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Oath

An oath is a solemn appeal to a deity, sacred relic, or revered authority as witness to the truth of a statement or the binding force of a promise or commitment.^[1]^[2] The term originates from Old English āþ, referring to a judicial swearing or formal invocation in support of veracity or obligation.^[1] Oaths derive much of their efficacy from the implied or explicit penalty of divine retribution for falsity or breach, a mechanism rooted in ancient Germanic and common law traditions that emphasized personal honor and supernatural accountability.^[3]^[4] Historically, oaths have structured legal testimony, official appointments, and alliances by compelling adherence through fear of perjury or moral failing, evolving from religious compulsions in colonial legislatures—where they often required professions of faith—to secular affirmations in contemporary governance.^[5]^[6] In judicial contexts, an oath affirms the duty to provide truthful evidence, with violations punishable as felonies that undermine systemic trust in testimony.^[7]^[4] Defining variants include promissory oaths for future conduct, such as those binding public officials to constitutional duties, and assertory oaths verifying past or present facts, both of which prioritize empirical verification over subjective intent.^[4] While modern alternatives like affirmations accommodate non-religious individuals, oaths retain cultural and legal potency by leveraging causal incentives—divine, reputational, or penal—to align declarations with reality rather than expediency.^[5]^[6]

Definition and Core Concepts

Definition

An oath is a solemn, formal pledge by which an individual commits to the truthfulness of a statement or the fulfillment of a duty, typically invoking a deity, supreme being, or sacred entity as a witness to enforce accountability.^[8]^[2] This invocation serves to bind the swearer causally to potential consequences for violation, such as divine retribution or legal penalties like perjury.^[9]^[10] The core elements include a declarative statement—often oral—coupled with an appeal to a higher authority, distinguishing it from casual promises by emphasizing supernatural or moral enforcement.^[11] In contrast to an affirmation, which is a secular declaration relying solely on the individual's personal honor and lacking any reference to a divine witness, an oath presupposes a belief in transcendent oversight to guarantee fidelity.^[12]^[10] Affirmations achieve equivalent legal weight in contexts like testimony or notarization but accommodate those who object to religious elements on principled grounds.^[13] Oaths persist in modern legal systems for instilling trust in proceedings, such as courtroom testimony where they compel truthful disclosure under penalty of prosecution, assumption of public office to affirm dutiful conduct, and ceremonial rites that underpin social and institutional contracts.^[14]^[15] This enduring role underscores their function in mitigating information asymmetry and enforcing reciprocity in human interactions.^[4]

Etymology

The English word oath derives from Old English āþ, denoting "judicial swearing" or "solemn appeal to a deity in witness of truth or promise," attested before 1150.^[16]^[1] This form stems from Proto-Germanic aiþaz, a term for "oath" shared across Germanic languages, as seen in Old High German eid and Old Frisian ēth.^[1]^[2] Proto-Germanic aiþaz reconstructs to Proto-Indo-European h₁óytos, signifying an "oath," likely derived from the o-grade of h₁ey- ("to go"), evoking rituals where participants symbolically traversed a path—such as between halved sacrificial animals—to bind themselves under divine sanction, with perjury implying a fatal "journey."^[1] This root underscores the term's ancient connotation of compulsion, where the oath traced an irrevocable course enforced by supernatural authority, distinct from but parallel to non-cognate Indo-European terms like Latin ius iurandum (oath as sworn right) or Greek horkos (oath, personified as a punitive spirit).^[17] Semantically, the concept evolved from prehistoric tribal vows sworn on sacred objects or relics—invoking existential peril for breach—to formalized judicial instruments by the early medieval period, as in Anglo-Saxon legal codes where oaths substituted or supplemented evidence.^[1]^[2] This shift reflected growing institutional reliance on verbal bindings as proxies for truth, retaining the core idea of a divinely patrolled trajectory from promise to fulfillment.

Philosophical and Religious Foundations

Invocation of Divine Authority

The invocation of divine authority constitutes the core mechanism by which oaths historically derived their binding force, as the swearer explicitly calls upon a deity or deities to serve as witness and enforcer, forging a perceived causal chain linking false testimony or oath-breaking to supernatural penalties such as curses, misfortune, or eternal damnation.^[18] This appeal exploits the belief in gods' omnipresence and omniscience, rendering violations subject to inescapable retribution beyond human oversight or evasion, unlike secular promises reliant on fallible social or legal sanctions.^[19] In causal terms, the dread of such transcendent consequences—viewed as automatic and unverifiable by mortals—elevated oaths above mere verbal assurances, instilling a psychological deterrent rooted in existential fear rather than contingent detection.^[18] Philosophically, this practice aligns human commitments with a cosmic order governed by divine justice, as articulated by Thomas Aquinas in the Summa Theologica (II-II, q. 89), where oaths are classified as acts of the virtue of religion, invoking God's name to affirm truth and thereby subordinating personal will to eternal law.^[20] Aquinas posits that such invocation not only confirms assertions through appeal to infallible divine knowledge but also honors God by treating the oath as a form of worship, essential for credible testimony in communal affairs.^[20] This framework underscores oaths' role in bridging finite human frailty with absolute veracity, positing divine attestation as indispensable for trust in pre-modern contexts lacking empirical verification tools. Empirically, the rationale's potency is reflected in the enduring reliance on divine oaths across ancient legal systems, where their integration into codes like Hammurabi's (c. 1754–1750 BCE) for resolving disputes via sworn declarations before gods implies an assumption of efficacy through retributive fear, as breaches invited both ritual curses and presumed godly intervention absent modern surveillance.^[18] While pre-secular records lack modern perjury metrics, the oaths' centrality in judicial processes—contrasted with rarer secular alternatives—suggests they curbed deceit more effectively by leveraging widespread supernatural beliefs, a dynamic later eroded by secularization and skepticism toward divine enforcement.^[18]

Secular Alternatives and Affirmations

Secular affirmations serve as non-religious substitutes for oaths, involving a solemn verbal commitment to truthfulness grounded exclusively in the individual's personal honor and conscience, without reference to any deity or supernatural entity.^[12] In legal proceedings, affirmations are treated as equivalent to oaths in binding force, allowing nonbelievers or those objecting to religious elements—such as Quakers historically—to participate without religious conformity.^[21] This accommodation aligns with constitutional principles, including Article VI of the U.S. Constitution, which bars religious tests for federal officeholders, extending implicitly to testimonial practices under federal rules permitting affirmations for witnesses. Such provisions emerged prominently in the late 17th century through advocacy by religious dissenters in England and later in the American colonies, but proliferated post-Enlightenment to foster pluralism in increasingly diverse societies.^[22] Despite legal parity, affirmations lack the supernatural deterrence inherent in traditional oaths, potentially diminishing their psychological efficacy in constraining deception. Experimental evidence supports this distinction: a 2024 laboratory study on incentivized eyewitness testimony demonstrated that participants administered a solemn oath were significantly less likely to engage in deception compared to controls without such a commitment, attributing the effect to heightened moral costs beyond mere reminders of truthfulness.^[23] Broader psychological research corroborates that honesty oaths—particularly those evoking solemn pledges—reduce dishonesty by 25-50% in controlled settings, as they amplify internalized norms against lying more effectively than secular attestations alone.^[24]^[25] From a causal perspective, the removal of perceived divine oversight weakens the preemptive threat of otherworldly punishment, relying instead on variable personal integrity, which empirical data suggests yields higher baseline deception rates absent reinforcing beliefs.^[26] The post-Enlightenment expansion of affirmations reflected rationalist efforts to secularize governance and mitigate religious coercion, yet this shift has prompted critiques of eroded testimonial reliability in pluralistic systems. While perjury convictions remain punishable equivalently under both formats—with federal statutes like 18 U.S.C. § 1621 applying uniform penalties—observational data on real-world lying under affirmation versus oath is scarce, complicating direct comparisons.^[27] Nonetheless, the reliance on subjective conscience in affirmations underscores a foundational trade-off: enhanced inclusivity at the potential cost of diminished universal deterrence, as evidenced by lab-induced environments where oath-like commitments outperform neutral pledges in upholding veracity.^[28] This dynamic highlights ongoing tensions between legal formalism and the empirical realities of human motivation in truth-telling.

Historical Development

Ancient Near Eastern and Jewish Traditions

In ancient Mesopotamia, oaths functioned as a primary mechanism for resolving legal disputes lacking witnesses or tangible evidence, relying on the swearer's invocation of divine oversight to compel truthfulness. The procedure emphasized self-enforcement, where parties swore by major deities such as Shamash, the god of justice, with the expectation that perjury would trigger supernatural retribution, thereby deterring falsehoods and ensuring case finality.^[29]^[30] The Code of Hammurabi, issued circa 1750 BCE by Babylonian king Hammurabi, codified this approach in evidentiary proceedings. For instance, in disputes over property or contracts without corroboration, the implicated party swore an oath before the gods to affirm innocence or liability; failure or falsity invoked penalties mirroring the disputed offense, as stipulated in sections addressing false testimony, such as Article 4, which imposed the case's punishment on perjurers regarding claims of grain or silver. This system extended to ratifying agreements, where breaches risked godly wrath, underscoring oaths' role in upholding contractual integrity amid limited institutional enforcement.^[31] In Jewish traditions, as recorded in the Hebrew Bible, oaths underpinned covenants and judicial processes, framing commitments as binding under Yahweh's direct witness and potential curse for violation. The Abrahamic covenant in Genesis 15 illustrates a foundational example: Yahweh promised Abram (later Abraham) numerous descendants and land, ratifying it unilaterally by passing between ritually divided animal carcasses—a symbolic self-imprecation signifying divine commitment, without requiring Abraham's reciprocal oath, thus emphasizing unilateral divine fidelity over mutual swearing.^[32]^[33] Judicial oaths mandated truth in testimony and disputes, invoking Yahweh's omniscience to enforce veracity; Deuteronomy 6:13 explicitly instructs taking oaths solely in Yahweh's name to affirm loyalty and honesty in legal contexts. Perjury or false witness incurred retribution equivalent to the intended harm, as Deuteronomy 19:16-19 prescribes "life for life, eye for eye," treating deceit as a direct assault on communal justice. These mechanisms, embedded in covenantal frameworks, bolstered tribal solidarity by associating oath-breaking with collective divine curses, fostering trust through shared fear of supernatural and social consequences rather than mere human penalties.^[34]^[35]

