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Explosive

An explosive is any chemical compound, mixture, or device whose primary purpose is to function by explosion, typically through a rapid exothermic chemical reaction that generates a sudden expansion of gases and a shock wave.^[1] Explosives are classified chemically and by reaction velocity into low explosives, which undergo subsonic deflagration (rapid burning), and high explosives, which propagate supersonically via detonation, enabling applications from controlled blasting in mining and demolition to propulsion in firearms and ordnance.^[2] While essential for industrial and military uses—such as fracturing rock in quarrying or powering rocket motors—explosives pose inherent risks of accidental detonation from impact, friction, or heat, contributing to regulatory frameworks like those from the U.S. Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives that mandate licensing and storage standards.^[3] Notable advancements include Alfred Nobel's 1867 invention of dynamite, which stabilized nitroglycerin for safer handling in construction, though misuse in improvised devices has fueled ongoing debates over precursor chemical controls without curtailing legitimate commerce.^[4]

Fundamentals

Definition and Principles of Explosion

An explosive is a chemical or nuclear compound or mixture capable of undergoing a rapid exothermic reaction that decomposes to produce a large volume of hot gases, resulting in a sudden and intense pressure increase sufficient to cause destructive effects.^[5] This reaction occurs on a timescale defined by the characteristic size of the system divided by the speed of sound in the material, enabling the propagation of a self-sustaining wave.^[5] Unlike ordinary combustion or incendiary materials, explosives release energy primarily through gas expansion rather than sustained burning, with the reaction rate governed by thermodynamic principles of energy conservation and rapid entropy increase.^[6] Explosions in high explosives typically manifest as detonation, where the reaction front propagates supersonically—exceeding the speed of sound in the unreacted material (approximately 335 m/s in gases at standard conditions)—generating a shock wave that compresses and heats the material ahead of it to initiate decomposition.^[7] In contrast, deflagration involves subsonic flame propagation, where heat transfer through conduction and convection drives the reaction, often transitioning to detonation under confinement or acceleration due to pressure buildup.^[8] The distinction arises from causal dynamics: detonation's shock-induced compression achieves near-instantaneous reaction completion, while deflagration relies on slower thermal diffusion, limiting its pressure output.^[6] Central to detonation principles is the Chapman-Jouguet (CJ) theory, which models steady-state detonation as a wave traveling at the minimum velocity where the post-reaction products reach sonic speed relative to the shock front, satisfying conservation of mass, momentum, and energy across the reaction zone.^[9] This condition defines the CJ point on the Hugoniot curve, representing the upper limit of stable detonation velocities observed empirically in homogeneous explosives.^[10] Self-sustaining reactions require balanced stoichiometry, quantified by oxygen balance—the percentage of oxygen available relative to that needed for complete oxidation of carbon to CO₂, hydrogen to H₂O, and other elements—ideally near zero for maximal energy release without external oxidizers or residue.^[11] Positive oxygen balance indicates surplus oxygen for oxidizing adjacent fuels, while negative balance demands atmospheric oxygen, reducing efficiency in confined detonations.^[12] Explosive power is benchmarked against trinitrotoluene (TNT), with equivalence defined by relative energy output, typically TNT's heat of detonation of approximately 4.2 MJ/kg and corresponding gas volume expansion yielding a standard blast pressure profile.^[13] This metric allows comparison of other explosives' performance, such as peak overpressure or impulse, derived from thermochemical calculations or empirical cylinder expansion tests, though actual equivalence varies with charge geometry and environment due to differences in detonation velocity and product temperature.^[13]^[14]

Physics and Chemistry of Detonation

In detonation of chemical explosives, the process begins at the molecular level with rapid decomposition triggered by an initiating shock or heat source. High explosives, such as those containing nitro groups (e.g., -NO₂ in nitroglycerin or TNT), undergo homolytic cleavage of weak bonds like O-NO₂, generating free radicals and exothermic reactions that produce stable gaseous products including N₂, CO₂, and H₂O.^[15]^[16] This decomposition is thermodynamically driven by the high energy release from forming strong N≡N bonds in nitrogen gas, converting solid or liquid explosive into hot, high-pressure gases that expand rapidly, adhering to conservation of energy where the chemical potential energy Q (heat of detonation per unit mass) is converted to thermal and kinetic energy.^[15] Peroxide-based explosives similarly decompose via O-O bond fission, yielding oxygen-rich radicals that accelerate oxidation.^[17] The detonation propagates as a supersonic shock wave, distinct from subsonic deflagration where heat conduction drives flame spread. In detonation, the leading shock compresses and heats the unreacted explosive to ignition conditions, initiating near-instantaneous reaction behind the front; the released energy sustains the wave's propagation at velocities typically 6–9 km/s in high explosives.^[10]^[18] This self-sustaining structure follows the Chapman-Jouguet (CJ) theory, modeling the wave as a steady discontinuity satisfying conservation of mass, momentum, and energy across the front.^[19] At the CJ point, the detonation velocity v_d approximates v_d = \sqrt{2(\gamma^2 - 1)Q}, where \gamma is the adiabatic index of the product gases (around 1.2–1.4 for typical explosives) and Q is the specific energy release; the post-shock flow velocity equals the local sound speed, ensuring stability without acceleration or deceleration.^[20] Macroscopically, this yields extreme pressures (10–30 GPa) and temperatures (3000–5000 K), with momentum conservation dictating particle velocities up to 2–3 km/s.^[10] Nuclear detonation arises from a supercritical chain reaction in fissile materials like uranium-235 or plutonium-239, where an initiating neutron induces fission, splitting the nucleus into fragments and releasing 2–3 neutrons plus ~200 MeV of energy per event primarily as kinetic energy of fragments and prompt gamma rays.^[21] These neutrons, if not moderated or escaped, trigger exponential fissions (doubling time ~10⁻⁸ s in weapons), amplifying energy release to gigajoules in microseconds via the neutron multiplication factor k > 1, bounded by conservation of energy from mass defect (E = Δmc²).^[22] The resulting plasma expands supersonically, generating a shock wave akin to chemical detonation but with yields scaled by the critical mass (e.g., ~50 kg U-235 for bare sphere implosion yield ~10–20 kt TNT equivalent). Fusion detonation supplements fission by compressing deuterium-tritium, where inertial confinement ignites D-T reactions yielding 17.6 MeV per fusion, but requires fission priming for explosive initiation.^[21]^[22]

Types

Chemical Explosives

Chemical explosives are categorized based on their reaction propagation speed and sensitivity to initiation stimuli, reflecting empirical differences in how rapidly and reliably they convert chemical energy into mechanical work through exothermic decomposition. Low explosives, such as black powder, undergo deflagration, a subsonic combustion process where the reaction front propagates at velocities typically ranging from 300 to 1000 meters per second, relying on convective heat transfer rather than shock compression.^[23] In contrast, high explosives detonate via a supersonic shock-induced reaction exceeding 1000 meters per second—often 2000 to 9000 meters per second—enabling confined, high-pressure energy release suitable for applications requiring brisance.^[23] High explosives are further subdivided by initiation sensitivity, determined by the minimum stimulus (impact, friction, or heat) needed to achieve detonation, which guides their use in sequential initiation trains. Primary high explosives, exemplified by lead azide, exhibit extreme sensitivity and rapidly transition from ignition to detonation upon minimal provocation, functioning as primers or detonators in blasting caps with detonation velocities around 5000 meters per second.^[24] Secondary high explosives, like RDX (cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine), possess moderate sensitivity requiring a strong shock from a primary explosive for reliable initiation, and are employed in bulk main charges due to their balance of power and relative stability, achieving velocities up to 8750 meters per second.^[23] Tertiary high explosives, such as ANFO (a mixture of ammonium nitrate and fuel oil), demonstrate low sensitivity for enhanced storage safety, necessitating a booster charge and yielding detonation velocities of 3200 to 5200 meters per second, commonly used in large-scale mining operations.^[25] Beyond pure compounds like RDX or PETN, many chemical explosives are engineered as mixtures to modulate sensitivity and adapt to environmental conditions without compromising performance. Dynamite, for instance, desensitizes highly reactive nitroglycerin by absorbing it into diatomaceous earth, preventing accidental detonation while maintaining utility in construction blasting.^[26] Slurries and emulsions, incorporating ammonium nitrate oxidizers with fuel phases in aqueous gels or water-in-oil formulations, provide water resistance and reduced sensitivity for wet mining environments, outperforming pure compounds in handling safety through physical encapsulation that inhibits premature reaction propagation.^[27] These composite forms prioritize empirical stability over raw potency, as evidenced by their widespread adoption in industrial settings where unintended initiation risks are mitigated by design.^[25]

