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Multiplan

Multiplan was a pioneering spreadsheet application developed by Microsoft, released in 1982 as a direct competitor to the dominant VisiCalc program.^[1] Initially codenamed "EP" for "Electronic Paper," it was designed as a versatile electronic worksheet for handling numbers, words, and formulas on a grid, enabling users to build and manipulate data much like paper-based ledgers.^[2] Developed under the leadership of Charles Simonyi, with key contributions from Douglas Klunder and Richard Brodie, Multiplan utilized Microsoft's proprietary p-code C compiler to ensure portability across diverse hardware.^[2] It debuted on CP/M systems and was quickly ported to numerous platforms, including MS-DOS, Apple II, TRS-80 models (such as the Model II and Model 100), Commodore 64, TI-99/4A, Xenix, and even the Apple Macintosh in 1984, where it leveraged the system's graphical interface for a more intuitive, paper-like experience.^[1]^[2]^[3] Key features included variable-width columns, automatic recalculation of formulas, and support for complex data manipulation, positioning it as a "second-generation" spreadsheet tool aimed at personal productivity.^[2] By 1985, Multiplan had achieved significant commercial success, selling over one million copies and establishing Microsoft as a major player in business software.^[2] However, on MS-DOS and IBM PC-compatible systems, Multiplan struggled against the faster and more optimized Lotus 1-2-3, released in 1983, due to issues like slow screen updates and full-sheet recalculations that hindered performance on emerging 16-bit architectures.^[4]^[2] This competition prompted Microsoft to develop its successor, Excel, first released in 1985 for the Macintosh, which addressed Multiplan's shortcomings by emphasizing graphical user interfaces and improved speed, ultimately leading to Multiplan's phase-out by the late 1980s.^[2]^[5]

Development

Origins and code name

Multiplan originated as Microsoft's strategic entry into the electronic spreadsheet market in the early 1980s, driven by the need to challenge VisiCalc's established position on CP/M-based systems.^[1] The project emphasized creating a spreadsheet that was both more portable across diverse hardware and easier for users to navigate, positioning it as a viable alternative in an emerging business software landscape.^[2] A key motivator was VisiCalc's technical constraints, particularly its implementation in platform-specific assembly language, which made porting to new systems like CP/M a laborious process requiring extensive rewrites.^[6] Early assessments within Microsoft highlighted these portability issues as a market gap, enabling the company to pursue a design that could adapt quickly to multiple operating environments without such overhead.^[2] The initiative was internally code-named "EP," an acronym for "Electronic Paper," underscoring its vision as a digital counterpart to manual paper worksheets for calculations and data organization.^[7] This name captured the software's foundational goal of replicating and enhancing the flexibility of physical ledgers in a computational format.^[8]

Development team and process

Under the direction of Charles Simonyi, head of Microsoft's application software group, Multiplan's development was spearheaded by Doug Klunder, an MIT graduate recruited by Microsoft in 1981, who acted as the primary architect and authored much of the program's core code.^[9]^[10] Klunder's work built on Microsoft's early application engineering efforts, focusing on creating a robust spreadsheet capable of competing with established tools like VisiCalc.^[11] Other Microsoft engineers played key roles in the project, particularly in adapting the spreadsheet's logic for cross-platform compatibility; notable among them was Richard Brodie, who developed the proprietary p-code C compiler that underpinned Multiplan's architecture.^[12] This p-code system, a form of interpreted pseudo-code, enabled efficient execution and simplified porting to diverse environments without extensive rewrites.^[7] The development process prioritized portability from the start, with initial prototyping targeted at the CP/M operating system to leverage its prevalence on 8-bit microcomputers.^[2] By employing the p-code interpreter for early builds, the team achieved quick iterations and adaptations across hardware, allowing Multiplan to support multiple operating systems like CP/M, MS-DOS, and Xenix shortly after its inception.^[12] This approach, under the project's code name "EP," emphasized efficient resource use and formula recalculation reliability during testing phases.^[13]