Greco-Roman Traditions

In ancient Greek society, oaths (horkoi) functioned as solemn declarations placed under the guarantee of superhuman powers, such as Zeus, who enforced fidelity through potential punishment for perjury, often personified by the daimon Horkos, a punitive spirit companion to the goddess Dike (Justice).^[17]^[36] Horkos, depicted as the offspring of Eris (Strife), embodied the dire consequences of oath-breaking, manifesting as inescapable retribution that could afflict even future generations.^[37] These oaths permeated civic and judicial life, including the solemn vows sworn by Athenian jurors (dikasts) to decide cases impartially based on evidence and law, thereby stabilizing democratic processes and oratory where speakers invoked divine oversight to bolster claims of truth.^[38] A prominent example is the Hippocratic Oath, composed around 400 BCE and attributed to the physician Hippocrates or his school on Kos, which bound medical practitioners to ethical standards by invoking Apollo as the primary healer (iatros), alongside Asclepius, Hygeia, Panacea, and other healing deities as witnesses.^[39]^[40] This oath prescribed duties like beneficence, non-maleficence, and confidentiality, with divine sanction ensuring adherence amid the era's blend of medicine, philosophy, and religion.^[41] Roman oaths, termed ius iurandum for legal promises or sacramentum in military contexts, similarly invoked Jupiter as the supreme guarantor, rendering violators sacer—consecrated to the gods for punishment, often entailing death or exile.^[42] Codified elements of oath procedures appeared in the Twelve Tables (circa 451–450 BCE), Rome's earliest written laws, where they enforced contracts, testimony, and disputes with sacramental stakes to deter falsehood.^[43] The sacramentum militare, sworn by legionaries upon enlistment, pledged unwavering loyalty to commanders and the state, renewed annually, and underpinned military discipline across campaigns, with breaches invoking Jupiter's wrath.^[44] Through conquest, these practices spread, adapting to provincial customs while reinforcing imperial authority in diplomacy, governance, and alliances.^[42]

Other Ancient Traditions

In Vedic Hindu traditions, solemn commitments during rituals, as described in the Yajurveda composed circa 1200–900 BCE, invoked deities like Varuna to bind participants to truth and cosmic order (ṛta), with perjury risking divine retribution.^[45] These invocations formed the basis for oaths in sacrificial yajnas, where priests recited prose mantras to ensure ritual integrity and personal vows of fidelity to dharma.^[46] The Upanayana ceremony, a key rite of passage for twice-born castes originating in the Vedic period, required initiates to pledge brahmacharya (celibacy and study) to their guru, symbolizing lifelong ethical bindings reinforced by the sacred thread.^[47] Ancient Chinese political oaths drew from the Zhou dynasty's (1046–256 BCE) Mandate of Heaven doctrine, wherein rulers legitimized authority through heavenly approval, vowing ethical governance under threat of dynastic loss if mandates were violated.^[48] This tianming concept, articulated in texts like the Book of Documents, functioned as a cosmic oath, compelling emperors to uphold virtue or face rebellion as divine judgment.^[49] In pre-colonial African tribal societies, oaths sworn on fetishes (spiritual objects) or the earth enforced communal norms and dispute resolution, invoking ancestral or supernatural sanctions for truthfulness and social harmony.^[50] Among groups like the Igbo and Akan, such rituals, rooted in oral traditions predating written records, promoted justice by deterring falsehoods through feared spiritual consequences, maintaining group cohesion without centralized legal codes.^[51]

Medieval Christian and Islamic Developments

In medieval Christianity, oaths were systematized within canon law to reconcile biblical injunctions against casual swearing, such as Matthew 5:34-37, with their necessity in judicial and ecclesiastical contexts. Gratian's Decretum (c. 1140), a foundational compilation of canons, distinguished between voluntary oaths—discouraged as superfluous—and those mandated by law, such as in trials where evidence was inconclusive.^[52] This framework endorsed compurgation, whereby a defendant could prove innocence by swearing an oath supported by oaths from compurgators (typically 12 to 300, depending on the crime's severity), thereby shifting proof from witnesses to collective affirmation of character.^[53] Compurgation remained a primary evidentiary tool in church courts until the Fourth Lateran Council (1215) curtailed ordeals and emphasized rational proofs, though oaths persisted in canonical proceedings.^[53] Parallel to canon law, oaths underpinned feudal hierarchies in Christian Europe, where vassals performed homage—a ceremonial kneeling and hand-clasping with the lord—followed by an oath of fealty invoking fidelity under God. A standard formula, attested from the 11th century onward, ran: "I promise on my faith that I will in future be faithful to [the lord], and will observe my homage to him completely against all persons in good faith and without deceit." These oaths, often sworn on relics, the Gospels, or altars to bind the swearer spiritually, reinforced reciprocal obligations of military service, counsel, and protection amid decentralized lordship structures emerging post-9th century Carolingian fragmentation.^[54] In medieval Islam, oaths (yamin) were enshrined in Quranic injunctions and elaborated in sharia for legal testimony, contracts, and expiation of breaches. Surah Al-Ma'idah 5:89 prescribes kaffara (expiation) for unintentional oath-breaking: feeding ten poor persons average meals, clothing ten, freeing a slave, or fasting three days if unable to afford the former. This provision underscored oaths' gravity while offering redemption, contrasting stricter pre-Islamic Arabian customs. In judicial practice, codified by jurists like Abu Hanifa (d. 767) and al-Shafi'i (d. 820) whose works influenced medieval madhhabs, oaths supplemented incomplete testimony; a plaintiff could prevail by oath if witnesses were insufficient, or a defendant could rebut claims via decisive oath (yamin al-radd), prioritizing divine sanction over empirical proof in hudud and financial disputes.^[55] Such mechanisms adapted tribal honor codes to imperial caliphates, enforcing social order under ulema oversight. Oath practices intersected during the Crusades (1095–1291), where truces between Frankish forces and Muslim emirs frequently hinged on cross-confessional pledges, blending Christian fealty rites with Islamic aman (safe-conduct) guarantees. For instance, Saladin's 1187–1192 campaigns saw reciprocal oaths in armistices, such as the 1192 Jaffa truce with Richard I, where mutual swearing on holy texts or envoys ensured temporary halts amid sieges, reflecting pragmatic acknowledgment of each tradition's binding force despite theological divergences.^[56] These interactions, amid feudal levies and jihad mobilizations, highlighted oaths' role in stabilizing frontiers without fully merging legal systems.

Early Modern and Germanic Influences

In Germanic tribal societies, oaths formed a cornerstone of social and legal order, often sworn upon sacred rings or arm-rings to invoke supernatural enforcement against perjury. These rings, associated with gods like Odin in Norse traditions integrated into broader Germanic customs, symbolized enduring fidelity, as evidenced in sagas and epic poetry depicting rituals where oath-breakers faced divine retribution or communal ostracism.^[57] In the context of wergild—monetary compensation for offenses graded by rank, such as 8,000 shillings for a noble's life under Anglo-Saxon law—oaths bound parties to payment terms, with failure invoking sacral penalties akin to those in Beowulf, where loyalty pacts underscored by ring-giving reinforced tribal cohesion around the 6th century.^[58]^[59] Sacral kingship further embedded oaths in Germanic governance, positioning rulers as semi-divine mediators whose personal vows intertwined with the tribe's fate, fertility, and martial success. Kings performed priestly sacrifices and adjudicated disputes, implying inaugural commitments that echoed pagan cosmology, where the monarch's health mirrored communal prosperity—a tradition persisting into early medieval Europe despite Christian overlay.^[60] This sacral dimension elevated oaths beyond mere contracts, infusing them with cosmic stakes, as rulers' pledges to deities or assemblies legitimated authority in assemblies like the thing.^[61] During the Early Modern era, Renaissance humanism revived Greco-Roman oath forms while Germanic pagan residues lingered in ceremonial symbols, such as relic-kissing evoking ring-swearing, amid nation-state consolidation. The Protestant Reformation disrupted medieval papal oaths of fealty, which reformers like Luther deemed idolatrous extensions of Roman primacy, prompting secular alternatives prioritizing temporal sovereignty.^[62] In England, the 1606 Oath of Allegiance, enacted by Parliament on July 17 following the November 5, 1605, Gunpowder Plot, mandated subjects to affirm "true allegiance" to James I, explicitly abjuring any papal or foreign power to depose the king or absolve loyalty—a direct counter to Catholic deposing doctrines.^[63]^[64] This oath, administered to approximately 10,000 recusants by 1607, transitioned oaths toward state enforcement, retaining Germanic emphases on personal fidelity but subordinating divine appeals to royal prerogative.^[65]