Nuclear and Exotic Explosives

Nuclear fission explosives operate by inducing a supercritical chain reaction in fissile isotopes such as uranium-235 or plutonium-239, where neutrons split atomic nuclei, releasing energy and additional neutrons to sustain exponential fission.^[28] A bare critical mass for highly enriched uranium-235 is approximately 60 kilograms, while for weapons-grade plutonium-239 it is around 10 kilograms, though implosion designs using conventional explosives to compress the fissile core reduce these masses significantly to achieve supercriticality rapidly before disassembly by expansion.^[28] Yields range from sub-kiloton tactical devices, such as artillery shells with 0.1 to 1 kiloton equivalents of TNT, to strategic weapons exceeding 1 megaton, limited by the availability of fissile material and efficient neutron economy rather than inherent physics.^[29] Thermonuclear explosives, or fusion weapons, enhance fission primaries with secondary fusion stages involving isotopes like deuterium and tritium, where extreme temperatures from the initial fission compress and ignite the fusion fuel, multiplying yields by factors of hundreds or thousands.^[30] Fusion boosting, injecting a deuterium-tritium gas mixture into the fission primary, increases neutron flux to improve fission efficiency and reduce required fissile mass, enabling yields up to hundreds of kilotons in compact designs, but empirical data from historical tests indicate miniaturization below 100 kilograms total device mass encounters physical barriers in achieving uniform compression and ignition without nuclear testing.^[30] Claims of low-yield "pure fusion" devices without significant fission remain unverified, as laboratory inertial confinement fusion experiments, such as those at the National Ignition Facility, achieve microjoule-scale energy releases far below explosive thresholds and require massive laser infrastructure impractical for weapons.^[31] Exotic explosives encompass hypothetical high-energy-density materials beyond conventional fission or fusion, such as metastable metallic hydrogen, predicted to store up to 170 megajoules per kilogram upon reversion to molecular hydrogen, exceeding chemical explosives by orders of magnitude. Theoretical models suggest pressures exceeding 400 gigapascals could stabilize metallic hydrogen at room temperature, but as of 2025, laboratory syntheses remain transient and revert immediately upon pressure release, with no scalable production or detonation demonstrated.^[32] Similarly, concepts like metastable helium complexes, where excited helium atoms in triplet states are bound to molecules like ammonia for potential energy release upon de-excitation, exist in patents but lack empirical validation as practical explosives, confined to theoretical spectroscopy and small-scale atomic physics experiments yielding negligible energy densities.^[33] These exotics face fundamental challenges in kinetic stability and initiation, rendering them non-viable for current applications despite periodic speculative claims in unpeer-reviewed sources.

Properties

Sensitivity and Initiation

Sensitivity of explosives is quantified by their response to mechanical stimuli such as impact and friction, which determine the minimum energy or force required to initiate a reaction, typically measured as the 50% probability threshold (E50 or equivalent). Impact sensitivity is assessed via drop-weight tests, where a hammer of specified mass (often 2-5 kg) is dropped from varying heights onto a sample, with energy calculated as E = mgh in joules; friction sensitivity uses apparatuses like the BAM tester, recording the load in newtons causing ignition, crackling, or explosion. These metrics reveal causal vulnerabilities: low thresholds enable rapid energy transfer to hotspots, triggering decomposition, while high thresholds reflect molecular stability resisting shear or compression-induced reactions.^[34]^[35]^[23] Primary explosives, used in detonators, exhibit high sensitivity for reliable ignition from weak stimuli; for instance, lead azide reacts at impact energies below 1 J, facilitating initiation but demanding careful handling to avoid unintended shocks. Secondary explosives like pentaerythritol tetranitrate (PETN) have moderate sensitivity, with E50 around 3-5 J (median 3.8 J across historical tests), balancing ease of detonation with reduced accidental risk compared to primaries. In contrast, insensitive munitions-grade materials such as triaminotrinitrobenzene (TATB) show no reaction up to >50 J (equivalent to drop heights >320 cm with standard hammers), prioritizing stability over simplicity; trinitrotoluene (TNT) falls intermediate at ~15 J. Friction data parallels this: RDX explodes under steel shoe loading in BAM tests, while TATB and TNT resist up to higher forces.^[36]^[34]^[23]^[37] Initiation of less sensitive explosives requires precise sequences to generate sufficient shock pressures, often via detonators employing exploding bridge wires (EBW) or slapper mechanisms. In EBW systems, a high-voltage pulse (thousands of volts) rapidly vaporizes a fine wire, producing plasma and a shock wave that directly initiates secondary explosives without relying on primary intermediates, enabling all-fire reliability in >99% of cases for insensitive fills. Slapper detonators accelerate a thin flyer plate (e.g., polyimide or metal) to 2-4 km/s via foil explosion, slamming it into the acceptor explosive to compress and heat it supersonically, ideal for high-density charges where direct shock attenuation would fail. These methods highlight trade-offs: elevated sensitivity aids compact, low-energy triggers for precision but heightens handling hazards, whereas insensitivity—prioritized in military formulations—necessitates robust initiators yet mitigates propagation risks, reducing sympathetic detonations that cause fratricide in clustered munitions.^[38]^[39]^[40]^[41]

Performance Metrics

The velocity of detonation (VOD) quantifies the speed of the supersonic reaction front propagating through an explosive, a primary indicator of its performance, with high explosives typically exhibiting VOD values between 6000 and 9000 m/s.^[23] For instance, HMX achieves a VOD of 9110 m/s at a density of 1.89 g/cm³, while PETN reaches 8260 m/s at 1.76 g/cm³, compared to TNT's 6942 m/s at 1.64 g/cm³.^[23] Higher VOD correlates with greater detonation pressure, calculated approximately as P = \frac{1}{4} \rho D^2, where \rho is density and D is VOD, enabling more efficient shock transmission.^[23] Brisance, the capacity to fragment or shatter surrounding material, stems from rapid pressure buildup and is empirically measured via the sand crush test, in which a standard charge pulverizes sand in a confined volume, with greater sand displacement indicating superior brisance relative to TNT.^[13] This metric favors explosives with high VOD and density, as brisance scales with detonation pressure; for example, PETN and RDX outperform TNT in such tests due to their faster reaction rates.^[23] Relative effectiveness (RE) factor assesses overall power by comparing an explosive's energy output or expansion work to TNT (RE = 1), often via the Trauzl lead block expansion or ballistic mortar tests. PETN yields an RE of 1.73, HMX 1.45, and RDX 1.84 under Trauzl conditions, reflecting their superior volume displacement per unit mass.^[23] These values enable direct comparisons for applications requiring specific blast effects. Density influences performance by concentrating energy, with high explosives ideally loaded to 1.5–1.9 g/cm³ to maximize VOD and pressure without compromising uniformity; theoretical maximum densities (TMD) for PETN and HMX exceed 1.77 g/cm³, approached in pressed charges.^[23] Oxygen balance (OB), expressed as the percentage of oxygen available (positive), exact (zero), or deficient (negative) for complete oxidation of carbon, hydrogen, and other elements to CO₂, H₂O, and N₂, optimizes gas production and energy release at OB ≈ 0%.^[26] Most molecular high explosives exhibit negative OB (e.g., TNT at -74%), indicating fuel-rich compositions that benefit from formulation adjustments or external oxidizers in mixtures like ANFO to approach balance and minimize toxic residues.^[26]

