Polynices
Polynices (Ancient Greek: Πολυνείκης, romanized: Polyneíkēs, meaning "manifold strife" or "much quarrelling") is a prominent figure in Greek mythology, depicted as the elder son of Oedipus, king of Thebes, and his mother Jocasta, and thus the brother of Eteocles, Antigone, and Ismene.[1] Exiled from Thebes after his younger brother Eteocles usurped the throne they were meant to share alternately, Polynices allies with Argos, marries the daughter of King Adrastus, and leads the Seven Champions against Thebes in a doomed bid to reclaim his birthright, culminating in a fatal duel with Eteocles at the city's seventh gate.[2] His death, fulfilling Oedipus' curse on his sons, sparks further tragedy, as Creon denies him burial rites, branding him a traitor for attacking his homeland, which prompts his sister Antigone's defiant act of interment and her own demise.[3] In the mythic cycle centered on the cursed House of Laius, Polynices embodies themes of fraternal rivalry, exile, and the inexorable pull of fate. Following Oedipus' self-blinding and abdication after discovering his incestuous patricide, the brothers' pact to rule Thebes in alternating years dissolves when Eteocles refuses to relinquish power, driving Polynices into banishment.[4] From Argos, Polynices amasses an army including renowned warriors like Tydeus, Capaneus, and Amphiaraus, launching the assault immortalized in Aeschylus' tragedy Seven Against Thebes (467 BCE), where he is portrayed as a determined yet hubristic invader whose shield emblazoned with the figure of Justice ironically underscores his disputed claim.[2] The siege fails, but Polynices and Eteocles slay each other in single combat, their mutual bloodshed averting Thebes' total destruction while perpetuating the family's doom.[5] Sophocles explores Polynices' legacy in his Theban plays. In Antigone (c. 441 BCE), his unburied corpse becomes the focal point of moral conflict: Creon decrees it rot as punishment for Polynices' "treacherous" assault aimed at incinerating Thebes, yet Antigone insists on honoring him as kin, prioritizing familial and divine duty over state law.[3] This act of piety versus state law drives the play's exploration of divine versus human authority. Later, in Oedipus at Colonus (406 BCE, posthumously produced), a humbled Polynices, now an exile with an Argive army, seeks his blind father's blessing at Colonus near Athens to bolster his campaign against Eteocles. Oedipus, embittered by his sons' abandonment during his own exile, rejects him harshly, cursing both brothers to die by each other's hand and prophesying their intertwined ruin.[1] Beyond these canonical tragedies, Polynices appears in epic traditions like the Thebaid (a lost epic cycle) and later works, symbolizing strife within the Theban royal line that traces back to Cadmus' founding curse. His story underscores Greek dramatic preoccupations with hybris (overweening pride), familial bonds, and the inescapability of inherited doom, influencing subsequent literature from Statius' Roman Thebaid to modern adaptations.[6]Family Background
Parentage and Birth
Polynices was the elder son of Oedipus, king of Thebes, and his wife Jocasta, born as part of the royal Labdacid dynasty in the city of Thebes. In variant mythological traditions, particularly those recorded by Homer, Jocasta is referred to as Epikaste, but Sophocles consistently names her Jocasta as the mother of Oedipus' children, including Polynices. In some accounts, the mother is Euryganeia, daughter of Hyperphas.[7] This parentage placed Polynices at the heart of Thebes' ruling lineage, descended from Cadmus through Labdacus and Laius. The circumstances of Polynices' birth were inextricably linked to the inadvertent incestuous union of his parents, which occurred after Oedipus solved the Sphinx's riddle and was rewarded with the throne of Thebes and marriage to the widowed Jocasta, unaware that she was his mother. This resolution of the riddle, posed by the Sphinx to terrorize the city, lifted the immediate curse on Thebes and elevated Oedipus to kingship, leading directly to the birth of Polynices and his siblings through this unwitting familial transgression. The union's tragic irony was only revealed later, but it formed the foundational element of the family's doomed heritage. The etymology of Polynices' name, derived from the Greek roots poly- ("many" or "manifold") and neikos ("strife" or "quarrel"), translates to "manifold strife" or "much quarrelling," a designation that prophetically underscored his destined role in perpetuating familial discord within the Theban royal house. This speaking name, common in Greek mythology to highlight character fates, appears in Aeschylus' Seven Against Thebes and is analyzed in scholarly examinations of the play's thematic naming conventions. The Labdacid dynasty's history was shadowed by an ancestral curse originating with Laius, Oedipus' father, whose abduction and violation of Pelops' son Chrysippus provoked a prophetic doom on his line, manifesting in cycles of violence and ill-fated procreation that extended to the birth of Polynices and his generation. This inherited fault, rooted in excessive dynastic expansion and moral transgression, imbued Polynices' origins with inevitable tragedy without yet invoking the specific familial curses that would unfold later.Siblings and Early Relations
