Mill Rock

Mill Rock is a small island of approximately 2.5 acres^[1] situated in the East River, approximately 1,000 feet offshore from 96th Street in Manhattan, New York City, originally consisting of two separate islets known as Great Mill Rock and Little Mill Rock that were joined by rock fill in 1890.^[2] Now connected to the Manhattan shoreline via the FDR Drive, it serves as a scenic and historic public park under the management of the New York City Department of Parks and Recreation.^[2] The island's history dates back to 1664, when William Hallet purchased the two rocks and adjacent mainland from Native American inhabitants, with the name "Mill Rock" likely deriving from the tidal mills that operated nearby in the 18th and 19th centuries.^[2] During the War of 1812, the U.S. Army constructed a blockhouse armed with two cannons on Great Mill Rock as part of coastal defenses against potential British invasion.^[2] In the 19th century, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers utilized the site for explosives testing, culminating in the dramatic 1885 detonation of 300,000 pounds of explosives on nearby Flood Rock, which provided the fill material to unite the islands and deepen the navigational channel through Hell Gate.^[2] Following federal ownership through much of the 20th century, the government sold Mill Rock to New York City in 1953 for $25,000, designating it as parkland.^[2] The site gained cultural prominence in 1969 as the venue for the Avant Garde Festival, featuring hot air balloon launches and experimental sculptures, and in 1978, it was temporarily stewarded by a neighborhood committee for educational programming.^[2] Today, Mill Rock Park remains a natural, low-maintenance green space and wildlife habitat^[3] offering panoramic views of the East River and Hell Gate Bridge, preserved as a historic landmark accessible primarily by foot from the FDR Drive promenade.^[2]

Geography

Location

Mill Rock is situated in the East River, a tidal strait in New York City, at coordinates 40°46′51″N 73°56′18″W.^[4] It lies approximately 1,000 feet (300 m) east of Manhattan's East 96th Street, providing a direct visual and navigational reference point from the Upper East Side waterfront.^[5] The island occupies a strategic position near Hell Gate, the narrow and historically turbulent confluence of the East River and the Harlem River, approximately between 90th and 100th Streets along Manhattan's eastern boundary.^[6] This location places Mill Rock amid strong tidal currents and shifting waterways that connect New York Harbor to Long Island Sound.^[2] To the north, Mill Rock lies south of Randalls Island and Wards Island, which together form a larger complex connected by bridges and landfills in the East River.^[7] Despite its insular geography, Mill Rock is administratively part of the Manhattan borough, falling under New York County's jurisdiction and managed by the New York City Department of Parks and Recreation.^[8]^[5]

Physical characteristics

Mill Rock is an elongated islet situated in the Hell Gate channel of the East River tidal estuary, with a current area of approximately 3.5 hectares (8.6 acres) as of the latest NYC Parks data and a length comparable to three city blocks.^[9]^[10] Prior to human intervention, the island existed as two distinct rocky outcrops known as Great Mill Rock and Little Mill Rock, shaped by glacial deposits of boulders, gravel, sand, clay, and silt overlying a bedrock foundation of gneiss and schist in the Hell Gate area.^[2]^[11] These formations resulted from Pleistocene glacial advances that scoured and filled the East River's channels, creating irregular outcrops amid the region's strong tidal currents and fault-controlled erosion.^[11]^[12] The modern shape emerged in 1890 when engineers connected the original islands using rock fill derived from the debris of the 1885 explosion of adjacent Flood Rock, a hazardous obstruction in Hell Gate that was demolished with 300,000 pounds of explosives to improve navigation.^[2]^[6] This artificial infilling transformed the separate outcrops into a unified, linear landform, enhancing its stability while preserving the underlying glacial and bedrock geology.^[2]