Stability and Environmental Factors

The thermal stability of explosives is assessed through metrics such as decomposition temperatures and gas evolution rates under controlled heating. For instance, RDX (cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine) exhibits an initial thermal decomposition temperature ranging from 210.9°C to 235.1°C, with peak decomposition around 227.9–245.9°C, depending on aging conditions and testing methods like differential scanning calorimetry (DSC).^[42] Vacuum stability tests, standardized in protocols like STANAG 4147, quantify chemical stability by measuring pressure buildup from volatile decomposition products at elevated temperatures (e.g., 100–150°C) over 40–48 hours, with acceptable gas evolution limits below 2–5 mL/g for most high explosives.^[43]^[44] Arrhenius kinetics models enable prediction of long-term shelf life by extrapolating accelerated aging data to ambient storage conditions, incorporating activation energies derived from isothermal decomposition rates. These models account for temperature-dependent reaction rates, where shelf life is defined as the time until a critical decomposition threshold (e.g., 0.1–1% mass loss) is reached, often yielding estimates of 20–50 years or more for stabilized formulations under controlled environments.^[45]^[46] For legacy explosives like HMX or PETN in military stockpiles, kinetic analyses confirm effective activation energies supporting stability projections beyond 40 years when insulated from moisture and contaminants.^[47] Environmental factors such as humidity influence stability via hygroscopicity, particularly for oxidizers like ammonium nitrate, which absorbs atmospheric water vapor, leading to caking, reduced density, and potential phase transitions that degrade performance. Mitigation strategies include surfactant or polymer coatings (e.g., stearic acid hybrids or silicic acid treatments) that form hydrophobic barriers, reducing moisture uptake rates by 50–90% in humid conditions (e.g., 75% relative humidity at 30°C).^[48]^[49] Volatility concerns arise from vapor pressures of components like nitroglycerin, but primary high explosives such as RDX exhibit low volatility, with decomposition vapors posing minimal immediate stability risks under sealed storage.^[50] Empirical aging studies of military stockpiles demonstrate that properly stored high explosives, including legacy compositions like Composition B (RDX/TNT), retain functional integrity for decades, with minimal degradation in detonation velocity or sensitivity when protected from extremes. For example, analyses of ordnance from World War II-era stocks show that core explosives remain viable after 70+ years, underscoring resilience against gradual molecular changes like nitrogroup hydrolysis, provided casings prevent ingress of water or oxygen.^[51]^[52] These findings counter perceptions of inherent instability in older munitions, as stability is predominantly governed by storage protocols rather than intrinsic material flaws.^[53]

Composition and Formulation

Explosives are formulated to achieve rapid energy release through decomposition reactions where molecular structures incorporate high densities of nitrogen-oxygen bonds that facilitate exothermic breakdown into gaseous products like N₂, CO₂, and H₂O. In pure nitroaromatic compounds such as 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT, C₇H₅N₃O₆), the aromatic ring provides structural stability while three nitro (-NO₂) groups attached to the benzene ring supply oxidizing capacity, enabling detonation velocities around 6,900 m/s upon shock initiation.^[54] Synthesis involves stepwise nitration of toluene using a nitric-sulfuric acid mixture, progressing from mono- to tri-nitration, which introduces the reactive nitro functionalities.^[55] Similarly, nitramine explosives like HMX (cyclotetramethylene-tetranitramine, C₄H₈N₈O₈) feature a strained cyclic structure with four -N-NO₂ groups, yielding higher detonation pressures (up to 39 GPa) due to the ring strain and dense packing of nitro groups that accelerate nitrogen gas evolution.^[56] Pure forms of these compounds exhibit high reactivity and sensitivity to initiation, posing handling risks, so formulations often phlegmatize them by incorporating desensitizers such as waxes, polymers, or graphite to reduce friction and impact sensitivity while minimally diluting performance. Phlegmatized mixes, like polymer-bonded explosives (PBX) containing 90-95% HMX with binders, maintain near-theoretical velocities but enhance stability for loading into munitions, as the additives absorb mechanical energy and prevent unintended propagation.^[57] In contrast, unphlegmatized pure crystals detonate more efficiently in ideal conditions but require careful isolation during synthesis and storage to avoid accidental ignition from static or shock. Blended formulations optimize cost and application by combining oxidizers with fuels, as in ANFO (ammonium nitrate-fuel oil), which consists of 94% porous ammonium nitrate (NH₄NO₃) prills absorbing 6% diesel fuel, where the nitrate decomposes to release oxygen that combusts the hydrocarbon fuel, achieving velocities of 3,200-4,500 m/s depending on confinement.^[58] This oxygen-balanced mix leverages AN's ionic lattice for rapid gas production (N₂O, H₂O) upon sensitization. For wet environments, water-in-oil emulsion explosives encapsulate ammonium nitrate droplets in a fuel phase with emulsifiers like sorbitan monooleate, providing inherent water resistance through immiscible barriers, often sensitized with glass microspheres or chemical gassing for density control around 1.1-1.25 g/cm³.^[59] Scalability influences formulation economics: bulk ammonium nitrate, derived from fertilizer production via ammoniation of nitric acid, costs approximately $0.25-0.50/kg due to high-volume processes, enabling economical ANFO at similar rates, whereas HMX requires multi-step nitrolysis of cyclic precursors, limiting output and driving prices to orders of magnitude higher, often exceeding $100/kg for military-grade material.^[60]^[61] These costs reflect synthesis complexity, with pure nitramines demanding specialized reactors versus AN's commodity infrastructure.

History

Early Discoveries and Black Powder

Chinese alchemists during the Tang Dynasty (618–907 CE) discovered gunpowder through empirical experimentation aimed at creating an elixir for immortality, combining saltpeter (potassium nitrate), charcoal, and sulfur in various proportions; this process involved trial-and-error observations of rapid combustion rather than theoretical deduction.^[62]^[63] The earliest documented military application appeared in the Wujing Zongyao (1044 CE), a Song Dynasty manual that recorded proto-formulas for incendiary devices, marking the transition from alchemical curiosity to practical weaponry.^[63] By the 10th–12th centuries, Chinese engineers developed the fire lance, a bamboo or metal tube filled with gunpowder attached to a spear, which expelled flames and shrapnel upon ignition; this device, used effectively in conflicts like the Jin-Song Wars, represented an early empirical adaptation of the mixture's deflagrative properties for close-quarters combat.^[64]^[62] Gunpowder knowledge spread westward via trade and conquest, reaching Arab alchemists by the 13th century, who refined saltpeter-based mixtures and documented approximate ratios such as 9 parts saltpeter to 3 parts charcoal and 1 part sulfur, optimizing for incendiary and pyrotechnic uses through iterative testing.^[65]^[66] In Europe, Franciscan monk Roger Bacon provided the first detailed written description of gunpowder's composition and explosive effects in his 1242 treatise De mirabili potestate artis et naturae, attributing its power to confined combustion of the nitrate-charcoal-sulfur blend; this account stemmed from observational synthesis of Eastern knowledge rather than independent invention.^[67] Claims of invention by figures like Berthold Schwarz, a purported 14th-century German monk, lack historical corroboration and appear as later nationalistic fabrications to assert European origins, contradicted by earlier Asian and Bacon's records.^[68] The canonical black powder formula, refined through centuries of empirical adjustment, consists of approximately 75% potassium nitrate as oxidizer, 15% charcoal as fuel, and 10% sulfur as catalyst to lower ignition temperature; unlike high explosives, it undergoes deflagration—a subsonic flame propagation driven by heat conduction—rather than detonation, limiting its velocity to around 400 m/s even under confinement.^[69]^[70]^[7] This composition's reliability emerged from causal testing of burn rates and yields, prioritizing consistency for propulsion over shattering force.^[69]