Polynices was the eldest son of Oedipus and Jocasta, with three full siblings: his younger brother Eteocles and two sisters, Antigone and Ismene.[7] In the royal household of Thebes under Oedipus's rule, the siblings shared a privileged upbringing in the Labdacid palace, where familial bonds were initially unmarred by the revelations that would later fracture them.[8] As the elder son, Polynices was positioned as the presumptive heir to the Theban throne before the family's downfall, reflecting traditional Mycenaean succession practices in mythic narratives.[9] Early interactions among the siblings, as depicted in ancient accounts, emphasized their close kinship ties, with Antigone emerging as a particularly loyal figure to her brothers, while Ismene displayed a more reserved demeanor within the household dynamics.[9] Prior to the disruptive curse originating from Oedipus's exile, the brothers Polynices and Eteocles are portrayed in sources like Aeschylus's Seven Against Thebes as having agreed to alternate rule over Thebes, suggesting an initial cooperative relation forged in their shared royal youth.[9] This pact underscores the pre-conflict harmony in their sibling relationship, rooted in the stability of the Theban court.The Theban Succession Conflict
Oedipus's Curse
In the aftermath of Oedipus's self-blinding upon discovering his incestuous marriage to his mother Jocasta and the patricide of his father Laius, he pronounces a curse on his sons Eteocles and Polynices for their failure to support him during his exile from Thebes. This event, depicted in Sophocles' Oedipus at Colonus, occurs as Oedipus wanders as a beggar, neglected by his sons who prioritized political power over familial duty. The curse arises from their refusal to aid him, contrasting sharply with the loyalty of his daughters Antigone and Ismene.[10] In epic traditions like the Thebais, the curse is pronounced earlier, upon Oedipus's initial exile from Thebes, for his sons' disrespect: first for serving him from a forbidden cup associated with Cadmus, and second for their unequal sharing of rule—emphasizing their ingratitude but aligning with the core prophecy of fraternal slaughter.[11] In Sophocles' play, the curse is delivered directly to Polynices in the sacred grove of Colonus, after the brothers' initial pact to alternate rule has been broken and Polynices exiled, where the humbled prince seeks his father's blessing for a military campaign against Thebes. In a moment of prophetic fury, Oedipus declares: "Never to win by arms thy native land, / No, nor return to Argos in the Vale, / But by a kinsman’s hand to die and slay / Him who expelled thee," invoking the Furies, Tartarus, and the gods to ensure mutual destruction between the brothers over the throne.[10] In Sophocles' timeline, Oedipus has already arrived at Colonus and received protection from Athens' king Theseus by the time of the curse, with the succession conflict already underway. This arrangement of alternating rule had initially been honored after Oedipus's abdication but dissolved into betrayal, fulfilling the curse's foundational tension. Thematically, Oedipus's curse functions as an instrument of divine retribution within the Theban cycle, perpetuating the ancestral guilt originating from Laius's sin of abducting the youth Chrysippus, which invoked Apollo's wrath on the Labdacid house. Scholars interpret it as embodying nemesis—the inescapable justice of the gods—where human failings amplify generational doom, transforming personal neglect into cosmic inevitability without altering fate's course.[12][13]Quarrel with Eteocles
Following the exile of their father Oedipus, Eteocles and Polynices initially agreed to allow their uncle Creon to serve as regent of Thebes to avert the fulfillment of Oedipus's curse that they would divide their inheritance "with iron."[14] Once they reached maturity, the brothers made a pact to share rule by alternating yearly terms, swearing an oath by the gods to uphold it; accounts vary on the order, with some stating Eteocles would rule first while Polynices voluntarily exiled himself for one year before assuming the throne.[9][15] Eteocles duly assumed power at the end of Creon's regency but, upon the completion of his year, refused to relinquish the throne, citing his superior claim and the support of the Theban nobility; he then expelled Polynices from the city, breaking the sworn agreement and seizing sole control.[16][9] This betrayal directly enacted the curse's prophecy of mutual destruction, as the brothers' division of power turned to violent rivalry.[15] Driven from Thebes, Polynices sought refuge in Argos, where he gained the protection of King Adrastus; his marriage to Adrastus's daughter Argia not only secured personal asylum but also advanced political ambitions, forging ties that would enable Polynices to rally support against his brother.[9][16] The union was strategically motivated, as Adrastus's realm offered military resources to challenge Theban dominance, positioning Polynices as a key ally in regional power dynamics.[15] In Euripides' Phoenician Women, the quarrel escalates through failed diplomacy, with Jocasta attempting to mediate between the brothers on the battlefield; Eteocles accuses Polynices of tyranny in demanding his share, while Polynices retorts that Eteocles's greed violated their oath, highlighting the intrigue of false promises and unheeded pleas for reconciliation.[15] This variant emphasizes the personal betrayal and rhetorical clashes that deepened the rift, underscoring how Eteocles's ambition overrode familial and divine bonds.[15]The War for Thebes
