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Relative volatility

Relative volatility is a fundamental concept in chemical engineering and thermodynamics that quantifies the relative tendency of two components in a liquid mixture to vaporize, serving as a measure of their separability in processes like distillation. It is defined as the ratio of the equilibrium distribution coefficients (or vapor-liquid equilibrium ratios) of the more volatile component to the less volatile one, expressed mathematically as \alpha_{ij} = \frac{K_i}{K_j} = \frac{(y_i / x_i)}{(y_j / x_j)}, where K is the equilibrium constant, y is the mole fraction in the vapor phase, and x is the mole fraction in the liquid phase for components i and j.^[1]^[2] This parameter is crucial for designing and optimizing separation equipment, as higher values of relative volatility (typically \alpha > 1) indicate easier separation due to greater differences in boiling points or vapor pressures, while values close to 1 (e.g., in azeotropic mixtures) necessitate advanced techniques like extractive distillation or pressure swing operations.^[3] For ideal binary mixtures, relative volatility can be approximated as the ratio of the pure component vapor pressures (\alpha_{ij} \approx P_i^\circ / P_j^\circ), assuming Raoult's law holds, though it varies with temperature and pressure, often requiring experimental data or models like UNIFAC for non-ideal systems.^[1]^[2]^[4] In multicomponent systems, relative volatilities are defined relative to a reference component to simplify analysis, enabling predictions of minimum stages or reflux ratios via equations like the Fenske equation under constant relative volatility assumptions.^[2] Its practical significance extends to industries such as petrochemicals, pharmaceuticals, and biofuels, where accurate volatility data informs energy-efficient process simulations and column efficiency correlations, such as O’Connell’s model for tray performance.^[1]^[3]^[5]^[6]

Fundamentals

Definition

Relative volatility is a measure in chemical engineering and thermodynamics that compares the vapor pressures of two components in a liquid mixture, quantifying their relative tendency to vaporize and thus the ease of separation in vapor-liquid equilibrium processes. It serves as a key indicator for how readily one component can be enriched in the vapor phase over the other during processes like distillation.^[7] When the relative volatility is high (typically greater than 5–10), the components exhibit significantly different volatilities, behaving nearly independently and allowing for straightforward separation, as the more volatile component preferentially enters the vapor phase. Conversely, low relative volatility values (close to 1) indicate similar boiling points and volatilities, making separation challenging and often requiring numerous stages or alternative techniques, as the components distribute similarly between liquid and vapor phases.^[3] The term relative volatility emerged in the context of distillation theory during the early 20th century, particularly through the foundational work of chemical engineers Clark Shove Robinson and Edwin Richard Gilliland in their seminal book Elements of Fractional Distillation, first published in 1922. This text formalized its use in analyzing multicomponent separations and remains influential in the field.^[8] A representative example is the binary water-ethanol mixture at atmospheric pressure, where the relative volatility is approximately 1.5, reflecting the close volatilities of the components and resulting in azeotrope formation at about 95.6 wt% ethanol, which limits simple distillation to producing ethanol of that purity.^[9]

Physical Significance

Relative volatility arises from differences in the volatilities of mixture components, which stem from variations in their intermolecular forces; components with weaker intermolecular attractions exhibit higher vapor pressures and thus greater volatility at a given temperature. In ideal mixtures, this is captured by Raoult's law, where the partial pressure of a component equals its liquid mole fraction times its pure-component vapor pressure, leading to relative volatility as the ratio of these vapor pressures.^[10]^[11] Practically, relative volatility determines the feasibility and complexity of separation processes like distillation; values greater than 10 typically allow simple distillation with few stages, while 1 < α < 10 necessitate multiple equilibrium stages for effective separation, and α = 1 indicates inseparability by distillation alone due to identical vapor-liquid behavior.^[12] In phase diagrams, particularly y-x plots, relative volatility governs the equilibrium curve's shape: higher α produces curves that deviate more sharply from the 45-degree line, reflecting steeper slopes and enhanced separability between vapor and liquid compositions.^[10] For example, the benzene-toluene binary system exhibits α ≈ 2.3 at atmospheric conditions, enabling straightforward multistage distillation for purification, whereas close-boiling isomers such as m-xylene and p-xylene have α ≈ 1.05, rendering conventional distillation inefficient and requiring alternative methods like adsorption or extractive distillation to achieve separation.^[10]^[13]

Mathematical Formulation

Relative Volatility Coefficient

The relative volatility coefficient, denoted as \alpha_{ij}, quantifies the ease of separation between two components i and j in a binary vapor-liquid equilibrium system. It is defined as the ratio of their respective distribution coefficients, or equilibrium constants K, given by