Evolution into Modern Legal Practice

The codification of oaths in constitutional frameworks accelerated during the Enlightenment, embedding them as formal requirements for public officials while incorporating secular options to broaden applicability. In the United States, Article II, Section 1 of the Constitution, drafted in 1787 and ratified in 1788, prescribed the presidential oath as: "I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the Office of President of the United States, and will to the best of my Ability, preserve, protect and defend the Constitution of the United States," with the explicit allowance for affirmation accommodating non-religious individuals from the outset.^[66] This provision, first administered to George Washington on April 30, 1789, standardized executive commitment to constitutional fidelity without mandatory invocation of divinity.^[66] In Europe, the French Revolution exemplified oaths' adaptation to revolutionary secularism and state sovereignty. The Civil Constitution of the Clergy, enacted on July 12, 1790, compelled French priests to swear loyalty to the nation, the king, and the constitution, subordinating ecclesiastical authority to civil governance and prompting a schism where approximately half of the clergy complied, while refractors faced dismissal or exile.^[67] This measure reflected broader efforts to nationalize allegiances, diminishing papal influence amid dechristianization trends. By the 19th and 20th centuries, oaths integrated into international and reconstructive legal structures, emphasizing democratic loyalty over ideological extremes. Post-World War II denazification in West Germany culminated in the Basic Law of May 23, 1949, which mandated oaths of allegiance to the constitution for civil servants and officials, ensuring adherence to republican principles as a safeguard against authoritarian resurgence.^[68] Standardization persisted through secularization, with affirmations equated to oaths in jurisdictions like the U.S. and UK, preserving evidentiary weight without religious prerequisites.^[69] In the 21st century, particularly the 2020s, U.S. legal practice has seen renewed emphasis on oath reaffirmations to reinforce rule-of-law commitments amid institutional challenges. Law Day events on May 1, designated by Congress in 1961, featured collective oath renewals by attorneys; for example, in 2024, over 10,000 professionals nationwide reaffirmed vows to defend the Constitution, highlighting oaths' role in professional ethics and civic stability.^[70]^[71] These ceremonies underscore oaths' evolution into voluntary, secular rituals sustaining legal integrity.

Cultural and Ritual Practices

Verbal Forms

The verbal forms of oaths generally adhere to a tripartite structure: a promissory declaration of intent or truthfulness, an invocation of a witness (frequently divine or supernatural), and a penalty clause—either explicit or implied through the witness's anticipated retribution for falsehood. This formulaic pattern, observed across historical contexts from ancient assertory oaths to medieval loyalty pledges, reinforces the oath's binding force by ritualizing speech to deter perjury and affirm sincerity.^[72]^[73] In Anglo-American legal and official oaths, the phrase "so help me God" serves as a standard invocatory ending, appealing to divine aid while implying divine judgment if the oath is violated; it appears in codified forms like the U.S. House of Representatives' oath since at least 1789, with roots in English common law practices predating the American founding.^[5] Islamic oath formulas, by contrast, often incorporate "Wallahi" (I swear by Allah) or equivalents like "Billahi" to invoke Allah as witness to the promise, emphasizing tawhid (divine unity) and distinguishing binding oaths from non-committal expressions such as "Insha'Allah" (God willing), which denote aspiration without self-imprecation.^[74] To accommodate mass ceremonies, such as enlistments or inaugurations, verbal forms are frequently abbreviated into responsive or unison recitations led by an officiant, preserving core elements like the promise and witness while streamlining delivery for collective efficiency, as adapted in early American revolutionary oath administrations.^[75]

Hand Gestures and Symbols

In oath-taking ceremonies, the raised right hand serves as a gesture symbolizing invocation of divine witness and openness to supernatural judgment for falsehood, a practice rooted in ancient traditions where the extended hand represented vulnerability to heavenly retribution if the oath were broken.^[76] This posture underscores the gravity of the commitment, positioning the oath-taker as accountable not only to human authorities but to a higher power.^[77] The Schwurhand, prevalent in Germanic Europe, involves raising the right hand with the thumb, index, and middle fingers extended while folding the ring and pinky fingers into the palm, functioning as a standardized emblem of solemn affirmation during legal and official oaths.^[78] This configuration, often depicted in heraldry, reinforces verbal pledges through a visually distinctive non-verbal cue, historically tied to swearing fidelity or truth.^[79] In English courts, witnesses traditionally hold a Bible in the left hand while raising the right, a ritual that invokes scriptural authority to bind testimony, though alternatives like affirmation without religious texts are permitted since reforms allowing secular options.^[80] This practice persists in some proceedings, emphasizing tactile connection to sacred text as a deterrent against perjury.^[28] Among Serbs, the three-finger salute—extending the thumb, index, and middle fingers—accompanies oaths, symbolizing the Christian Holy Trinity and thereby linking the pledge to Orthodox doctrine for enhanced moral weight.^[81] Such gestures act as non-verbal ratifications, amplifying psychological commitment by externalizing intent and invoking cultural or religious sanctions, studies indicate that ritualistic elements like these in oaths can heighten perceived truthfulness and self-imposed accountability among participants.^[82]

Cross-Cultural Variations

In Native American traditions, particularly among Plains tribes like the Lakota and Blackfoot, ceremonial pipes, often filled with sacred tobacco, serve as instruments for solemn commitments and sealing agreements, where participants invoke spiritual powers during the ritual to bind their words as oaths.^[83]^[84] The act of sharing the pipe in council or treaty contexts symbolizes a covenant enforced by supernatural oversight, with the smoke carrying promises to the Creator and directions, ensuring adherence through cultural and spiritual accountability.^[85] Japanese Shinto practices incorporate vows directed to kami (deities or spirits) as integral to rituals affirming fidelity and intent, such as in wedding ceremonies where couples recite oaths before a sacred mirror or shrine altar, pledging mutual loyalty under divine witness.^[86] These invocations, often formalized in norito declarations, emphasize harmony (wa) and ancestral continuity, with the kami's presence presumed to enforce truthfulness via ritual purity and communal sanction rather than legal penalty.^[87] Across various African societies, including those in Sierra Leone, Liberia, and Madagascar, ordeal oaths employ ingested poisons like sasswood or tangena to verify truthfulness, where the swearer affirms innocence or veracity before consuming the substance, with survival interpreted as divine validation and death as proof of falsehood.^[88]^[89] In Efik traditions, the mbiam ordeal poison specifically targets false oaths, killing the perjurer through supernatural causation while sparing the truthful, a mechanism rooted in animistic beliefs that ties personal integrity to physical outcome.^[89] These practices underscore oaths' role in tribal justice, prioritizing empirical ordeal results over testimonial alone to foster trust in high-stakes disputes.^[90]

Types of Oaths

Oaths of Office and Allegiance

Oaths of office and allegiance require public officials to pledge fidelity to a nation's constitution, sovereign, or legal framework upon assuming roles in government. These oaths bind officials to execute duties impartially, prioritizing institutional integrity over personal or partisan interests. In the United States, federal officers swear to "support and defend the Constitution of the United States against all enemies, foreign and domestic," aiming to safeguard public trust against corruption or abuse of power.^[91]^[92] The presidential oath, specified in Article II, Section 1 of the U.S. Constitution, states: "I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the Office of President of the United States, and will to the best of my Ability, preserve, protect and defend the Constitution of the United States."^[66] This formulation, unaltered since 1789, underscores a commitment to constitutional limits rather than vague loyalty to individuals or policies, distinguishing it from earlier colonial oaths tied to monarchs.^[66] In Commonwealth nations, parliamentary oaths emphasize allegiance to the reigning monarch as head of state, serving as a proxy for upholding parliamentary sovereignty and rule of law. United Kingdom Members of Parliament recite: "I swear by Almighty God that I will be faithful and bear true allegiance to His Majesty King Charles, his heirs and successors, according to law. So help me God."^[93] Similar versions apply in countries like Canada and Australia, where MPs affirm loyalty to the Crown while implicitly supporting democratic institutions.^[94] These oaths, rooted in the Parliamentary Oaths Act of 1866, reinforce the separation of executive actions from monarchical influence, promoting governance fidelity.^[95] Such oaths function primarily to deter corruption by invoking moral and legal accountability, with violations potentially triggering impeachment, removal, or criminal penalties for related perjury. Historical enforcement has varied; for instance, U.S. impeachments often invoke oath breaches when officials engage in high crimes undermining constitutional duties, as seen in proceedings against presidents where actions contradicted sworn protections of the rule of law.^[92] Despite their symbolic weight, empirical adherence relies on institutional checks rather than the oath's invocation of divine or personal honor alone.^[96]

Judicial Oaths

In adversarial legal systems, such as those derived from English common law and prevalent in the United States, United Kingdom, and other Anglo-American jurisdictions, witnesses in court proceedings are required to take a judicial oath or affirmation before providing testimony, serving to underscore the witness's moral and legal duty to speak truthfully and thereby enhancing the evidentiary reliability of their statements.^[97] This practice establishes the foundational liability for perjury, where knowingly false testimony under oath constitutes a federal crime punishable by up to five years imprisonment and fines under 18 U.S.C. § 1621, which prohibits any person, having taken an oath before a competent tribunal, from willfully stating or subscribing as true any material matter they do not believe to be true.^[98] The oath's role is particularly pronounced in trial settings, where cross-examination by opposing counsel tests the veracity of sworn evidence, distinguishing it from preparatory statements not under oath. The standard formulation of the judicial oath in U.S. federal and many state courts invokes the phrase "Do you swear to tell the truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth, so help you God?", a tradition traceable to 16th-century English ecclesiastical courts but codified in modern rules like Federal Rule of Evidence 603, which mandates an oath or affirmation in a form calculated to awaken the witness's conscience to the duty of truthfulness.^[97] For witnesses who object to religious invocations, an affirmation substitutes "affirm" for "swear" and omits "so help you God," allowing nonbelievers or those without religious convictions to solemnly declare their commitment to veracity without invoking divine sanction, as explicitly permitted under federal and state procedures to accommodate diverse beliefs while preserving perjury exposure.^[99] This secular alternative maintains equivalent legal force, ensuring the oath's evidentiary purpose transcends theological prerequisites. In contrast, inquisitorial systems, characteristic of civil law traditions in countries like France, Germany, and Italy, place comparatively lighter ritual emphasis on witness oaths, as the presiding judge actively directs the inquiry into facts rather than relying on partisan advocacy to expose falsehoods.^[100] Witnesses may still affirm truthfulness prior to examination, but the process integrates testimony into a broader judicial investigation, with perjury penalties enforced through codes like France's Penal Code Article 434-13 rather than oaths serving as the primary bulwark against deceit, reflecting a systemic prioritization of comprehensive fact-finding over formalized witness pledges.^[101] This variance highlights how judicial oaths adapt to procedural paradigms, retaining punitive teeth in both but varying in ceremonial and structural weight.