Exile and Alliances
Following his expulsion from Thebes by his brother Eteocles, who refused to honor their agreement to alternate rule, Polynices fled into exile and sought refuge in Argos. There, he encountered King Adrastus, who provided him hospitality after intervening in a quarrel between Polynices and the exiled Tydeus outside the city gates.[7] Adrastus, guided by a prophetic dream foretelling the arrival of a lion and a boar, interpreted the armed exiles as fulfilling this omen and welcomed them warmly.[17] To secure his support, Adrastus arranged the marriage of his elder daughter, Argia, to Polynices, while Tydeus wed the younger daughter, Deipyle; this union positioned Polynices as a potential heir to the Argive throne and solidified Adrastus's commitment to restoring him to Thebes.[7] The wedding, though lavish, was overshadowed by ill omens, including the gift of Harmonia's cursed necklace to Argia, foreshadowing tragedy.[17] Through this alliance, Polynices gained access to Argos's military resources, transforming his personal grievance into a broader campaign backed by a powerful kingdom.[18] With Adrastus's aid, Polynices recruited a coalition of champions to lead the expedition against Thebes, forming the famed Seven. Key allies included Tydeus, driven by his own exile from Calydon and loyalty to Polynices; Capaneus, a boastful warrior motivated by glory and disdain for divine interference; Eteoclus, an Argive noble; Hippomedon, a strong fighter; Parthenopaeus, a young Arcadian hunter; and Amphiaraus, the reluctant seer compelled by an oath extracted through deceit, foreseeing his own doom yet bound by honor.[7] The group—the seven champions Amphiaraus, Capaneus, Eteoclus, Hippomedon, Parthenopaeus, Polynices, and Tydeus—swore a solemn oath before Ares, Enyo, and Phobos to either sack Thebes or perish in the attempt, placing symbolic tokens on Adrastus's chariot as pledges.[9] These motivations blended personal ambition, familial ties, and martial vows, uniting disparate exiles and Argive nobles under Polynices's cause.[7] Before resorting to arms, Polynices pursued diplomatic channels to reclaim his throne peacefully. He dispatched Tydeus as an ambassador to Thebes, demanding that Eteocles relinquish power in accordance with their original pact.[17] Eteocles not only rejected the overture but ambushed Tydeus on his return, an act that escalated tensions and justified the impending war in the eyes of the Argives.[7] Throughout his exile, Polynices endured profound psychological torment, brooding incessantly on his lost kingship and the slow passage of time that prolonged his displacement.[19] In Statius's depiction, he wanders in anguish, tormented by flickering hopes of vengeance and visions of his brother's downfall, his mind a storm of rage, grief, and unquenched desire for home.[19] This inner suffering, compounded by perilous journeys and the weight of Oedipus's curse, fueled his resolve but eroded his spirit, portraying him as a figure caught between ambition and despair.[20]The Seven Champions and Siege
The expedition against Thebes, led by Polynices following his exile and alliances with Argive forces, culminated in the famed assault known as the Seven Against Thebes. This campaign involved seven renowned champions, each commanding a contingent of the Argive army, targeting the city's seven gates in a strategic siege designed to overwhelm its defenses. The composition of these champions—Polynices, Tydeus, Capaneus, Eteoclus, Hippomedon, Parthenopaeus, and Amphiaraus—reflected Polynices' recruitment efforts in Argos and beyond, emphasizing martial prowess and symbolic opposition to Theban rule.[21] As the Argive host advanced toward Thebes, scouts reported the dust clouds and clamor of their approach, signaling an imminent and ferocious assault. The army encamped outside the walls, with the champions positioning themselves at specific gates to maximize psychological and tactical pressure. This initial phase of the siege was marked by heralds and inscribed shields bearing boasts that amplified the attackers' resolve, while divine omens underscored the perilous stakes. In Aeschylus' account, the scout's vivid descriptions heighten the drama, portraying the Argives as a tempest poised to engulf the city.[21] The Seven Gates of Thebes formed the focal point of the conflict, with each champion assigned to one as follows:| Gate | Champion | Shield Device and Boast |
|---|---|---|
| Proetid | Tydeus | Starry night sky with full moon; eager for battle, invoking nocturnal assault. |
| Electran | Capaneus | A man bearing fire with a blazing torch; vows to burn the city, defying even Zeus himself. |
| Neistan | Eteoclus | Armed warrior scaling a wall; proclaims unyielding advance and victory. |
| Ogygian (near Onca Athena) | Hippomedon | Typhon spewing fire; rages for the fray, threatening utter destruction. |
| Northern (at Amphion's tomb) | Parthenopaeus | Sphinx devouring Theban youth; aims to raze the gates and fortifications. |
| Homoloid | Amphiaraus | No device (blank shield); reluctant seer who rebukes the expedition's folly. |
| Seventh (Hypsistis or Proetid variant) | Polynices | Justice (Dikē) leading a warrior home; prays to reclaim his paternal inheritance. |