History

Colonial and early settlement

In 1664, English settler William Hallet acquired the two small islands in the East River—later known as Great Mill Rock and Little Mill Rock—from Native Americans of the Canarsee band (specifically, Shawestcont and Erramorhar under sachem Mattano of the Nyack subtribe), along with adjacent mainland land near what is now Astoria, Queens, primarily for agricultural use as farmland.^[2]^[13] Hallet, who had previously settled in the region under Dutch colonial rule, obtained formal confirmation of the purchase from English authorities following their takeover of New Netherland that year, though he appears to have made limited use of the islands themselves.^[13] Between 1701 and 1707, John Marsh constructed a tidal mill on Great Mill Rock, utilizing the strong East River currents to power the structure, which is widely regarded as the origin of the "Mill Rock" name for both islands.^[2] This development marked the first significant human infrastructure on the site, though records indicate the mill operated intermittently and the islands remained largely undeveloped afterward, passing through various private hands with minimal permanent settlement.^[2] By the early 19th century, Mill Rock saw sporadic farming and private ownership, reflecting its marginal utility due to tidal flooding and isolation, with landowners using it occasionally for grazing and small-scale agriculture.^[10] A notable example was Sandy Gibson, who squatted on the island starting in 1840 and maintained a family farm there—raising sheep, chickens, and crops—until 1898, when the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers evicted Gibson and assumed control of the property for their Hell Gate improvement operations.^[10] This period of informal occupancy followed brief military use during the War of 1812, after which civilian activities resumed on a limited basis.^[2]

Military fortifications and engineering projects

During the War of 1812, the U.S. War Department constructed a blockhouse known as the Mill Rock Blockhouse on Great Mill Rock to bolster defenses against potential British naval incursions along the East River.^[2]^[14] This fortification, established around 1812 and active until 1815, featured two cannons positioned to provide crossfire coverage over the East River channels near Hell Gate, complementing nearby batteries such as those at Hallett's Point.^[15] The structure served as part of New York Harbor's northern defense network, aimed at protecting the city's approaches from upstream threats.^[14] The blockhouse was destroyed by fire in 1821, leaving the island unoccupied by military forces for several decades.^[2]^[15] In the late 19th century, Mill Rock played a central role in the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers' ambitious Hell Gate improvement project, which sought to eliminate hazardous underwater obstructions in the East River to enhance navigation for larger vessels.^[6] As part of this effort, engineers used Mill Rock as the primary site for preparing a specialized explosive mixture called "Rack-a-Rock," a nitroglycerin-based compound designed for underwater blasting.^[6] On October 10, 1885, approximately 300,000 pounds (136,000 kg) of this explosive was detonated beneath Flood Rock, a major reef near Hell Gate, in the largest non-nuclear explosion up to that time; the blast was reported to have been felt as far away as Princeton, New Jersey, over 50 miles distant.^[6]^[16] Following the Hell Gate project, Mill Rock served as a operational base for the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers from the late 19th century until 1949, supporting ongoing surveys, explosive testing, and the systematic removal of additional reefs and obstructions in the East River.^[2] Facilities on the island included storage depots and work areas that facilitated dredging and blasting operations, contributing to the waterway's long-term safety and commercial viability.^[2]

Modern developments

In 1890, the two original islands of Great Mill Rock and Little Mill Rock were physically merged into a single landmass using rock fill from the debris of the 1885 Flood Rock explosion, creating the unified island known today as Mill Rock.^[2] This engineering effort marked an early step in transforming the site from isolated outcrops to a more cohesive feature in the East River.^[1] The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers discontinued its use of Mill Rock following World War II, with operations ceasing by 1949 and the last known resident, superintendent John Smith, departing that year.^[2] In 1953, the federal government sold the island to New York City for $25,000, transferring it to the Department of Parks, which promptly demolished military structures, built a new dock for access, implemented erosion controls, and planted trees and shrubs to restore natural elements under the direction of Parks Commissioner Robert Moses.^[2] During the 1960s, Mill Rock began transitioning to public recreational use, hosting educational programs and arts events that highlighted its potential as a community resource accessible from Manhattan's eastern shore.^[2] A notable example occurred in 1969, when Parks Commissioner August Heckscher permitted the Avant Garde Festival, an experimental arts event organized by Charlotte Moorman, which featured hot air balloon launches, light installations, and temporary sculptures across the island, drawing crowds by boat and temporarily repurposing the site as a venue for avant-garde performances before it reverted to its natural state.^[2] By 1978, management of Mill Rock was transferred from the New York City Department of Parks to the Neighborhood Committee for Asphalt Green, a local nonprofit, granting them permission to utilize the island for environmental education and community programs, further integrating it into civilian urban life.^[2]