Military and Fealty Oaths

Military oaths bind enlistees and officers to a nation's constitution or sovereign, emphasizing obedience to lawful orders and defense against threats, thereby enforcing discipline through legal and moral commitment. In the United States, the enlistment oath under 10 U.S.C. § 502 requires recruits to swear: "I, _____, do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will support and defend the Constitution of the United States against all enemies, foreign and domestic; that I will bear true faith and allegiance to the same; and that I will obey the orders of the President of the United States and the orders of the officers appointed over me, according to regulations and the Uniform Code of Military Justice. So help me God."^[102] This pledge prioritizes constitutional loyalty over personal or partisan allegiance, sustaining civilian control and hierarchical obedience within the armed forces.^[103] Such oaths establish a covenant of reciprocal duty, where service members accept authority in exchange for structured command, reducing desertion risks and ensuring operational cohesion.^[104] Fealty oaths in feudal systems similarly secured vassal loyalty to lords, promising military aid, counsel, and fidelity in return for land grants or protection, thus stabilizing hierarchical land tenure. During the ceremony of homage, the vassal knelt unarmed and bareheaded, placing his joined hands between the lord's to declare himself the lord's "man," followed by the fealty oath affirming lifelong service against all others.^[105] This ritual, rooted in 9th-10th century Carolingian practices, created enforceable bonds enforceable by excommunication or forfeiture, causal to the pyramid of mutual obligations that underpinned medieval warfare and governance.^[105] Unlike modern oaths tied to abstract constitutions, feudal fealty was intensely personal, yet both forms causally reinforced discipline by invoking solemn, witnessed vows that deterred betrayal through social and spiritual sanctions. In contemporary alliances like NATO, member states retain national military oaths aligned to collective defense commitments under Article 5, without a unified alliance pledge, preserving sovereignty while fostering interoperable loyalty to shared threats. For instance, oaths in NATO countries such as the U.S. or Germany emphasize national constitutions but implicitly support multinational operations, maintaining discipline across borders via standardized training and mutual recognition of ranks.^[106] These evolutions from feudal personalism to modern constitutionalism underscore oaths' enduring function in legitimizing authority gradients, where sworn fidelity causally minimizes internal discord and enables rapid mobilization.^[103]

Religious and Vows

Religious vows constitute solemn, spiritually binding commitments made directly to a divine authority, typically entailing lifelong dedication to asceticism, obedience, or ritual purity, enforceable through ecclesiastical or supernatural sanctions rather than civil courts. Unlike secular oaths, which invoke legal penalties for breach, religious vows emphasize personal transformation and fidelity to God, often involving renunciation of worldly attachments without provision for dissolution except by higher spiritual authority.^[107]^[108] In Christianity, monastic vows exemplify this tradition, particularly within Benedictine communities established by the Rule of Saint Benedict circa 530 CE. Benedictine monks profess three vows: stability, to remain perpetually in one monastery; conversatio morum, a commitment to monastic conversion of life including chastity and poverty; and obedience to the abbot and community. These vows bind the monk for life, fostering rootedness and communal endurance, with stability prohibiting transfer to another house absent exceptional dispensation.^[109]^[110]^[108] Islamic religious commitments include vows in the nikah marriage contract, where the bride and groom exchange verbal acceptances (ijab and qabul) before witnesses, pledging mutual rights, fidelity, and support under divine oversight, often invoking Quranic injunctions on spousal duties. These form a sacred covenant, breach of which invites spiritual accountability rather than mere contractual remedy. Hajj pilgrims, entering the state of ihram, implicitly vow adherence to ritual prohibitions—such as avoiding marital relations or adornments—through the talbiyah declaration, "Labbayk Allahumma labbayk," affirming total submission to God during the pilgrimage mandated once in a lifetime for the able.^[111]^[112] In Hinduism, sannyasa represents the culminating vow of renunciation, taken by ascetics entering the fourth life stage (ashrama), involving complete detachment from family, property, and ego to pursue moksha (liberation). The sannyasi pledges celibacy (brahmacharya), non-possessiveness (aparigraha), non-violence (ahimsa), truthfulness (satya), and contentment, adopting a mendicant life under a guru's initiation, with no legal mechanism for revocation—violation undermines spiritual progress toward union with the divine.^[113]^[114]

Legal Implications and Enforcement

Perjury and Penalties

Perjury constitutes the willful utterance of a false statement under oath or affirmation, made with knowledge of its falsity and concerning a material matter in an official proceeding.^[115]^[98] In the United States, federal law under 18 U.S.C. § 1621 classifies perjury as a felony punishable by up to five years' imprisonment, a fine, or both, applicable to statements made before legislative, administrative, or judicial bodies.^[98]^[116] State laws vary but often impose similar felony-level sanctions, such as third-degree felonies with prison terms of two to ten years depending on jurisdiction and severity.^[117] Historically, penalties for perjury in medieval Europe emphasized ecclesiastical and communal retribution over secular imprisonment. Church courts, which held primary jurisdiction over oath-breaking as a sin against divine law, imposed excommunication or public shaming, such as parading offenders with placards detailing their falsehoods during peak market hours.^[118]^[119] In severe cases tied to royal inquiries or high-stakes trials, punishments escalated to corporal penalties like whipping or, rarely, execution, reflecting the era's view of perjury as a profound betrayal of feudal and spiritual bonds.^[120] Enforcement of perjury laws remains infrequent despite their deterrent intent, with federal prosecutions ranging from approximately 250 to 645 annually in recent decades, often limited by evidentiary burdens like proving willful intent beyond reasonable doubt.^[121] This scarcity underscores challenges in detection and prosecution but does not negate the oaths' psychological impact; empirical studies demonstrate that solemn oaths reduce dishonest behavior, such as halving income under-reporting in tax compliance experiments by invoking internalized commitments to truthfulness.^[122]^[123]^[124] Meta-analyses confirm oaths' efficacy in curbing deception across contexts, attributing effects to enhanced self-monitoring and credibility concerns rather than mere fear of formal penalties.^[125]^[126]

Oaths in International Law

In international criminal tribunals, witnesses provide testimony under a solemn undertaking to speak the truth, as stipulated in Rule 66 of the International Criminal Court's Rules of Procedure and Evidence, which allows for either an oath or a non-religious declaration depending on the witness's preference.^[127] This mechanism aims to promote accountability for atrocities by ensuring truthful evidence in prosecutions, with the undertaking administered before testimony to underscore the gravity of false statements, though enforcement relies on subsequent perjury-like sanctions under Article 70 of the Rome Statute. Similarly, judges at the International Court of Justice make a solemn declaration of impartiality upon assuming office, per Article 20 of the ICJ Statute, binding them to faithful discharge of duties in resolving state disputes. Under international humanitarian law, oaths and promises feature indirectly through prohibitions on perfidy, defined in Article 37 of Additional Protocol I to the Geneva Conventions as acts inviting the enemy's confidence—such as feigning surrender or improper use of a flag of truce—to kill, injure, or capture, thereby undermining the reliability of sworn or implied pledges during hostilities. These rules, rooted in customary law and codified post-World War II, preserve the integrity of truces and protected statuses where oaths historically facilitated ceasefires, with violations constituting war crimes prosecutable by bodies like the ICC.^[128] The Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations (1961) does not mandate explicit oaths but implies fiduciary duties through requirements for diplomats to respect host state laws and refrain from activities incompatible with their functions, fostering mutual trust in interstate relations without personal swearing-in rituals.^[129] However, challenges arise with non-state actors, such as armed groups, which often evade oath-bound commitments due to lack of state-like accountability structures, complicating enforcement of international obligations like those in common Article 3 of the Geneva Conventions and enabling perfidious tactics without reciprocal adherence. This gap highlights limits in global accountability, as tribunals struggle to compel testimony or bind entities unbound by treaty ratification.^[130]

Efficacy and Psychological Effects

Empirical Evidence on Truth-Telling

Laboratory experiments have demonstrated that oaths can modestly increase truth-telling by reducing the incidence of lying. In a 2018 study published in Management Science, participants who voluntarily signed a solemn truth-telling oath exhibited significantly lower rates of deception compared to those who did not, with falsehoods reduced by up to 50% in scenarios involving moral or "loaded" contexts where lies carried ethical weight.^[131] Similarly, a 2021 laboratory experiment found that honesty oaths promoted more truthful responses in strategic decision-making tasks requiring quick judgments, though they did not diminish the magnitude of remaining lies among deceivers.^[132] Field and online studies corroborate these lab findings, indicating oaths curb dishonesty in applied settings. A 2021 analysis of crowd-sourced workers showed that oaths decreased both shirking and lying behaviors, with voluntary commitments to honesty proving more effective than implicit norms alone.^[133] A 2023 experiment further revealed that mandatory oaths reduced group-level lying when individual payoffs were independent, though effects were marginal under interdependent incentives, suggesting contextual limits to oath efficacy.^[134] Real-world judicial data on sworn versus unsworn testimony remains sparse due to challenges in detecting and prosecuting perjury, but historical legal analyses imply lower verifiable false statements under oath, as unsworn formats historically correlated with higher skepticism and reduced weight in proceedings. Efficacy appears tied to participants' internalization of the oath's commitment mechanism, such as heightened decision times and image concerns, rather than uniform deterrence across all individuals.^[25]^[135]