Industrial Revolution and High Explosives

Nitroglycerin, a highly powerful liquid explosive, was first synthesized in 1847 by Italian chemist Ascanio Sobrero through the nitration of glycerol with a mixture of nitric and sulfuric acids.^[71] This compound detonated with unprecedented force upon shock or friction, vastly surpassing black powder in energy release, but its extreme instability limited safe application in industrial contexts like mining and tunneling.^[72] Early attempts to employ nitroglycerin for blasting in quarries and construction sites frequently resulted in unintended detonations during transport or handling, underscoring the trade-off between its efficiency and inherent risks. A catastrophic example of these dangers occurred on April 16, 1866, when several crates of nitroglycerin exploded at a Wells Fargo office in San Francisco, killing between 15 and 20 people, injuring dozens, and demolishing the building along with adjacent structures.^[73] The blast's shockwave shattered windows blocks away and highlighted the urgent need for stabilization to harness nitroglycerin's potential in demolition and excavation without prohibitive casualties. In response, Swedish chemist Alfred Nobel developed dynamite in 1867, patenting a mixture of 75% nitroglycerin absorbed into 25% kieselguhr—a porous diatomaceous earth that rendered the explosive far less sensitive to impact while preserving its brisance for rock fragmentation.^[74] This formulation enabled reliable use in mining operations, where precise blasting reduced reliance on labor-intensive black powder methods prone to incomplete combustion and misfires. Parallel innovations in the late 19th century included trinitrotoluene (TNT), synthesized in 1863 by German chemist Joseph Wilbrand as a yellow dye but later adapted as a high explosive due to its relative stability and insensitivity compared to nitroglycerin.^[75] Picric acid, a nitrated phenol compound, also emerged as a viable high explosive by the 1880s, valued for its shattering power in shells and blasting despite risks from dry picrate salts.^[76] These advancements, driven by demands for efficient material displacement in railways, canals, and ore extraction, gradually lowered explosion-related mining fatalities; in British coal mines, deaths from firedamp and dust blasts dropped from 0.66 per 1,000 workers in 1870 to 0.07 per 1,000 by 1900, reflecting improved control over detonation sequences that minimized gas ignition hazards inherent to earlier powders.^[77]

20th Century Military and Civilian Developments

During World War I, the demand for explosives led to the widespread adoption of amatol, a mixture typically comprising 50% trinitrotoluene (TNT) and 50% ammonium nitrate, or alternatively 80% ammonium nitrate and 20% TNT, which was cheaper and more readily producible than pure TNT.^[78] This composition allowed for increased shell filling capacity, with the United States implementing amatol production upon entering the war in 1917, though accidental explosions at munitions factories, such as those in the United Kingdom, resulted in approximately 600 fatalities across explosives works.^[78]^[79] In World War II, research accelerated the development and mass production of cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine (RDX), initially synthesized in 1898 but scaled for military use, and its more powerful isomer cyclotetramethylenetetranitramine (HMX), discovered in 1941, both offering higher detonation velocities than TNT.^[80] These were often combined in compositions like Composition B (59.5% RDX, 39.5% TNT, and 1% wax) for shells and bombs, enhancing brisance while wartime production pressures contributed to accidents, including 26 global incidents in deployed areas causing 108 fatalities and 130 injuries.^[80]^[81] The Manhattan Project culminated in the Trinity test on July 16, 1945, detonating a plutonium implosion device with an explosive yield of approximately 21 kilotons of TNT equivalent, marking the first nuclear explosion and demonstrating fission-based energy release far exceeding chemical explosives.^[82] Postwar into the Cold War era, polymer-bonded explosives (PBX), such as those incorporating RDX or HMX with inert polymer matrices like hydroxyl-terminated polybutadiene, emerged in the 1950s to improve handling safety and reduce sensitivity to shock or friction compared to cast explosives.^[83] These formulations prioritized insensitivity for nuclear and conventional munitions storage, though empirical tests revealed persistent risks from aging or defects. On the civilian side, ammonium perchlorate composite propellant (APCP), refined in the late 1940s by replacing earlier perchlorates with ammonium perchlorate as the oxidizer bound in a fuel-rich matrix, enabled reliable solid rocket motors for amateur and experimental rocketry, with organizations like the National Association of Rocketry adopting it by the 1960s for hobbyist launches.^[84]^[84] By the 1980s and 1990s, responses to mishaps like the 1987 USS Stark incident and prior storage fires prompted the U.S. military's Insensitive Munitions (IM) program, formalized with Navy initiatives in 1984 and Army guidelines by 1992, mandating tests for stimuli such as fragment impact, slow cook-off, and sympathetic detonation to minimize unintended reactions.^[85]^[86] These standards, derived from empirical data on accident chains, drove reformulations like PBX variants with reduced sensitivity, though full compliance remained challenged by performance trade-offs in high-energy applications.^[85]

Applications

Military Uses

Explosives form the core of military ordnance, powering warheads in artillery shells, aerial bombs, missiles, and torpedoes to deliver blast, fragmentation, and penetration effects against personnel, vehicles, and fortifications. High explosives like Composition B or HMX provide the rapid energy release necessary for propelling fragments at lethal velocities or focusing destructive force in specific applications.^[87] In shaped charges, the Munroe effect—wherein a metal liner collapses under detonation to form a hypervelocity jet—enables penetration depths exceeding five to seven times the liner diameter into rolled homogeneous armor (RHA), with copper-lined designs routinely achieving 500 mm or greater against modern tank armor equivalents.^[88]^[89] During World War II, the German V-2 rocket incorporated a 1,000 kg warhead of amatol explosive, detonated on impact to produce blast radii effective against urban and industrial targets, with over 3,000 tons of high explosive delivered across approximately 3,000 launches despite inherent inaccuracies.^[90]^[91] Modern advancements integrate explosives into precision-guided munitions (PGMs), reducing circular error probable (CEP) from 200-1,000 meters in unguided bombs to under 10 meters, allowing one ton of PGMs to achieve effects equivalent to 12-20 tons of unguided ordnance through minimized dispersion and enhanced terminal accuracy.^[92] For area denial, explosives in landmines, scatterable munitions, and improvised devices create persistent barriers, with efficacy demonstrated in denying enemy maneuver by inflicting casualties or forcing route deviations; for instance, during Operations Iraqi Freedom and Enduring Freedom, explosive obstacles like improvised explosive devices (IEDs) significantly disrupted ground advances.^[93] Unexploded ordnance (UXO) from dud rates of 5-40% in various munitions systems poses post-conflict hazards, contaminating millions of acres from training and operations alone.^[94] Empirical data from U.S. operations indicate that PGM-enabled targeted strikes correlate with declining non-combatant casualty ratios, dropping below 2% in later phases compared to higher incidental losses in unguided or prolonged ground engagements reliant on infantry.^[95]

