pose challenges for those with mobility limitations.^[24] Nearby attractions, such as Gimnyeong Maze Park, provide additional options for tourists combining visits in the area.^[27]

Conservation Efforts and Closures

In response to increasing risks of rockfalls and structural instability within the Manjanggul Lava Tube, Jeju authorities implemented a full closure of the accessible 1 km section on December 29, 2023, with the site remaining shuttered from December 29, 2023, until March 31, 2026, followed by additional inspections, to facilitate essential safety reinforcements and maintenance work.^[28]^[1] This decision followed multiple incidents, including a significant rockfall on the closure date where a 1m x 1m boulder detached and damaged infrastructure, attributed to temperature fluctuations causing ice thawing and ceiling vulnerabilities.^[28] Partial reopenings have occurred for limited events, such as the 2022 World Heritage Festival, allowing controlled access to highlight the site's cultural and geological significance while prioritizing safety.^[29] Conservation efforts are led by Jeju provincial authorities in collaboration with UNESCO, focusing on infrastructure upgrades including barrier-free trails, reinforcement of unstable sections, and enhanced monitoring systems to track seismic activity and collapse risks using technologies like Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (InSAR).^[23]^[30] Habitat restoration initiatives emphasize protecting subterranean ecosystems, such as bat colonies, through reduced human disturbance during the closure period, with recent sightings of the rare golden bat (Myotis formosus) in Manjanggul underscoring the value of these measures for biodiversity recovery.^[31] The site benefits from legal protections as a designated Natural Monument (No. 98) under South Korea's Cultural Heritage Protection Act since 1962, which prohibits unauthorized alterations and mandates ongoing preservation.^[18]^[32] Key challenges include intense tourism pressure, with pre-closure annual visitors exceeding 550,000, leading to erosion from foot traffic and disturbances to sensitive features like lava formations and bat habitats.^[28]^[2] Additionally, potential groundwater decline and external development pose ongoing threats to the underground geohydrology and overall stability.^[23] Post-reopening plans (expected after March 2026) center on sustainable reopening with improved access controls, such as reservation systems modeled after those at nearby Hallasan National Park, to balance conservation with controlled visitation while adhering to UNESCO's criteria for outstanding universal value.^[23]^[33] These efforts aim to ensure long-term preservation of the lava tube's geological integrity and ecological balance.^[2]

References

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The total length of Manjanggul Lava Tube is about 7.4km. It is a lava tube that is partially multilayered. The main tunnel's width is 18m and its height is ...
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### Summary of Manjanggul Lava Tube
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31, 2023, a two-year closure of access to Yongnuni Volcanic Cone will be implemented to allow the ecosystem to rejuvenate. Hado Beach. Sea Fishing and ...