Criticisms of Oath Efficacy

Criticisms of oath efficacy center on empirical and psychological limitations, particularly the diminished impact of secular formulations compared to those invoking supernatural consequences. Controlled experiments reveal that while oaths can modestly reduce dishonesty in isolated settings—such as cutting under-reporting of income by half in tax compliance tasks—their real-world deterrent effect in courts appears constrained, as perjury prosecutions remain infrequent despite routine oath administration.^[123] Mock juror studies indicate a perceptual bias favoring witnesses who swear a religious oath, with such testimony deemed more credible than secular affirmations, yet this does not correlate with measurable declines in false testimony rates.^[136] Psychologically, habituation undermines oaths' potency; repeated exposure in legal rituals desensitizes participants, reducing the emotional weight and self-binding force that initially promotes truthfulness, akin to diminished responses to over-familiar stimuli in broader habituation research.^[137] For non-believers, secular affirmations yield comparable truth-telling outcomes to oaths in experimental contexts, implying the supernatural invocation—rooted in fear of divine retribution—drives superior efficacy among the faithful, as causal deterrence hinges on credible perceived consequences beyond mere legal penalties.^[28] Proposed alternatives like polygraph testing fail to demonstrate reliable superiority, with consensus in psychological science viewing polygraphs as pseudoscientific, prone to false positives and negatives without enhancing detection beyond interrogative methods alone.^[138] Incentive-based systems, such as rewards for verified truthfulness, remain theoretically appealing but empirically unproven to outperform oaths, lacking large-scale validation in judicial settings. These critiques highlight oaths' contextual vulnerabilities without negating their residual role in signaling commitment.

Controversies

Religious vs. Secular Oaths

Religious oaths typically invoke a divine entity as witness and potential punisher, such as swearing "so help me God" in judicial proceedings, thereby leveraging supernatural accountability to deter falsehoods.^[139] Secular affirmations, by contrast, omit divine references and rely solely on the individual's conscience and civil penalties for perjury, as standardized in many legal systems to accommodate nonbelievers.^[140] This distinction arises from efforts to balance truth-elicitation with inclusivity, yet empirical evidence suggests religious oaths exert stronger causal deterrence in populations with prevalent supernatural beliefs. Proponents of retaining divine elements argue that they enhance compliance by activating fear of otherworldly retribution, which human enforcement alone cannot replicate due to imperfect detection and punishment. Psychological experiments demonstrate that priming concepts of a watchful or punishing deity reduces cheating and increases prosocial behavior, as participants anticipate divine oversight beyond secular consequences.^[141] For instance, exposure to ideas of moralizing gods correlates with lower dishonesty in economic games, indicating a mechanism where belief in divine justice causally promotes honesty more effectively than secular pledges.^[142] Cross-cultural data further supports this, showing societies with traditions of punitive deities exhibit higher cooperation levels tied to such beliefs.^[143] Secular alternatives emerged to prevent exclusion, as seen in the UK's Oaths Act 1888, which permitted solemn affirmations equivalent to oaths for those objecting on religious grounds, extending access to atheists and nonconformists.^[144] In the United States, while affirmations are available without divine invocation, the default witness oath includes "so help me God," reflecting historical norms where religious phrasing predominates unless opted out.^[139] Critics of religious oaths cite potential bias, with studies finding jurors who swear religious oaths deem affirming defendants less credible, potentially skewing verdicts.^[28] However, such findings may reflect perceived sincerity rather than inefficacy, as oath-takers are often more religious and thus more bound by divine stakes.^[28] From a causal realism perspective, data favors divine invocation where supernatural beliefs are culturally embedded, as it adds a layer of deterrence unmitigated by secular skepticism; affirmations suffice in low-belief contexts but underperform empirically in binding diverse, faith-influenced populations.^[145] Mainstream accommodations prioritize inclusivity over maximal truth-seeking, yet undiluted evidence underscores religious oaths' edge in eliciting veracity through compounded accountability.^[146]

Loyalty Oaths and Political Compulsion

Loyalty oaths, requiring public employees or officials to affirm allegiance to the state or its constitution while disavowing subversive ideologies, emerged prominently in the United States during the early Cold War to safeguard institutions against communist infiltration. In 1947, President Harry Truman's Executive Order 9835 initiated a federal loyalty program, mandating investigations and oaths for over two million government workers to identify those deemed disloyal, resulting in dismissals of approximately 5,000 individuals by 1951 based on suspected sympathies rather than proven acts.^[147] These measures addressed genuine risks of subversion, as declassified documents later confirmed Soviet espionage networks had penetrated U.S. agencies, yet they often relied on vague criteria that invited abuse. State-level oaths intensified during the McCarthy era, with New York's Feinberg Law of 1949 requiring teachers to certify they were not members of organizations advocating overthrow of government by force, leading to dismissals for refusal or perceived associations. The U.S. Supreme Court initially upheld aspects of such programs in Adler v. Board of Education (1952), affirming that states could bar subversives from public employment without violating due process, as loyalty to constitutional government inherently limits advocacy of its violent overthrow. However, in Keyishian v. Board of Regents (1967), the Court struck down New York's expanded loyalty provisions as unconstitutionally vague and overbroad, ruling 5-4 that phrases like "treasonable or seditious" doctrines created a chilling effect on First Amendment rights by failing to distinguish protected speech from actual threats, thus invalidating oaths that penalized mere belief or affiliation absent clear intent to subvert.^[148] This decision underscored that while governments may demand oaths to ensure institutional fidelity, imprecise language risks suppressing dissent and eroding trust more than it protects it. In the military, enlistment oaths exemplify a narrower, constitutionally oriented compulsion that bolsters operational trust without excessive overreach. Under 10 U.S.C. § 502, recruits swear to "support and defend the Constitution of the United States against all enemies, foreign and domestic," and obey lawful orders from the President and officers, a pledge unchanged since 1960 that emphasizes allegiance to rule of law over personal loyalty. This requirement, administered to over 1.3 million active-duty personnel as of 2023, mitigates risks of internal betrayal, as evidenced by historical cases like the 1917 Espionage Act prosecutions of mutinous soldiers, yet courts have upheld it against free speech challenges by tying it to voluntary service and concrete duties rather than ideological purity tests.^[149] Such oaths maintain cohesion in high-stakes environments where subversion could cause causal harm, like operational failures, justifying compulsion grounded in first-principles of mutual reliance. Contemporary executive branch practices have revived debates over de facto loyalty compulsions, particularly through 2025 hiring reforms under Executive Order on Restoring Accountability, which prioritizes "policy-influencing" roles filled by those committed to administration directives consistent with their constitutional oath. Critics, including congressional Democrats, decry these as veiled loyalty tests akin to McCarthyism, citing OPM guidance prompting applicants to affirm willingness to implement specific policies, potentially sidelining merit for partisan alignment.^[150] ^[151] Yet, from a causal realist perspective, undefined resistance in civil service—exemplified by leaks and non-compliance during prior administrations—undermines executive function, as federal employees' oaths bind them to faithful execution under Article II, necessitating mechanisms to align personnel with elected mandates without vague ideological inquisitions. The core controversy pits First Amendment protections against imperatives for institutional integrity: oaths deter verifiable subversion, as Soviet-era threats demonstrated empirical validity in loyalty screening, but overbroad enforcement fosters conformity over inquiry, as academic dismissals in the 1950s showed reduced innovation without proportional security gains. Courts continue to demand precision, permitting oaths that target "clear and present danger" of unlawful overthrow while invalidating those infringing associational freedoms, balancing speech rights with realism about human incentives to defect under divided loyalties.^[152] Mainstream critiques often amplify free speech concerns amid institutional biases favoring expansive civil liberties interpretations, yet evidence from military efficacy—where oath-bound forces exhibit higher discipline metrics—affirms that targeted compulsion fosters trust essential to collective endeavors.^[153]

Modern Adaptations and Dilution

In the medical profession, adaptations to traditional oaths such as the Hippocratic Oath have incorporated commitments to social justice and equity, which some analyses contend dilute the original focus on patient welfare and empirical truth-seeking. For example, the University of Connecticut School of Medicine's 2022 revision mandates that graduates "actively support policies that promote social justice and specifically address discrimination and bias in health care delivery," a clause critics describe as introducing ideological obligations that could conflict with clinical neutrality.^[154] Similar modifications in other institutions prioritize combating perceived systemic inequities over the classical tenets of "do no harm" and individualized care, potentially subordinating evidence-based practice to normative agendas.^[155] These changes reflect broader pressures in academic medicine, where surveys indicate varying physician support for such expansions, though empirical assessments of their impact on care quality remain limited.^[156] Critiques highlight a perceived erosion of oaths' truth-focus, as multicultural and ideological expansions introduce subjective elements that challenge the universal applicability of ancient principles like non-maleficence. In diverse contexts, debates question the Hippocratic Oath's relevance, arguing its rigid prohibitions—such as against euthanasia or abortion—clash with contemporary ethical pluralism, yet adaptations risk weakening the binding force derived from clear, objective commitments.^[157] Professional codes in fields like psychology, influenced by 2020s social movements, have similarly emphasized anti-racism and equity in ethical guidelines, though without a formalized oath; this shift prompts concerns over therapists' impartiality, as mandates for "cultural humility" may prioritize group identities over individual client realities.^[158] Empirical research supports the efficacy of traditional oaths in promoting honesty, with experiments showing they reduce lying in economic decisions by influencing partial deceivers through non-monetary commitments to truth.^[124] In contrast, diluted forms lack comparable data validating enhanced outcomes, suggesting that added clauses may fragment the psychological solemnity that underpins oath-taking's deterrent effect.^[133] Proposals for modernization, including a 2019 UK review of legal oaths and affirmations, advocate procedural updates like digital formats but affirm the enduring value of core promissory elements without ideological accretions.^[159] This evidence favors retaining traditional structures to preserve causal links between oath solemnity and behavioral accountability.