Civilian and Commercial Uses

Explosives find application in the entertainment sector through pyrotechnics, where controlled low-velocity deflagrations produce light, sound, color, and smoke effects in fireworks displays, theatrical productions, and film special effects. These uses rely on compositions like black powder derivatives or flash powders, regulated under NFPA 1124 and 1126 codes to ensure predictable combustion rather than high-order detonation. The U.S. pyrotechnics industry, encompassing consumer fireworks and professional shows, generated nearly $3 billion in economic value in 2024, supporting jobs in display operations, import distribution, and effects fabrication while enhancing cultural events such as Independence Day celebrations.^[96]^[97] In industrial manufacturing, explosive forming deforms metal sheets or tubes into complex shapes by channeling blast energy to achieve high strain rates, suitable for large-scale components in alloys like aluminum and titanium that resist conventional presses. Developed commercially since the 1950s, this technique has produced aerospace panels and automotive prototypes, reducing the need for specialized tooling and enabling uniform deformation in high-strength materials, which can lower production costs for low-volume runs by avoiding multimillion-dollar hydraulic equipment investments.^[98] Wait, no, avoid wiki; use [web:38] sciencedirect. Explosive welding joins dissimilar metals via hypervelocity impact from a detonated liner, creating diffusionless bonds for cladding carbon steel with stainless or titanium layers in heat exchangers and chemical reactors. Applied since the 1960s, it supports corrosion-resistant equipment in petrochemical processing, where bonded plates withstand harsh environments longer than welded alternatives, yielding productivity gains through minimized downtime and material waste in fabricating large-diameter vessels up to 3 meters wide.^[99]^[100] Seismic exploration utilizes cast boosters and primers like pentolite-based charges buried at depths of 10-30 meters to generate shear and compressional waves for geophysical mapping of subsurface structures, primarily in hydrocarbon prospecting. Commercial formulations such as Geoprime dBX provide high-velocity output with sleep times exceeding one year, facilitating efficient surveys over vast areas and contributing to resource identification that underpins energy industry output valued at billions annually in exploration efficiencies.^[101]^[102]

Mining, Demolition, and Construction

In open-pit mining, bench blasting employs systematic patterns of boreholes loaded with ammonium nitrate-fuel oil (ANFO) mixtures to fragment large volumes of ore and waste rock efficiently. ANFO, comprising approximately 94% prilled ammonium nitrate and 6% fuel oil, is favored for its low cost, oxygen balance, and ease of handling in bulk, enabling charges of 40-50 kg per hole in typical limestone or hard rock benches with burdens of 3-4 meters and spacings of 4-5 meters.^[103] This method yields blasted tonnages calculated as volume (burden × spacing × bench height × number of holes) multiplied by rock density, often exceeding 10,000 tonnes per blast in large operations, directly correlating with higher throughput and reduced drilling needs compared to mechanical excavation. Precise control of fragmentation is achieved through millisecond-delay detonators, which sequence explosions in intervals of 25-65 ms between holes or rows, minimizing vibration peaks while promoting radial cracking and uniform break-up. Studies by the U.S. Bureau of Mines demonstrate that such delays reduce ground vibrations by distributing energy release and improve fragment size distribution, lowering secondary breakage requirements by up to 20% in surface blasts.^[104] This optimization has causally linked explosive applications to enhanced efficiency, as finer fragmentation facilitates faster loading and hauling cycles, boosting daily production rates in hard rock mines. In hard rock tunneling and underground construction, drill-and-blast techniques using explosives outperform tunnel boring machines (TBMs) in variable geology or shorter alignments, achieving advance rates of 2-5 meters per day at 30-50% lower capital costs due to simpler equipment and adaptability. For instance, in projects under 5 km, drill-and-blast reduces mobilization time and handles fault zones where TBMs risk stalling, with explosive charges patterned in V-cuts or burn-cuts yielding 500-1,000 tonnes of muck per round.^[105]^[106] Empirical data from Norwegian tunneling assessments confirm that in Q-rock mass ratings below 10, drill-and-blast halves excavation time versus TBMs by avoiding cutter wear in abrasive conditions.^[107] The advent of dynamite in 1867 revolutionized mining productivity, enabling safer penetration of previously inaccessible hard rock deposits and fueling a surge in global output of metals like copper and gold essential to industrialization. Alfred Nobel's stabilization of nitroglycerin allowed controlled blasts that increased extraction rates by orders of magnitude over black powder, with historical records indicating expedited projects like railroads and canals that multiplied ore tonnages mined annually.^[108] Technological refinements in blasting, including electronic detonators and predictive modeling, have since driven a marked decline in injury rates; U.S. mine blasting incidents fell from over 100 annually in the mid-20th century to fewer than 15 by the 2000s, attributable to improved sequencing and remote initiation reducing human exposure.^[109]^[110] In demolition, low-velocity explosives like emulsions facilitate implosive collapses of structures, as in the 1995 Hudson Department Store blast using 1.5 tonnes of dynamite patterned for sequential failure of support columns, minimizing collateral damage while processing millions of tonnes of debris efficiently. Such applications underscore explosives' role in construction site preparation, where precise charges control flyrock and dust, enabling rapid clearance for new infrastructure at scales unattainable by mechanical means.^[111]

Safety and Risks

Handling Protocols and Accident Statistics

Handling protocols for explosives prioritize controlled detonation sequences known as explosive trains, which initiate reliable energy transfer from a primary explosive to the main charge while mitigating risks of unintended propagation. A typical train involves a detonator or initiator generating a high-velocity shock wave, amplified by a booster—such as pentaerythritol tetranitrate (PETN) or cyclotetramethylene tetranitramine (HMX)—that serves as a donor to the less sensitive acceptor explosive, ensuring up-the-line detonation transfer through direct interface or gap-tested sympathetic initiation.^[112] Compatibility testing, including donor-acceptor velocity matching, prevents partial reactions or dead presses that could lead to duds or erratic performance.^[113] Electrostatic discharge (ESD) precautions are critical during handling of sensitive components, as static sparks can ignite primaries with energies as low as 0.01 mJ. Protocols mandate grounding all personnel via wrist straps and conductive footwear, employing dissipative materials with surface resistivities between 10^5 and 10^9 ohms/square, and maintaining relative humidity above 50% to facilitate charge leakage; equipment must undergo periodic ESD auditing to avoid accumulation from friction or separation in dry environments.^[114] These measures, combined with segregated storage of initiators from main charges, address human-induced initiation risks rather than inherent material volatility.^[111] Accident data from the U.S. Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA) reveal that, between 1978 and 1998, 45 fatalities in surface mining operations resulted from explosives, predominantly due to flyrock, flying debris, and misfires stemming from procedural errors like inadequate blast area security or improper charging sequences, not spontaneous detonations.^[115] ^[116] Analysis of these incidents attributes over 80% to human factors, including failure to evacuate zones or mishandling during loading, underscoring mishandling as the dominant causal pathway over chemical instability.^[110] Post-1990s adoption of Institute of Makers of Explosives (IME) guidelines—emphasizing fuse length sufficiency for safe retreat and blaster certification—correlates with reduced U.S. mining explosives fatalities, dropping from annual averages exceeding 30 in the 1980s to under 5 by the 2010s, reflecting procedural standardization's efficacy.^[117] ^[118] Emerging mitigations include wireless electronic detonators for remote initiation, enabling precise millisecond delays and eliminating manual fuse handling to minimize proximity risks during blasting.^[119] AI-integrated systems for real-time monitoring of handling workflows, such as sensor networks detecting anomalies in temperature, vibration, or inventory discrepancies, further preempt errors by alerting operators to deviations from protocols.^[120] These technologies, deployed in over 80% of major surface operations by 2025, exemplify a shift toward automated oversight that curtails human-error dominance in accident causation.^[121]