Features

Cell addressing system

Multiplan introduced the R1C1 cell addressing system, a numeric-based notation that identifies cells by their row (R) and column (C) numbers, such as R1C1 for the top-left cell in the spreadsheet grid.^[14] This approach differed from VisiCalc's A1 system, which used alphabetic column labels combined with numeric rows, making Multiplan's method more aligned with mathematical coordinate systems.^[7] In R1C1 notation, absolute references specify fixed positions without brackets, like R3C14 for row 3, column 14, remaining unchanged when formulas are copied to other cells.^[14] Relative references, denoted with brackets to indicate offsets from the current cell, allow dynamic adjustment during copying; for example, R^[15]C refers to the cell one row below in the same column, while R[-1]C points to the row immediately above.^[14] This bracketing enables formulas to adapt seamlessly across ranges, such as entering R[+1]C during editing to reference the cell below the active one.^[14] The R1C1 system's relative referencing promoted mathematical consistency by treating cell relationships as offsets rather than fixed labels, reducing errors when replicating formulas in large spreadsheets.^[14] For instance, the formula =(R[-1]C + R^[15]C)/2 in a given cell calculates the average of the values in the adjacent rows above and below, automatically adjusting positions when copied to other rows for consistent vertical computations.^[14] This design enhanced scalability and clarity in complex worksheets, facilitating automated recalculations and efficient handling of iterative or expansive models.^[14]

Core functionalities and built-in tools

Multiplan operates as a grid-based electronic worksheet, consisting of up to 63 columns labeled A through CA and 255 rows numbered 1 through 255, allowing users to enter and manipulate data within this expansive structure.^[14] Each cell supports three primary entry types: numeric values such as integers or decimals (e.g., 100 or 19.95), text strings, entered using the Alpha command or enclosed in quotes (e.g., "January" or "sales"), and formulas that perform calculations based on other cells, with automatic recalculation triggered upon data changes to ensure real-time updates across dependent entries.^[14] This recalculation can be toggled to manual mode if needed, providing flexibility for complex models while maintaining efficiency in standard use.^[14] The program includes a suite of built-in functions to facilitate data analysis and computation, invoked using the "@" prefix followed by the function name and arguments in R1C1 relative referencing notation.^[14] Mathematical and statistical functions cover essentials like @SUM for totaling ranges (e.g., @SUM(R1C1:R10C1) to sum values in column 1 from rows 1 to 10) and @AVERAGE for computing means over specified cells.^[14] Logical operations are handled by @IF, which evaluates conditions and returns values accordingly (e.g., @IF(R1C1>0,"Yes","No") to display "Yes" if the cell's value exceeds zero).^[14] Financial tools extend this capability with functions such as @NPV for net present value calculations (e.g., @NPV(rate,R2C1:R6C1) using a discount rate and cash flow range) and @IRR for determining internal rates of return on investment series, enabling users to model business scenarios without external software.^[14] Beyond core calculations, Multiplan integrates practical tools for data organization and presentation. Sorting functionality allows users to reorder rows alphabetically or numerically by a selected column in ascending or descending order, streamlining tasks like inventory management.^[14] Data import and export are supported through text-based file formats via commands like Transfer Load and Save, or External Copy, permitting integration with other applications by reading or writing delimited files.^[14] For visualization, basic graphing is achieved through printed output, where users can format cells with asterisks (*) or the REPT function to generate simple bar charts representing trends, such as profit distributions, directly on paper reports.^[14]

Portability and technical implementation

Multiplan was engineered for broad portability across diverse hardware architectures, primarily through its implementation in C using a proprietary p-code compiler developed by Microsoft. This p-code system, which generated intermediate bytecode for runtime interpretation, allowed the core application to be recompiled and adapted to various platforms with minimal source code modifications, targeting both 8-bit and 16-bit computer systems such as those running CP/M, MS-DOS, and others.^[2]^[7]^[1] The program's modular structure further facilitated these ports by separating key components, including the user interface, calculation engine, and file handling routines, enabling developers to customize interfaces and I/O for non-standard systems without overhauling the underlying logic. This design choice, combined with the use of overlays to manage code segments, supported deployment on over 100 platforms, from the Apple II to the TRS-80 Model II, while maintaining compatibility with the core grid and function set.^[7]^[2] Porting to resource-constrained 8-bit and 16-bit environments presented performance challenges, particularly slow execution due to automatic recalculation on every keystroke and character-by-character screen updates, which strained limited memory and processing capabilities. These issues were addressed through the p-code interpreter's efficiency and overlay-based memory management, which loaded only necessary modules into RAM, optimizing allocation for handling large worksheets up to 255 rows and 63 columns without excessive fragmentation or crashes on systems with as little as 48 KB of memory.^[2]