Notable Oaths

Historical Examples

On June 20, 1789, delegates of the French Third Estate, barred from their assembly hall by royal order, convened in a nearby indoor tennis court and swore an oath not to disperse until they had established a constitution limiting monarchical power. This Serment du Jeu de paume unified the deputies, transforming them into the National Assembly and precipitating the abolition of feudalism and the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen later that year, thereby initiating the constitutional phase of the French Revolution.^[160] In the United States, Abraham Lincoln's second inauguration on March 4, 1865, involved the standard presidential oath amid the Civil War's final months, followed by an address invoking divine providence and urging reconstruction "with malice toward none, with charity for all." The oath and speech underscored a commitment to national unity over vengeance, influencing the Union's approach to reintegrating Confederate states despite Lincoln's assassination weeks later.^[161] The Nazi regime's consolidation after the Enabling Act of March 23, 1933, included mandating civil servants to swear personal loyalty to Adolf Hitler, supplanting prior oaths to the Weimar Constitution with pledges to "the leader of the German Reich and people." This shift, formalized in April 1934 for military personnel but extended broadly, eroded institutional independence and enabled totalitarian control by aligning state apparatus directly with Hitler's authority.^[162] A prominent breach occurred with Benedict Arnold, who signed an oath of allegiance to the thirteen united states on May 30, 1778, as a Continental Army general, yet in 1780 conspired to deliver West Point to British forces for £20,000 and a command. Exposed by the arrest of intermediary John André on September 23, 1780, Arnold's defection exemplified oath violation's strategic peril, galvanizing American resolve against internal betrayal during the Revolutionary War.^[163]

In Literature and Fiction

In William Shakespeare's Hamlet (c. 1600), Prince Hamlet swears an oath to his father's ghost in Act 1, Scene 5, vowing revenge for the king's murder and exacting secrecy from Horatio and Marcellus by invoking his sword as a sacred relic: "Swear by my sword." This binding pledge propels the tragedy, encumbering Hamlet with doubt and delay, as the oath's supernatural origin underscores its inexorable psychological and ethical weight in Elizabethan drama.^[164]^[165] Shakespeare's Macbeth (c. 1606) portrays the protagonist's regicidal commitment as an implicit vow forged in ambition, where Macbeth, after hearing the witches' prophecy in Act 1, Scene 3, resolves to murder King Duncan despite initial hesitation, a decision hardened by Lady Macbeth's manipulation into a pseudo-oath of manhood and power seizure. The vow's breach of feudal loyalty cascades into paranoia and usurpation, exemplifying how personal oaths, absent divine sanction, amplify human frailty and invite retributive chaos.^[166] J.R.R. Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings (1954–1955) eschews a formal oath for the Fellowship, with Elrond at the Council explicitly warning against binding vows to avert the doom seen in prior legendarium oaths, such as Fëanor's silmaril pledge that fueled kin-slayings and exile. Yet voluntary pledges, like Boromir's sworn duty to safeguard Frodo, falter under temptation, while the Oathbreakers' ancient curse to Isildur enforces spectral servitude until redemption, portraying oaths as potent forces with inherent causal power—honored ones yield alliance, broken ones doom—rooted in Tolkien's Anglo-Saxon influences on moral accountability.^[167]^[168] Harper Lee's To Kill a Mockingbird (1960) deploys oaths in the trial of Tom Robinson to probe truth amid prejudice, as witnesses like Mayella Ewell place a hovering hand on the Bible during affirmation, a gesture later ironic given proven perjuries, while Tom, disabled, takes the oath with his right hand alone, highlighting physical impossibility of the alleged crime and the oath's role in exposing systemic deceit. Atticus Finch invokes these rituals to demand veracity, yet the narrative's irony reveals oaths' fragility against racial bias, where sworn lies evade penalty, critiquing eroded trust in institutional safeguards.^[169] These narratives recurrently exploit broken oaths for dramatic irony, depicting violations as triggers for moral causality—personal ruin in Shakespeare, cosmic reckoning in Tolkien, societal fracture in Lee—thus affirming literature's portrayal of oaths as archetypal guarantors of order, whose rupture invites inexorable consequence reflective of enduring cultural axioms on pledged fidelity.^[170]