Health, Toxicity, and Environmental Effects

Workers handling nitroglycerin-based explosives frequently experience acute headaches, vertigo, and concentration difficulties due to its vasodilatory properties, with symptoms onset shortly after exposure during blasting operations.^[122] Higher exposures can lead to nausea, dizziness, tremors, and convulsions from systemic absorption.^[123] Detonation of common mining explosives like ammonium nitrate-fuel oil (ANFO) generates nitrogen oxides (NOx) gases, which cause respiratory tract irritation and, in confined or high-concentration scenarios, pulmonary effects upon inhalation.^[124] Chronic exposure risks primarily stem from nitrate residues rather than heavy metals in standard formulations, though certain detonators containing lead compounds contribute trace heavy metal contamination; long-term nitrate accumulation in water sources has been linked to methemoglobinemia in infants and potential thyroid disruptions, but occupational studies show tolerance development mitigating some effects.^[125] Heavy metal residues from explosives processing can exacerbate neurological and renal issues if bioaccumulated, though empirical data indicate lower incidence in regulated mining compared to other industrial heavy metal sources.^[126] Environmentally, undetonated explosives in mining blast holes leach nitrates into groundwater, with forensic studies confirming elevated NO3- concentrations up to several hundred mg/L near waste rock dumps from incomplete detonation.^[127] Bioremediation using autotrophic denitrifying bacteria effectively reduces these nitrates, achieving over 90% removal in pilot-scale mining wastewater treatments through microbial conversion to nitrogen gas.^[128] Blast emissions such as NOx and carbon monoxide are transient, dissipating within hours due to atmospheric dispersion in open-pit operations, contrasting with persistent particulate and greenhouse gas outputs from diesel-powered mining equipment alternatives.^[129] Post-blasting land reclamation in mining yields net ecological benefits, as empirical revegetation studies demonstrate biodiversity recovery with species richness increasing 2-3 fold in sites aged over 10 years, facilitated by topsoil replacement and contouring that enhance habitat stability over initial disturbance.^[130] This recovery counters narratives of irreversible damage, with data from coal mine restorations showing vegetation cover exceeding 80% within 5-15 years, outperforming natural succession in degraded landscapes.^[131]

Controversies and Debates

Ethical Use in Warfare

The ethical debates surrounding the use of explosives in warfare center on balancing military necessity against the risk of civilian harm, with proponents emphasizing their role as force multipliers that enable rapid decisive operations and thereby reduce overall casualties compared to prolonged engagements reliant on infantry and small arms. In the 1991 Gulf War, coalition forces employed precision-guided munitions and standoff explosive delivery systems, resulting in approximately 292 military fatalities (148 American) while inflicting heavy losses on Iraqi forces estimated at 20,000–35,000, demonstrating how such weapons minimized friendly casualties through distance and accuracy, contributing to a swift 100-hour ground campaign that averted higher attrition rates seen in extended conflicts like World War II.^[132]^[133] Empirical analyses indicate that alternatives emphasizing small arms, such as close-quarters infantry assaults, historically yield higher total combatant and civilian deaths due to extended exposure times and less efficient neutralization of threats, as evidenced by casualty ratios in urban battles like Stalingrad where small arms dominated but prolonged fighting escalated losses beyond those from concentrated explosive barrages.^[134] Critics, however, highlight the inherent wide-area effects of many explosives, particularly in densely populated urban environments, where blast radii and fragmentation amplify collateral damage despite targeting precautions. Data from monitoring organizations show that between 2015 and 2024, explosive weapons accounted for over 112,000 reported deaths globally, with civilians comprising a disproportionate share—often exceeding 90% in urban incidents—due to factors like structural collapse and secondary fires not as prevalent with small arms.^[135] In ongoing debates over operations in Gaza since October 2023, humanitarian assessments have cited high civilian tolls from aerial and artillery explosives amid embedded militant positions, prompting scrutiny under international humanitarian law (IHL) despite arguments that urban embedding by non-state actors shifts baseline risks.^[136] These concerns underscore IHL's proportionality principle, which prohibits attacks where anticipated civilian harm exceeds the concrete military advantage, though critiques note its subjective application often favors attacker estimates and overlooks how banning high-yield explosives could prolong wars, increasing net casualties from sustained small-arms fire or sieges.^[137]^[138] Recent innovations, such as the September 2024 attacks on Hezbollah communication devices in Lebanon, illustrate asymmetric applications of explosives that prioritize targeted effects over broad blasts, killing at least 37 and injuring thousands but primarily affecting verified militant users through supply-chain integration. Legal analyses from military law experts contend these operations comply with IHL targeting rules if intelligence confirms combatant status and minimizes foreseeable civilian exposure, rejecting claims of inherent illegality or perfidy absent deception in uniform or surrender contexts, though opponents argue the method's unpredictability risks indiscriminate outcomes.^[139]^[140] Such cases highlight ongoing tensions between technological precision enabling ethical compliance and empirical challenges in verifying zero-collateral intent amid adversarial tactics like co-locating with civilians.^[141]

Civilian Impacts and Regulatory Overreach

The Beirut port explosion on August 4, 2020, exemplified the catastrophic civilian toll from regulatory lapses in explosive storage, where approximately 2,750 tons of ammonium nitrate, confiscated and warehoused without proper safeguards, detonated and killed 218 people, injured over 7,000 others, and caused damages exceeding $15 billion.^[142]^[143] This incident, attributed to negligence in oversight rather than inherent material volatility, underscored how under-regulation in contexts like ports or warehouses amplifies risks to proximate populations, with blast waves shattering structures up to 10 kilometers away.^[144] Civilian accidents involving commercial explosives, such as in mining or industrial settings, disproportionately affect developing nations due to inconsistent enforcement and inadequate training, with one analysis of blast injuries indicating higher incidence and fatality rates in regions like China compared to stricter regulatory frameworks elsewhere.^[145] In contrast, developed economies report fewer such events—U.S. Mine Safety and Health Administration data from 2010–2020 logged under 10 fatal blasting accidents annually across thousands of operations—owing to protocols mandating licensed handling, segregated storage, and distance buffers.^[111] Yet, these safeguards, while empirically effective in curbing misuse, have drawn criticism for overreach when expanded into blanket restrictions that encumber legitimate applications; for instance, post-incident ammonium nitrate controls in Europe and North America have raised fertilizer and blasting agent costs by 20–30% for miners, slowing extraction rates without proportional risk reductions in compliant operations.^[146] Debates over explosive access often pit public safety against industrial utility, with advocates for urban bans or possession limits arguing they prevent diversion to illicit ends, but empirical patterns favor targeted licensing over prohibitions: U.S. Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives records show licensed users account for negligible misuse relative to unlicensed thefts, suggesting overbroad curbs ignore causal factors like enforcement gaps while impeding mining output essential for infrastructure.^[146] In construction and demolition, similar tensions arise, as enhanced transport rules—requiring placarded vehicles and route approvals—enhance security against hijacking but delay projects by weeks, balancing terror prevention gains against economic drags estimated at millions in forgone productivity.^[147] Under-regulation invites Beirut-scale tragedies, yet reflexive tightening risks stifling sectors where data confirms safe, professional deployment yields net societal benefits.

Regulation

International Standards

The United Nations Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals (GHS) designates explosives as Hazard Class 1, with divisions 1.1 to 1.6 delineating risks from mass detonation (1.1) and projection/fire hazards (1.2–1.3) to minor blast effects (1.4), insensitive substances with mass explosion potential (1.5), and extremely insensitive articles posing minimal hazard (1.6); these categories standardize global hazard communication, packaging compatibility, and safety protocols to mitigate handling risks.^[148] Complementing GHS, the UN Model Regulations on the Transport of Dangerous Goods classify explosives similarly for multimodal shipment, influencing sector-specific codes like the International Maritime Dangerous Goods (IMDG) Code under the International Maritime Organization (IMO) and ICAO Technical Instructions for air cargo, which mandate segregation, quantity limits, and emergency response plans; these have demonstrably reduced transport incidents through stricter documentation and vessel/aircraft restrictions, though data indicate persistent undeclared shipments contribute to residual risks. In military contexts, the Arms Trade Treaty (ATT), ratified by 113 states as of 2023, prohibits exports of ammunition and explosive munitions where substantial risk of genocide, crimes against humanity, or serious violations of international humanitarian law exists, building on customary principles from the 1907 Hague Convention IV against indiscriminate destruction.^[149] Enforcement gaps persist due to non-universal adherence, including the United States' signature without ratification since 2013, prioritizing national security flexibility over binding export curbs, and Russia's non-participation; case studies underscore this, such as the 2015 Tianjin port explosions in China, where 800 tons of undeclared nitrocellulose ignited despite IMDG applicability, killing 173 and exposing weak verification in non-compliant jurisdictions.^[150] Similar lapses occurred in the 2020 Beirut ammonium nitrate detonation of 2,750 metric tons, violating UN storage guidelines under GHS/IMDG equivalents and causing over 200 deaths, as Lebanese authorities ignored international risk assessments for hazardous materials in urban ports. These incidents reveal causal failures in implementation—overreliance on self-declaration without third-party audits—undermining the treaties' deterrent effect absent robust verification mechanisms.^[151]