Release history and platforms

Initial release and early versions

Multiplan was first publicly released in 1982 for systems running the CP/M operating system, positioning Microsoft as a direct competitor to the market-leading VisiCalc spreadsheet.^[16] The initial version 1.0 emphasized core spreadsheet functionalities, including data entry for text and numbers, formula creation with relative and absolute references, built-in functions such as SUM, AVERAGE, and financial tools like NPV, and support for worksheets up to 255 rows by 63 columns, all designed to facilitate basic business and personal data analysis on resource-constrained 8-bit machines.^[14] Ports to popular platforms like the Apple II and TRS-80 followed shortly thereafter, enabling broader accessibility within months of the CP/M launch.^[2]^[17] Early updates, such as version 1.1, addressed performance issues including recalculation delays on low-memory systems, incorporating minor enhancements to improve efficiency without major functional overhauls.^[18] A key differentiator at launch was its adoption of the R1C1 cell addressing system for more programmatic referencing.^[7]

Subsequent updates and version timeline

Following its initial releases, Microsoft issued version 1.11 of Multiplan for the Macintosh in 1984, which was optimized to leverage the platform's graphical user interface and included improved printing options for better output formatting and control.^[19]^[20] In 1985, Multiplan version 2.0 was released for MS-DOS, introducing enhanced file compatibility to support interchange with other spreadsheet formats and faster loading times through optimized code execution.^[21]^[22] Later versions included 3.0 in 1987 for MS-DOS and 4.0 in 1989, which were among the final updates before development shifted toward Excel.^[23]^[24]

Supported hardware platforms

Multiplan was initially developed for the CP/M operating system, targeting a wide range of early microcomputers that supported this standard, such as the Altair 8800 derivatives and various S-100 bus systems.^[1] As Microsoft's first portable spreadsheet, it quickly expanded to other prominent platforms, including MS-DOS on IBM PC compatibles like the IBM PC, Compaq Portable, and Zenith Z-100; the Apple II series; the TRS-80 line from Radio Shack, including the Model II and Model III; the Commodore 64; and the Texas Instruments TI-99/4A.^[17] UNIX variants were also supported, notably through ports to Microsoft's Xenix, SCO Xenix, and the AT&T UNIX PC (Model 7300).^[25] Among niche adaptations, Multiplan ran on the Australian Microbee computer via CP/M-80, often distributed on 5.25-inch diskettes for educational and business use in that market.^[26] It was ported to Classic Mac OS for the original Macintosh 128K and later models, as well as to CTOS on systems like the Burroughs B-20 series, enabling text-based spreadsheet operations on these less common architectures.^[17] Other specialized ports included the DEC Rainbow 100 and NEC APC under MS-DOS variants, with some distributions available via cartridge for embedded or hobbyist systems.^[17] Adaptations generally required a minimum of 64 KB of RAM, though 8-bit platforms like the Apple II, Commodore 64, and TI-99/4A were constrained to smaller worksheet sizes—up to 255 rows by 63 columns—due to hardware limitations.^[17] This portability was facilitated by Microsoft's p-code interpreter, which allowed recompilation for diverse instruction sets without full rewrites.^[1]

Market reception and competition

Critical reviews and user feedback

In a 1984 review published in Ahoy! magazine, Microsoft Multiplan received praise for its exceptional documentation and user-friendliness, particularly when compared to VisiCalc. The manual was described as "excellent, with a well-written [structure] that includes a tutorial and reference section," making the program accessible to novices and professionals alike. Reviewers highlighted its intuitive interface and straightforward commands, noting that features like English-like formulas (e.g., "PRICE + TAX = TOTAL") simplified operations and allowed for quick spreadsheet creation and editing. Multiplan was positioned as a superior alternative to VisiCalc, offering greater flexibility through advanced capabilities such as split-screen viewing, relative copying, and spreadsheet linking, which provided a more modern approach to data management.^[27] User feedback from the 1980s often emphasized Multiplan's strong portability as a key advantage, with the software adapted to approximately 100 platforms via a p-code compiler system, enabling consistent functionality across diverse 8-bit and 16-bit environments like CP/M, Apple II, and TRS-80 systems. This cross-platform compatibility facilitated data sharing through formats like SYLK, allowing users to transfer files between versions and even into later tools such as Excel. However, criticisms frequently targeted slower performance on non-DOS systems, such as the TRS-80 Model 4, where a 1984 80 Micro review described it as "no speed demon" due to automatic recalculations, overlay loading, and character-by-character screen updates that necessitated frequent full redraws. Users mitigated these issues with hardware upgrades like speed-up boards, but the delays remained a notable drawback for complex models on resource-constrained hardware.^[2]