Mill Rock Park

Establishment and infrastructure

In 1953, the federal government transferred ownership of Mill Rock Island to the New York City Department of Parks and Recreation for $25,000, marking its establishment as a public park.^[2]^[17] Under the direction of Parks Commissioner Robert Moses, the island's military-era buildings and dilapidated docks were demolished, topsoil was added to support vegetation, and initial plantings of trees and shrubs were introduced to restore the natural landscape.^[2]^[1] Additionally, rocks were placed along the shoreline to mitigate erosion, enhancing the island's stability as a green space.^[2] Key infrastructure developments included the construction of a new pedestrian dock on the southern shore shortly after acquisition, intended for occasional access.^[2] The island lies approximately 1,000 feet offshore from Manhattan's East 96th Street shoreline, which had been extended through historical landfill projects, creating a visual and ecological connection to the adjacent urban landscape.^[5]^[1] Public access to the island has been restricted since the 1960s, with no landing permitted to safeguard its developing natural habitat; visitors can view it from East River Park on the mainland or by boat from the water.^[1]^[2] The pedestrian dock remains closed to general use, aligning with policies that limit human disturbance.^[2] Ongoing management is handled by the New York City Department of Parks and Recreation, in collaboration with the Neighborhood Committee for Asphalt Green since 1978 for educational purposes.^[2] Historical signage, installed as part of the department's Historical Signs Project, provides interpretive information about the island's transformation into a park.^[2]^[18]

Ecology and conservation

Following the acquisition of Mill Rock by the New York City Department of Parks and Recreation in 1953, the island underwent significant restoration efforts to revert it to a more natural state. Existing buildings and dilapidated docks were demolished, topsoil was imported, and native trees and shrubs were planted to establish a vegetative buffer that supports local wildlife and stabilizes the shoreline against erosion. These efforts transformed the formerly militarized site into a green oasis amid the urban East River environment.^[2] Since the 1960s, Mill Rock has served as an uninhabited bird sanctuary, closed to the public to minimize human impact and foster nesting colonies for various avian species. Designated as the Mill Rock Island Harbor Herons Preserve, the island is accessible only to scientists and government officials for monitoring purposes, allowing its tidal habitats to thrive undisturbed. This status has enabled the recovery of bird populations that utilize the island's trees and rocky shores for breeding.^[19] The island supports a diverse array of nesting birds, particularly waders and seabirds adapted to the tidal estuary of Hell Gate. Key species include black-crowned night herons (Nycticorax nycticorax), which had three nesting pairs in 2021; great egrets (Ardea alba), with one pair recorded that year; and snowy egrets (Egretta thula), which have nested in varying numbers historically. Great black-backed gulls (Larus marinus) had 19 nests in 2021, while fish crows (Corvus ossifragus) use the island as a roost site. Double-crested cormorants (Phalacrocorax auritus) established a colony in 2011 and have grown significantly, reaching 103 nests by 2021.^[20]^[21] In 2022, a pair of great blue herons (Ardea herodias) nested on the island, marking the first confirmed nesting record in densely urbanized New York County.^[22] Access restrictions are essential for conserving Mill Rock's delicate tidal ecosystem, as human disturbances like kayaking or unauthorized visitation can disrupt breeding activities and increase predation risks from species such as Norway rats. Ongoing surveys by organizations like NYC Bird Alliance emphasize the need for protective signage and limited intervention to sustain these colonies, ensuring the island remains a vital urban refuge for migratory and resident birds.^[20]