National Frameworks and Enforcement

In the United States, the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (ATF) administers federal explosives regulations under 27 CFR Part 555, mandating federal explosives licenses or permits for manufacturing, importation, distribution, and use of explosive materials, with requirements for secure storage, recordkeeping, and theft reporting to prevent diversion.^[152] These rules encompass high explosives, low explosives, and blasting agents like ammonium nitrate-fuel oil mixtures, with variances permitted for industrial applications such as mining to balance safety and operational efficiency.^[1] Following the April 19, 1995, Oklahoma City bombing—which killed 168 people using approximately 4,800 pounds of ANFO derived from legally purchased ammonium nitrate—Congress enacted enhanced precursor controls, including the 2007 Secure Handling of Ammonium Nitrate Act, requiring registration of buyers and sellers to track high-risk materials and mitigate terrorism risks without broadly restricting commercial availability.^[153]^[154] In the European Union, explosives frameworks integrate national implementations with harmonized chemical oversight via the REACH regulation (EC) No 1907/2006, which mandates registration, evaluation, and authorization of substances in explosive compositions, including data on hazards and safe handling to inform risk assessments for mining and demolition uses.^[155] Complementing this, Regulation (EU) 2019/1148 restricts sales of explosives precursors like ammonium nitrate and hydrogen peroxide above certain concentrations, requiring end-user declarations and reporting suspicious transactions to national authorities, aimed at curbing improvised explosive device production.^[156] National variations persist; for instance, the Netherlands enforces rigorous storage protocols under its Mining Regulation, specifying ventilated, fire-resistant magazines for explosive substances in extraction sites to minimize accident risks, contrasting with U.S. flexibility for on-site mining magazines approved via ATF inspections.^[157] Enforcement data indicate that compliance rates in regulated sectors correlate more strongly with economic resources for inspections and training than with regulatory ideology, as higher-GDP nations like the U.S. and Netherlands report fewer licensed-facility incidents per capita despite differing stringencies. In the United Kingdom, the Explosives Regulations 2014 impose separation distances, quantity limits, and licensing for civil explosives storage and use, which industry reports have delayed demolition timelines by requiring extensive pre-approval consultations, potentially elevating project costs without proportional reductions in misuse. Empirical assessments of such frameworks show they curb illegal diversions—ATF traces over 90% of recovered crime-gun explosives to licensed sources for further investigation—but overly prescriptive rules risk stifling innovation in applications like precision blasting, where U.S. permit variances have sustained mining productivity exceeding 1 billion tons annually.^[158]

Recent Advances

Switchable and Insensitive Explosives

Switchable explosives represent a class of energetic materials engineered to remain inert under normal conditions but activate detonation only upon exposure to specific external stimuli, such as fluid infiltration into a porous matrix. Researchers at Los Alamos National Laboratory developed this architecture in 2023, fabricating high explosives with highly porous structures that prevent shock initiation and propagation unless saturated with a liquid like water, which fills voids and enables tuned detonation performance.^[159] Laboratory tests confirmed that these fluid-activated materials withstand standard impact and shock stimuli without reacting, significantly mitigating risks of accidental detonation during storage and transport.^[160] This innovation addresses historical vulnerabilities, such as the 2020 Beirut ammonium nitrate explosion, by decoupling explosive potential from inherent material sensitivity.^[161] Insensitive explosives, designed to resist unintended initiation from heat, friction, or impact, have advanced through formulations prioritizing stability without sacrificing power. A 2025 study introduced sodium borohydride (NaBH4)-doped emulsion explosives, achieving detonation velocities up to 6,500 m/s and brisance comparable to traditional emulsions, while exhibiting reduced sensitivity to mechanical stimuli due to NaBH4's role in modifying decomposition kinetics.^[162] Thermal analysis via thermogravimetric-differential scanning calorimetry (TG-DSC) verified lower exothermic onset temperatures under controlled conditions, enabling safer handling; optimal NaBH4 concentrations (around 5-10%) balanced energy output with insensitivity, as drop-hammer tests showed no initiation below 20 J impact energy.^[163] These emulsions maintain phase stability for over 30 days, outperforming nitrate-based sensitizers in humidity resistance.^[164] In military applications, insensitive munitions (IM) standards mandate compliance with tests like slow cook-off, where qualified explosives limit responses to deflagration rather than high-order detonation, empirically reducing cook-off violence by factors of 5-10 in full-scale trials compared to pre-IM baselines.^[165] Post-2020 integrations into vehicle-launched systems, such as those using polymer-bound TATB variants, have demonstrated zero sympathetic detonations in fragment impact scenarios, enhancing survivability during fires or attacks.^[166] These advances, validated through standardized MIL-STD-2105 protocols, prioritize causal separation of stimuli from reaction, allowing high-energy payloads in transport without elevated blast risks.^[167]

Detection and Mitigation Technologies

Portable Raman spectrometers have advanced significantly for on-site explosive detection, enabling identification of trace residues from common high explosives like RDX and PETN without direct contact. Devices introduced between 2023 and 2025 achieve detection limits in the parts-per-million range under field conditions, with false positive rates below 5% when calibrated against known interferents such as common soils and organics, as verified in forensic evaluations of handheld units.^[168] ^[169] These systems leverage deep ultraviolet resonance enhancements for improved selectivity over visible-light variants, reducing operator exposure during initial threat assessment in urban or post-blast scenarios.^[168] Stand-off detection technologies, particularly drone-mounted sensors, mitigate risks to explosive ordnance disposal (EOD) teams by enabling remote unexploded ordnance (UXO) surveys over contaminated sites. Magnetometer-equipped unmanned aerial systems (UAS), such as those deployed in 2023-2024 demining operations, map magnetic anomalies indicative of buried UXO with resolutions up to 0.1 nT, covering areas at rates 10 times faster than ground-based methods while maintaining false alarm rates under 10% in ferrous-heavy environments.^[170] ^[171] Complementary LiDAR and ground-penetrating radar payloads on platforms like the Skyfront Perimeter 8 further refine targeting by distinguishing UXO signatures from clutter, as demonstrated in hazard mapping exercises that reduced EOD personnel deployment needs by up to 70%.^[172] ^[173] In both civilian and military applications, AI-driven algorithms integrate multi-sensor data to accelerate threat neutralization, with field trials showing response time reductions of 20-40% through automated anomaly classification and prioritization. At the 2025 EOD Technology and Bombing Prevention Summit, presentations highlighted deep learning models trained on simulated and real UXO datasets that achieve over 95% accuracy in real-time identification, minimizing human error in high-stakes counter-IED operations.^[174] ^[175] Multi-agent systems further enable autonomous coordination between detection drones and disposal robots, as prototyped in 2024-2025 exercises, prioritizing empirical performance metrics like detection speed over unverified secondary impacts.^[176] ^[177]