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Yajna | Rituals, Fire, Offerings - Britannica
Yajna, in Hinduism, offerings to the gods based on rites prescribed in the earliest scriptures of ancient India, the Vedas.
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Samskaras- UPANAYANA - Hinduism
Sep 17, 2013 · The sacred Upnayana ceremony that invests the wearer with the sacred Yajñopavītam is often considered a socially and spiritually significant rite.<|separator|>
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What is China's Mandate of Heaven? - ThoughtCo
May 4, 2025 · The Mandate of Heaven is an ancient Chinese philosophical concept, which originated during the Zhou Dynasty (1046-256 BCE).
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[PDF] The Mandate of Heaven (PDF) - Lehigh University
Hence, Heaven's ancient mandate, first explicitly set forth by Zhou. Dynasty rulers in the mid-eleventh century B.C. and preserved in the canonical Book of Docu ...
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[PDF] african traditional oath as a mechanism for peace and social order
African traditional oaths maintain justice, peace, and harmony, prevent threats to peace, and are used in conflict resolution to accommodate all parties.Missing: tribal | Show results with:tribal
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[PDF] Oath Taking and Covenant Making: Diplomatic Methods for Conflict
Oath taking and covenant making are traditional Igbo methods used as spiritual mediators for conflict reconciliation and prevention, with both preventive and ...
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[PDF] The Oath in Medieval Canon Law
The Gratian's. Decretum however pointed out the difference between the proscrip- tion of swearing oaths of one's own free will and the requirement for their ...
[53]
Crime, Compurgation and the Courts of the Medieval Church - jstor
Gratian in the Decretum (c. 1140) and by Raymond of Pennafort in the. 6. See ... one thing, under the canon law compurgation could be affirmatively.
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The Oath of Fealty in the Middle Ages - Janalyn Voigt
Apr 6, 2016 · In the middle ages, acts of homage and an oath of fealty sealed the relationship between a liege lord and a member of his fighting forces.
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https://brill.com/display/book/9789004217515/B9789004217515_003.pdf
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[PDF] cooperation and conflict: christian and muslim group identity
This study examines interaction and accommodation between Western Christians and. Muslims in the Levant between the Second and Third Crusades, 1145 to 1192, ...
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https://norseimports.com/blogs/news/norse-oath-rings-viking-history
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Explanatory Notes on Beowulf
I would add the comment here that there seems to be an ancient Anglo-Saxon (Germanic?) ... sworn oaths, for which task ceremonial drinking of mead or wine was ...
[59]
What does the word 'wergild' mean in Beowulf? - Quora
Mar 15, 2016 · It would mean the same in Beowulf as it means in Anglo-Saxon law: wergild literally means "man-gold", and was the price set in law as a fine for killing or ...
[60]
[PDF] The Conception and Division of Kings' Bodies in Early Medieval ...
Defining sacral kingship The ancient Germanic conception of a sacral king, a monarch whose own fate and physical being were intertwined with that of his people ...
[61]
[PDF] SACRAL KINGSHIP IN EARLY MEDIEVAL EUROPE
Germanic culture, like those associated with sacral kingship, continued unbroken from ancient times through the Middle Ages. See his influential article ...
[62]
The oath of allegiance of 1606 (Chapter 13)
The discovery of the Gunpowder Plot was the new king's Armada. Its providential failure would enter the ritual calendar of English Protestantism, its ...
[63]
CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: English Post-Reformation Oaths
Oath of allegiance of James I (1606) Also called the OATH OF OBEDIENCE. After the Gunpowder Plot a systematic effort was made to persecute Catholics at every ...
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Bellarmine and the Oath of Allegiance
This chapter examines the impact of Bellarmine's theory in the debate over the Oath of Allegiance, promulgated by James Stuart in 1606.
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329 Oaths and Libels - The History of England
Oct 31, 2021 · Cecil took full advantage of the Gunpowder plot with a massive subsidy – and James' Oath of Allegiance. 329 Oaths and Libels. Download ...
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Article 2 Section 1 Clause 8 | Constitution Annotated - Congress.gov
Before he enter on the Execution of his Office, he shall take the following Oath or Affirmation:– I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully ...
[67]
The Civil Constitution of the Clergy - Alpha History
Oct 9, 2019 · Passed in July 1790, the Civil Constitution of the Clergy attempted to nationalise and regulate the Catholic church in France.The Assembly takes action · Creating a 'state church' · The clerical oath
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The Reconstruction of Justice in Post-Nazi Western Germany
Aug 11, 2021 · The 1933 “Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service” forced Jews and political opponents of Nazism out of Germany's expansive ...
[69]
Oaths, affirmations, declarations and more: who can sign what?
Nov 11, 2019 · Oaths and affirmations are solemn promises to tell the truth; the main difference is that oaths are generally sworn by religious or spiritual ...
[70]
National Law Day of Action: Over 10,000 Legal Professionals Stand ...
May 6, 2025 · Together, these distinguished leaders stood with hundreds of attorneys as they collectively reaffirmed their oath to defend the Constitution—a ...Missing: 2020s | Show results with:2020s
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Iowa attorneys reaffirm oath in powerful Law Day ceremonies
Jun 1, 2025 · On May 1, more than 300 Iowa attorneys gathered throughout the state for a solemn and symbolic act: publicly reaffirming the Attorney's Oath ...Missing: 2020s | Show results with:2020s
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The Grammar of the Neo-Babylonian Assertory Oath
There are also conditional verdicts that do not an- ticipate the appearance of a future witness or informer. ... be used in assertory oath formulas). The second ...
[73]
[PDF] Loyalty Oaths as Tools of Domination in Medieval Iberia
Apr 14, 2025 · invoking a deity and his power of punishment as a witness if the promise is broken or the affidavit proves false. ... oath formulas used in these ...<|separator|>
[74]
Oath and its Implications from Islamic Perspective - ResearchGate
Jul 6, 2018 · ... Oath) and Yamin Ghamus (Immersed/False Oath). Insha Allah. we shall ... eating and when they invite him to eat, he says, “Wallahi I shall not eat” ...
[75]
[PDF] Ritual and Religion In Revolutionary America - Scholar Commons
Jan 1, 2013 · oath ceremonies were acceptable in the new United States were left to the justices who witnessed the oaths and state and local governments.
[76]
Topical Bible: Oaths: Often Accompanied by Raising up the Hand
The raising of the hand during an oath-taking ceremony served as a public declaration, reinforcing the individual's accountability before God and the community.
[77]
Topical Bible: Hand: Right Hand Lifted up in Swearing
The act of raising the right hand in swearing an oath is a gesture that signifies the seriousness and binding nature of the promise being made.Missing: judgment | Show results with:judgment
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[PDF] Three Fingers Sign Emoji - Unicode
Mar 22, 2016 · SCHWURHAND. The Schwurhand (German pronunciation: [ˈʃvuːɐ̯hant]) is a heraldic charge depicting the hand gesture that is used in Germanic ...
[79]
Meaning of SCHWURHAND and related words - OneLook
noun: The ("swear-hand"; ) a heraldic charge depicting the hand gesture that is used in Germanic Europe and neighbouring countries, when swearing an oath.<|separator|>
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Motion to end Bible oaths in court defeated - BBC News
Oct 19, 2013 · A proposal to end the swearing of oaths on the Bible and other holy books in courts in England and Wales has been rejected by magistrates.
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3 FINGERS. SERBIAN THING. 1 TRUTH AND MANY LIES.
Jun 8, 2015 · So, what does that sign mean? It means “Father, Son, Holy Spirit”. 3 fingers for 3 things which are Christian HOLY TRINITY, which are combined ...
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[PDF] Psychological Effects of the Traditional Oath Ceremony Used in the ...
An oath is a formal pledge that is expressed while invoking a divine witness to the person's intention with re- gards to future action or conduct. Oaths, like ...
[83]
The Power of the Pipe - National Park Service
Aug 29, 2020 · The pipe is more than a 'peace pipe'; it's a communication tool, used in ceremonies, and even in battle, requiring courage and defiance.Missing: oaths | Show results with:oaths
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The Sacred Calumet Pipe | Smokingpipes.com
May 8, 2020 · The calumet is a significant ceremonial pipe used by Native American tribes for prayer, treaties, and to carry prayers to spirits. It is a ...
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Blackfoot Indian Pipe Ceremony - Science Source Prints
Jul 31, 2019 · Traditionally they are used to offer prayers in a religious ceremony, to make a ceremonial commitment, or to seal a covenant or treaty. Some ...
[86]
Guide to a Japanese Shinto Shrine Wedding - Elope in Japan
Sep 24, 2020 · Now, the bride and groom stand in front of the kami by themselves, and recite the wedding oath. In Japanese! We will provide a romaji ...
[87]
Rituals to 'pledge love' - Pocono Record
Jun 2, 2018 · It was beautifully humbling. The “norito” is the Shinto document declaring the couple's marriage intent, and promising a happy lifetime.
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"The sasswood ordeal of the west Atlantic tribes of Sierra Leone and ...
The sasswood ordeal of poison presents a divinatory ritual which has been used in criminal cases by the traditional African of Sierra Leone and Liberia.Missing: trial | Show results with:trial
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Introduction | SpringerLink
Mar 25, 2023 · The ordeal poison mbiam is, according to Simmons (1956), “a magical liquid which possesses the power of killing anyone who swears a false oath ...
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Ordeal, Trial by - Brill Reference Works
In trial by food, in the case of the poison ordeal, especially widespread in Africa, the poison harms or kills the guilty. ... The eschatological ordeals of ...
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About the Senate & the U.S. Constitution | Oath of Office
I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will support and defend the Constitution of the United States against all enemies, foreign and domestic.
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The oath of office and what it means - Federal News Network
Oct 24, 2019 · The oath is to support and defend the U.S. Constitution and faithfully execute your duties. The intent is to protect the public from a ...
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Swearing in and the parliamentary oath - UK Parliament
I swear by Almighty God that I will be faithful and bear true allegiance to His Majesty King Charles, his heirs and successors, according to law. So help me God ...
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[PDF] Oaths of allegiance - UK Parliament
Jul 28, 2025 · • The oath of allegiance taken by members of the Armed Forces. • Oaths taken in other Commonwealth realms, Overseas Territories and the Crown ...
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Parliamentary Oaths Act 1866 - Legislation.gov.uk
“I A. B. do swear that I will be faithful and bear true Allegiance ' to Her Majesty Queen Victoria; and I do faithfully promise to maintain and support the ...
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Rule 603. Oath or Affirmation to Testify Truthfully - Law.Cornell.Edu
A witness must give an oath or affirmation to testify truthfully. It must be in a form designed to impress that duty on the witness's conscience.
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18 U.S. Code § 1621 - Perjury generally - Law.Cornell.Edu
Willfully subscribes as true any material matter which he does not believe to be true; is guilty of perjury and shall, except as otherwise expressly provided ...
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Judicial System - American Atheists
The federal court system and most state court systems have established rules explicitly providing for witnesses to give either an oath, whether on a bible or ...
[100]
Adversarial versus Inquisitorial Legal Systems - Unodc
The inquisitorial process grants more power to the judge who oversees the process, whereas the judge in the adversarial system serves more as an arbiter between ...
[101]
Inquisitorial procedure | Adversarial, Accused Rights & Evidence ...
Inquisitorial procedure, in law, one of the two methods of exposing evidence in court (the other being the adversary procedure).
[102]
Enlistment oath - U.S.C. Title 10 - ARMED FORCES
Each person enlisting in an armed force shall take the following oath: “I, ____________________, do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will support and defend ...
[103]
[PDF] us military oaths: legislating responsibility and loyalty
US military oaths address support, loyalty, diligence, and obedience, and sustain civil control of the armed forces, embodying "due responsibility".
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The Oath Is a Sacred Covenant | Proceedings - U.S. Naval Institute
Because it establishes the hierarchy of an officer's loyalties and a profound and sacred covenant with the American people, the oath of office is the defining ...Missing: discipline scholarly
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The Ceremonies of Homage and Fealty - Goucher College Faculty
Homage is the most honorable service, and most humble service of reverence, that a franktenant 1 may do to his lord.
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What is the oath of allegiance that NATO soldiers take when they join?
Jan 1, 2023 · There is no oath taken to NATO. The US is one of the original NATO members and we swear one of the following oaths when we join the military.Do American soldiers pledge allegiance to other nations while ...Do any countries require their armed forces to swear allegiance to ...More results from www.quora.comMissing: modern | Show results with:modern
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Vows and Oaths | Encyclopedia.com
There is a distinct difference, however, between an oath and a vow: a vow is merely a personal promise, whereas an oath is a promise made before some ...
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Monastic Vows - Ampleforth Abbey
Monks take three vows: obedience, stability and conversatio morum. These are solemn promises, made in the presence, not only of the Abbot and community.