Competition dynamics

Multiplan emerged as a direct rival to VisiCalc, the pioneering spreadsheet that dominated the Apple II market in the early 1980s through its intuitive A1 cell addressing system and role in popularizing electronic spreadsheets for business use.^[6] Introduced in 1982 amid VisiCalc's peak, Multiplan differentiated itself by adopting the R1C1 addressing notation, where cells are referenced by row and column numbers to enable more straightforward relative referencing in formulas, contrasting VisiCalc's letter-number A1 format.^[7] This system aimed to improve formula portability across worksheets, though it faced user resistance due to familiarity with VisiCalc's approach.^[7] To counter VisiCalc's platform-specific dominance on the Apple II, Multiplan prioritized cross-platform portability, launching initially on CP/M systems and expanding to Apple DOS, MS-DOS, and others, allowing broader accessibility beyond Apple hardware.^[28] The competitive landscape shifted dramatically with the release of Lotus 1-2-3 in January 1983, optimized for MS-DOS on IBM PCs, which rapidly displaced Multiplan in that key market segment.^[29] Lotus 1-2-3 integrated advanced graphing tools, a robust macro language for automation, and database management features, surpassing Multiplan's more basic charting and lacking native macro support at the time.^[6] These enhancements appealed to business users seeking integrated analysis capabilities, positioning Lotus as a more comprehensive productivity suite compared to Multiplan's standalone spreadsheet focus.^[28] In the ensuing market share battles, Multiplan leveraged its multi-OS compatibility to sustain adoption on diverse hardware like CP/M machines and early Macs, where it offered a graphical interface ahead of some rivals.^[28] However, on the burgeoning IBM PC platform, it ceded ground to Lotus 1-2-3 due to the latter's superior execution speed—achieved through x86 assembly code versus Multiplan's slower interpreted design—and a more intuitive user interface that better suited DOS environments.^[30] By 1984, Lotus 1-2-3 had captured dominant market share, outselling Multiplan and VisiCalc combined in the PC segment and establishing itself as the industry standard through the mid-1980s.^[6]

Legacy

Transition to Excel

Microsoft Excel emerged as the successor to Multiplan, debuting on the Apple Macintosh in 1985 with significant enhancements that built upon its predecessor's foundation.^[31] While Multiplan relied on a text-based interface, Excel introduced a graphical user interface (GUI) that leveraged the Macintosh's mouse-driven capabilities, making spreadsheet interaction more intuitive and addressing Multiplan's limitations in user accessibility.^[30] Excel incorporated Multiplan's R1C1 reference style as an optional addressing mode, allowing users to reference cells by row and column numbers (e.g., R1C1 for the top-left cell), which complemented the default A1 style borrowed from earlier competitors like VisiCalc.^[30]^[32] The transition marked a gradual phase-out of Multiplan, which Microsoft continued to support until 1989, particularly on MS-DOS platforms where it ranked second in market share in 1988 and fifth in 1989. The final version, Multiplan 4.2, was released in 1989 for MS-DOS.^[16]^[33] Excel's 1987 release for Microsoft Windows fully supplanted Multiplan on personal computers, capitalizing on the growing adoption of Windows and providing a unified spreadsheet solution across platforms.^[16] This shift allowed Microsoft to consolidate its efforts, as Excel's Windows version offered improved performance and integration tailored to the emerging graphical operating environment. Excel built upon Multiplan's innovations and calculation logic, updating them to support mouse-driven operations and GUI elements while enhancing formula evaluation and data processing.^[30] Under the leadership of developer Charles Simonyi, who had overseen Multiplan's creation, Excel evolved these components to enhance portability and efficiency, paving the way for its dominance in the spreadsheet market.^[30]

Sales figures and long-term impact

By September 1985, Microsoft had sold 1,000,000 copies of Multiplan worldwide, marking a significant achievement that placed its sales on par with those of VisiCalc, the pioneering spreadsheet software.^[2] This success was particularly pronounced in the CP/M operating system market and the early days of MS-DOS, where Multiplan captured a substantial share among business users seeking portable data analysis tools across diverse hardware platforms.^[2] Despite this initial momentum, Multiplan's sales plateaued in the late 1980s amid fierce competition from Lotus 1-2-3, which dominated the U.S. market and limited further growth.^[4] Nonetheless, the product's commercial performance solidified Microsoft's entry into the productivity software sector, positioning the company as a key player in end-user applications and paving the way for subsequent innovations.^[2] Multiplan's enduring influence is evident in its technical contributions, notably the introduction of the R1C1 cell reference notation, which enhanced formula portability by using relative row and column offsets rather than fixed letter-number designations.^[34] This system, originating from Multiplan's 1982 release, was retained as an optional feature in Microsoft Excel, allowing users to maintain consistent referencing across varying worksheet dimensions and influencing modern spreadsheet standards for cross-platform compatibility.^[34]

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