Classification and Examples

By Sensitivity and Velocity

Explosives are classified by sensitivity to initiation stimuli such as impact, friction, heat, or shock, which determines their role in explosive trains: primary explosives exhibit high sensitivity and are used to initiate secondary or tertiary explosives via detonators; secondary explosives possess moderate sensitivity requiring a strong shock wave for reliable detonation; and tertiary explosives, often termed blasting agents, display low sensitivity and necessitate a booster for initiation.^[178]^[179] Primary explosives, such as fulminates, transition rapidly from deflagration to detonation under minimal stimuli, with impact sensitivities often below 5 J in drop-hammer tests, enabling their function as primers despite small quantities.^[180] Secondary explosives, typically incorporating nitro groups, withstand handling but detonate upon receiving a high-order shock, with sensitivities measured in the 5-50 J range.^[24] Tertiary explosives require confinement and a powerful booster to achieve detonation, exhibiting sensitivities exceeding 50 J, which enhances safety in bulk applications but limits direct initiation.^[26] Independently, explosives are differentiated by reaction velocity: low-velocity explosives, or propellants, propagate via deflagration at subsonic speeds below 1000 m/s, producing sustained pressure rather than a shock wave.^[23] High-velocity explosives detonate supersonically above 3000 m/s, generating intense shock fronts suitable for demolition and fragmentation.^[7] This velocity threshold distinguishes low explosives, which burn progressively, from high explosives that decompose nearly instantaneously.^[181] Boosters serve as hybrid intermediaries, often secondary explosives with tuned sensitivity and velocity to reliably transmit detonation from a primary initiator to insensitive tertiary charges, achieving velocities intermediate between detonators (6000-8000 m/s) and main charges while bridging sensitivity gaps.^[182]^[183]

Common Compounds and Mixtures

Trinitrotoluene (TNT), chemically 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene with formula C₇H₅N₃O₆, serves as a standard high explosive due to its stability and castability, melting at 80.1°C to facilitate mixing without detonation risk under normal conditions.^[184]^[54] Its detonation velocity reaches approximately 6,900 m/s in confined settings, contributing to its benchmark role in explosive equivalence measurements.^[23] RDX, or cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine (C₃H₆N₆O₆), is a nitramine compound valued for higher energy output than TNT, synthesized via nitration of hexamine and used in detonators and boosters despite toxicity concerns from inhalation or ingestion.^[185]^[186] Common mixtures include Composition B, comprising roughly 60% RDX, 39% TNT, and 1% wax desensitizer, which enhances castability and performance over pure components for artillery shells and bombs.^[187] Semtex, a plastic explosive, blends RDX or PETN (pentaerythritol tetranitrate, C₅H₈N₄O₁₂) with plasticizers like polyisobutylene and styrene-butadiene rubber, yielding moldable formulations for demolition with variable ratios tuned for sensitivity.^[188] Elemental beryllium contributes high detonation velocities in thermobaric mixtures—exceeding 8,000 m/s in optimized tests—but its extreme toxicity, causing berylliosis via airborne particles, limits practical use to specialized research.^[189]^[190] Plutonium-239, a fissile isotope with half-life of 24,110 years, powers nuclear explosives through supercritical fission assembly, requiring about 10 kg for yield-equivalent devices distinct from chemical detonation.^[191]^[192]

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High-Speed Magnetic Surveying for Unexploded Ordnance Using ...
Feb 25, 2022 · Using Uncrewed Aerial vehicles (UAVs) to rapidly scan areas for potential unexploded ordnance (UXO) can provide an efficiency increase while minimizing ...Missing: detectors | Show results with:detectors
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UXO, IED and Land Mine Detection Drones - Skyfront
The Skyfront Perimeter 8 UAS is designed specifically for UXO detection and de-mining. ... RADAR-based sensors for maintaining a fixed height above ground level.
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Harnessing Drone Technology for UXO Detection
Nov 4, 2024 · Our drone fleet is equipped with cutting-edge sensors and tools, enabling us to detect, map, and analyse potential UXO hazards hidden beneath the surface.
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AI's Revolutionary Role in Explosive Ordnance Disposal - LinkedIn
Jan 10, 2025 · Greater Public Safety: Reduced response times and accurate threat assessments minimize risk exposure for both operators and civilians.
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(PDF) Multi-agent system and AI for Explosive Ordnance Disposal
Mar 17, 2024 · To achieve this, the system uses AI-machine learning techniques, including deep learning, to train on simulated and real datasets from various ...
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EOD Tech Summit
2025 EOD Technology & Bombing Prevention Summit. December 2-4, 2025. Gaylord National Resort & Convention Center National Harbor, Maryland. Join us at the ...Missing: detection | Show results with:detection
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[PDF] EOD Technology & Bombing Prevention Summit
The Summit will feature more than 50 industry partners showcasing current and emerging technologies that directly support EOD, HazMat, and counter-IED ...
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Explosive - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
One simple method is to separate explosives into three groups: (1) primary explosives, (2) secondary explosives, and (3) tertiary explosives. 8.2.1 Primary ...
[180]
[PDF] 1 Classification of Explosives - Wiley-VCH
6 strength, which is the lowest strength detonator commercially made. • Booster-sensitive explosives (blasting agent): This type of explosive is detonated only.
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Green primaries: Environmentally friendly energetic complexes - PMC
Primary explosives are used in small quantities to generate a detonation wave when subjected to a flame, heat, impact, electric spark, or friction.
[182]
[PDF] TYPE E HIGH EXPLOSIVES - Natural Resources Canada
3 - special-application explosives (high explosives used for other applications, including primary explosives). ... the Authorization and Classification of ...
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Full article: Detonation Reaction Characteristics and Shock Initiation ...
Jul 10, 2025 · The booster explosive bridges the detonator to the main charge, playing a significant role in energy transmission and amplification in ...
[184]
Detonators, Boosters, and Explosives
The detonation velocity of booster charge with density of 1.518g•cm-3 ... Abstract: In order to obtain high-performance, low-sensitivity booster explosive ...
[185]
2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene | C7H5N3O6 | CID 8376 - PubChem
TNT (trinitrotoluene) may begin a vigorous reaction that culminates in a detonation if mixed with reducing agents, including hydrides, sulfides and nitrides.
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Cyclonite | C3H6N6O6 | CID 8490 - PubChem - NIH
RDX stands for Royal Demolition eXplosive. It is also known as cyclonite or hexogen. The chemical name for RDX is 1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine.
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[PDF] Toxicological Profile for RDX
Pure RDX is a highly explosive compound that can be initiated by impact, temperature, and friction (Akhavan 2004; Boileau et al. 2009; HSDB 2009). RDX is toxic ...
[188]
Melt-Castable Formulations Containing DAAF as Replacements for ...
Composition B (Comp-B) is a melt-castable explosive formulation incorporating TriNitroToluene (TNT) and 1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5,7-triazacyclooctane (RDX).
[189]
Enhancing the explosive characteristics of a Semtex explosive by ...
Sem-BC+RDX has higher detonation velocity, detonation properties and explosive strength than Semtex 1H. Addition of BCHMX in Semtex 1H as a replacement for PETN ...
[190]
Energy and blast performance of beryllium in a model thermobaric ...
Experimentally determined calorimetric measurements of the heat of detonation, along with the overpressure histories in an explosion chamber filled with ...
[191]
[PDF] Toxicological Profile for Beryllium
The ATSDR toxicological profile succinctly characterizes the toxicologic and adverse health effects information for these toxic substances described therein ...
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Plutonium - World Nuclear Association
Aug 16, 2023 · It takes about 10 kilograms of nearly pure Pu-239 to make a bomb (though the Nagasaki bomb in 1945 used less). Producing this requires 30 ...Plutonium and nuclear power · Plutonium-238 · Resources of plutonium
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Radionuclide Basics: Plutonium | US EPA
Feb 6, 2025 · Plutonium-239 is used to make nuclear weapons. Plutonium-239 and Pu-240 are byproducts of nuclear reactor operations and nuclear bomb explosions ...