[109]
[PDF] The Rule of Saint Benedict
Let him then who is to be received, in the oratory, in the presence of all the brethren, make promise of stability, of conversion of life and of obedience, in ...Missing: vow | Show results with:vow
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Benedictine Vows - Saint Martin's Abbey
For Benedictines, the vow of stability proclaims rootedness, at-homeness, that this place and this monastic family will endure. Likewise, by the vow of fidelity ...Missing: 530 CE
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Everything You Need to Know About Muslim Wedding Vows
Jan 19, 2022 · This guide to Muslim wedding vows outlines the elements of a traditional wedding, including the Nikah ceremony.
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The Rules of the Oath | A Summary of Rulings - Al-Islam.org
The Rules of the Oath · 1) That the one swearing be sane and mature. · 2) The action which is sworn to be established is conditional that it not be unlawful nor ...
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The True Meaning of Sanyasa or Renunciation in Hinduism
In Hinduism renunciation or sanyasa is the true mark of spiritual life. It is believed to be the simple and straightforward way to achieve moksha or liberation.
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Sannyasa is the Life of Renunciation - Navnathglory.in
Sannyasis typically adhere to vows of celibacy (Brahmacharya), non-possessiveness (Aparigraha), non-violence (Ahimsa), truthfulness (Satya), and contentment ( ...<|separator|>
[115]
perjury | Wex | US Law | LII / Legal Information Institute
Generally, a witness in a trial commits perjury when they knowingly and intentionally lie about a material issue.
[116]
1743. Perjury -- Overview Of 18 U.S.C. §1621 And 1623 Violations
18 U.S.C. §1621 is for perjuries before legislative, administrative, or judicial bodies. §1623 is for false statements before Federal courts and grand juries.<|separator|>
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Section 4902.0 - Title 18 - CRIMES AND OFFENSES
A person is guilty of perjury, a felony of the third degree, if in any official proceeding he makes a false statement under oath or equivalent affirmation.
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May 15, 2020 · The conciliar courts punished perjury through public shaming in a prominent place at a busy time. Offenders wore papers on their heads ...
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Aug 5, 2025 · In 1485, church courts had exercised an extensive cognizance of perjury; by 1535, they no longer did. The most important factor contributing to ...
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Famous Medieval Trials
Perjury was a capital offense. So, Marguerite knew that if her husband lost the duel, she would be immediately burnt at the stake. If ever a wife had reason to ...The Cadaver Synod Of 897 · Meanwhile In Iceland: The... · Trial By Combat: ``the Last...<|separator|>
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In the US, how many people get charged with perjury in a typical ...
Feb 25, 2018 · As an example, in the federal system there have been as few of 250 prosecutions for standard perjury in a year and as high as 645 in later years ...
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Perjury Rampant in Courts Across the U.S., but Rarely Prosecuted
Sep 27, 2016 · Perjured testimony is rampant in courts across the country, yet those who lie on the witness stand are rarely prosecuted. Perjury is a ...
[123]
Study explores the effectiveness of honesty oath for reducing ...
Nov 20, 2024 · The researchers found that using this oath reduced the under-reporting of income by half. "This intervention resulted in 18.1% underreporting ...
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Who'll stop lying under oath? Empirical evidence from tax evasion ...
Empirical evidence confirms that when people voluntarily commit to honesty through a solemn oath, they tell the truth most of the time, holding the lie ...
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Effectiveness of ex ante honesty oaths in reducing dishonesty ...
Honesty oaths were effective in curbing dishonesty, but their effectiveness varied depending on content. 10 of 21 oaths significantly improved tax compliance.<|control11|><|separator|>
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Committed (dis)honesty: A systematic meta-analytic review of the ...
Committed (dis)honesty: A systematic meta-analytic review of the divergent effects of social commitment to individuals or honesty oaths on dishonest behavior.
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[PDF] Rules of Procedure and Evidence* ** - | International Criminal Court
Compellability of witnesses. 1. A witness who appears before the Court is compellable by the Court to provide testimony, unless otherwise provided for in the ...Missing: oath | Show results with:oath
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The Vienna Convention, done in 1961, aims to promote friendly relations among nations by establishing diplomatic intercourse, privileges and immunities.
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(PDF) THE CHALLENGE OF NON-STATE ACTORS - ResearchGate
PDF | It is increasingly recognized that human rights law has to address the challenge posed by non-state actors. This chapter starts with a reflection.
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Truth Telling Under Oath | Management Science - PubsOnLine
Jan 16, 2018 · We explore whether people who voluntarily sign a solemn truth-telling oath are more committed to sincere behavior when offered the chance to lie.
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How the honesty oath works: Quick, intuitive truth telling under oath
May 29, 2021 · In a laboratory experiment, the oath leads to more truth telling, but it does not make liars reduce the sizes of their lies. While truth tellers ...
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Do truth-telling oaths improve honesty in crowd-working? - PMC
This study explores whether an oath to honesty can reduce both shirking and lying among crowd-sourced internet workers.
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Are mandatory oaths effective in groups? by Sorrravich Kingsuwankul
Nov 29, 2023 · A mandatory oath reduces lying when group members' payoffs are independent, but only has a marginal effect when payoffs are dependent.
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[PDF] Why do oaths work? Image concerns and credibility in promise ...
Sep 16, 2023 · Abstract. We use a laboratory experiment to understand the channels through which honesty oaths can affect behavior and credibility.
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Studying Religious Symbols and Bias in Court Proceedings
This study found that jurors may trust witnesses who give religious oaths, and that this may vary by religiosity and religious group affiliation.
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How Habituation in Psychology Works and Affects Relationships
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Aug 5, 2004 · Although a 1988 law prohibits most private-sector employers from using polygraphs, polygraph testing is still used in employment screening and ...
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Jul 27, 2023 · The essential purpose of saying “so help me God” is to express sincerity and emphasize greater vigilance.
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[PDF] OATHS AND AFFIRMATIONS - GOV.UK
3. If a person objects to swearing an oath he shall be permitted to make a solemn affirmation instead of taking an oath as provided in Part ...
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[PDF] Different Views of God Predict Cheating Behavior
Apr 19, 2011 · Implicit and subliminal priming of religious ideas has also been shown to more directly increase honest behavior,2 but again, among unprimed ...<|separator|>
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Mean Gods Make Good People: Different Views of God Predict ...
Apr 19, 2011 · Implicit and subliminal priming of religious ideas has also been shown to more directly increase honest behavior,Footnote but again, among ...Missing: invoking | Show results with:invoking
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Threat of divine punishment makes people more generous - Science
Threat of divine punishment makes people more generous. Cross-cultural study suggests moralizing gods increase cooperation. 10 Feb 2016; ByLizzie Wade.
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Oaths Act 1888 | LexisNexis
Every such affirmation shall be as follows:— “I, A.B., do solemnly, sincerely, and truly declare and affirm,” and then proceed with the words of the oath ...
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The Influence of Divine Rewards and Punishments on Religious ...
Aug 3, 2016 · A common finding across many cultures has been that religious people behave more prosocially than less (or non-) religious people.
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Effect of religious priming and group membership on prosocial ...
Jan 17, 2025 · Studies have shown that reminders of religion, including both divine rewards and punishments, can positively influence individuals ...
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Truman's Loyalty Program | Harry S. Truman
The rise of McCarthyism in the wake of this fear is well-known. Less discussed, perhaps, is the emergence of a Loyalty Program within the federal government.
[148]
Keyishian v. Board of Regents | 385 U.S. 589 (1967)
Board of Education, 342 U. S. 485, in which this Court upheld some aspects of the New York teacher loyalty plan before its extension to state institutions of ...
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Oath of Enlistment - Army Values
I, _____, do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will support and defend the Constitution of the United States against all enemies, foreign and domestic.
[150]
Restoring Accountability To Policy-Influencing Positions Within the ...
Jan 20, 2025 · They are required to faithfully implement administration policies to the best of their ability, consistent with their constitutional oath and ...
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Lynch: OPM's hiring plan includes 'blatant loyalty test'
Jun 2, 2025 · It does not require that workers have loyalty to a president or to a political party.” Jacque Simon, public policy director for the American ...
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Second, government may require its employees or prospective employees to subscribe to a loyalty oath disclaiming belief in or advocacy of, or membership in ...Missing: modern | Show results with:modern
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Free speech in an age of fear: The new system loyalty oaths - FIRE
Apr 3, 2025 · What we are seeing in Washington is a new era in compelled allegiance. Executive order “negotiations” are premised on mandatory loyalty.
[154]
UConn's DEI medical oath is not what the doctor ordered - FIRE
Jan 31, 2025 · The revised oath, which was finalized in 2022, includes a promise to “actively support policies that promote social justice and specifically ...Missing: modern adding clauses
[155]
Pitfalls with the Hippocratic Oath and the Woke Oath - Econlib
Dec 16, 2022 · You may not agree as the ancient opinions clash with modern dogma of abortion and euthanasia. But the oath has underlain western medicine for ...
[156]
A Revised Hippocratic Oath for the Era of Digital Health - PMC - NIH
Sep 7, 2022 · We believe it is time to update the Oath with modest but meaningful additions so that it optimally reflects 21st century health care.Missing: efficacy | Show results with:efficacy
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Hippocratic oath: Losing relevance in today's world? - PMC - NIH
These issues show that the original oath has a limited role in modern sociocultural and bioethical complexities. The oath asks the physician to treat the ...Missing: dilutions | Show results with:dilutions
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Nov 1, 2020 · How 2020 changed us. Psychology leaders offer their take on how this has been a year of turmoil and transition. By Trent Spiner ...Missing: oaths | Show results with:oaths
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(PDF) Modernising the Law on Oaths & Affirmations - ResearchGate
PDF | Modernising the Law on Oaths & Affirmations | Find, read and cite all the research you need on ResearchGate.
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The Storming of the Bastille Led to Democracy but Not for Long
The Tennis Court Oath by Jacques Louis David shows the members of the National Assembly convening in an indoor tennis court, after being locked out of their ...
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Lincoln's Second Inaugural Address - National Park Service
Apr 18, 2020 · On March 4, 1865, only 41 days before his assassination, President Abraham Lincoln took the oath of office for the second time.
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Oaths of Loyalty for All State Officials - Holocaust Encyclopedia
The Oath of Loyalty for All State Officials started to change in 1934. Learn more about the oath and Germany's journey from democracy to a Nazi dictatorship.
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Benedict Arnold's Oath of Allegiance - Digital Public Library of America
In 1780 General Arnold betrayed his oath by conspiring to surrender West Point to the British.Missing: breach 1779
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Shakespeare's Binding Language. John Kerrigan. Oxford
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[PDF] Hamlet's Heroism - Digital Commons @ Colby
Once Hamlet has proved, to himself, that Claudius is his father's murderer, he should be ready to fulfill his oath. But he doesn't even try. True, in the next.Missing: analysis | Show results with:analysis
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A Modern Perspective: Macbeth | Folger Shakespeare Library
We never see Macbeth vow to kill Duncan, but in Lady Macbeth's mind just his broaching the subject has become a commitment. With graphic horror she ...
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Concerning Oaths in Middle-earth - TheOneRing.net
Sep 20, 2024 · To the fellowship, he says, “no oath or bond is laid upon you.” As they depart on their journey south, he demands no promise from the nine he ...
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Oath-Breakers and Keepers in Tolkien's Middle-earth
Nov 16, 2017 · Two important values that the Germanic heroic ethos contains are the taking of oaths and the loyalty attached to the sworn language. The Old ...
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To Kill a Mockingbird Chapter 19 Summary and Analysis - eNotes.com
Tom's oath is considered binding by Judge Taylor and is thus just as powerful as the oaths all the other witnesses took. Mockingbirds. Tom's innocence makes ...
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[PDF] Examining the Anglo-Saxon Oath in JRR Tolkien's - Scholars Junction
Dec 1, 2021 · In this thesis, I aim to conduct a thorough analysis of the representation of oaths in Anglo-Saxon society and the Lord of the. Rings, ...