\alpha_{ij} = \frac{K_i}{K_j} = \frac{y_i / x_i}{y_j / x_j},

where y_i and y_j are the mole fractions of components i and j in the vapor phase, and x_i and x_j are their mole fractions in the liquid phase.^[10]^[14] This formulation arises from the fundamental vapor-liquid equilibrium (VLE) conditions, where the partial pressure of each component in the vapor phase equals its fugacity in the liquid phase. Assuming ideal gas behavior in the vapor phase (where partial pressure p_i = y_i P, with P as total pressure) and ideal liquid behavior (via Raoult's law, p_i = x_i \gamma_i P_i^{\text{sat}}, with activity coefficient \gamma_i = 1), the equilibrium constant simplifies to K_i = y_i / x_i = P_i^{\text{sat}} / P. For binary systems, this yields the relative form \alpha_{ij} = P_i^{\text{sat}} / P_j^{\text{sat}}, where P_i^{\text{sat}} and P_j^{\text{sat}} are the saturation vapor pressures of the pure components at the system temperature.^[14]^[10] The assumption of constant \alpha_{ij} holds well for ideal binary mixtures where intermolecular interactions are negligible, allowing straightforward VLE predictions across compositions. However, in real non-ideal systems, \alpha_{ij} varies with composition due to deviations from ideality, necessitating the inclusion of activity coefficients \gamma_i in the equilibrium relations, which complicates the coefficient's constancy.^[10]^[14]

Multicomponent Extensions

In multicomponent mixtures containing more than two components, the concept of relative volatility is extended by defining pairwise relative volatilities \alpha_{ik} for each component i relative to a reference component k, typically the heavy key component with \alpha_{kk} = 1. This is calculated as \alpha_{ik} = K_i / K_k, where K_i and K_k are the equilibrium distribution coefficients (vapor-liquid partition coefficients) of components i and k, respectively.^[15] The choice of reference simplifies analysis by classifying components as light keys (higher volatility, \alpha_{ik} > 1), heavy keys, or non-keys based on their \alpha_{ik} values.^[15] For minimum reflux calculations in multicomponent distillation, the Underwood equations incorporate an average relative volatility framework under the assumption of constant relative volatilities. The key equation, known as Underwood I, determines the roots \phi (or \theta) by solving:

\sum_{i=1}^n \frac{\alpha_i z_{F,i}}{\alpha_i - \phi} = 1 - q

where \alpha_i is the relative volatility of component i relative to the reference, z_{F,i} is the feed mole fraction of i, n is the number of components, and q is the feed thermal condition (e.g., q=1 for saturated liquid feed).^[16] These roots are then used in Underwood II to find the minimum reflux ratio R_{\min}:

R_{\min} + 1 = \frac{V_{\min}}{D} = \sum_{i=1}^n \frac{\alpha_i x_{D,i}}{\alpha_i - \phi}

where D is the distillate flow rate, V_{\min} is the minimum vapor flow rate in the rectifying section, and x_{D,i} is the distillate mole fraction of i. This approach enables estimation of separation feasibility for sharp splits between light and heavy keys, assuming constant molar overflow.^[16]^[14] A major challenge in multicomponent systems is that relative volatilities \alpha_{ik} are often non-constant due to component interactions, varying temperature profiles, and composition changes along the column, which violate the constant \alpha assumption in methods like Underwood.^[14] Non-ideal behaviors, such as azeotropes where \alpha = 1, further complicate predictions, often requiring pseudo-component lumping or iterative adjustments.^[14] To address these, relative volatility diagrams adapt graphical methods like the Ponchon-Savarit approach, using enthalpy-concentration or triangular coordinates to visualize multicomponent phase equilibria and stage requirements while accounting for varying \alpha.^[17] In petroleum refining, multicomponent hydrocarbon mixtures exemplify these extensions, where relative volatilities between light fractions (e.g., n-heptane with \alpha \approx 1.32 in vapor) and heavy fractions (e.g., hylycyclopentane with \alpha \approx 0.18) vary across dozens of components, influencing crude oil fractionation into gasoline, kerosene, and diesel streams.^[18]

Applications in Separation Processes

Distillation Design

In distillation design for binary mixtures, the Fenske equation is fundamental for estimating the minimum number of theoretical stages required at total reflux conditions, assuming constant relative volatility \alpha and constant molar overflow. The equation is given by

N_{\min} = \frac{\log \left[ \frac{x_{D}/(1 - x_{D})}{x_{B}/(1 - x_{B})} \right]}{\log \alpha},

where x_D is the mole fraction of the more volatile component in the distillate and x_B is that in the bottoms product. This analytical expression allows engineers to quickly assess the inherent ease of separation based on \alpha, with higher values yielding fewer stages for a given purity. The derivation relies on successive application of the equilibrium relation y_{n+1}/x_n = \alpha across stages under total reflux, where vapor and liquid flows are equal. Merrell Fenske introduced this in his 1932 analysis of gasoline fractionation, providing a cornerstone for shortcut distillation calculations. The McCabe-Thiele graphical method integrates relative volatility to determine the actual number of stages and optimal feed location for operating reflux ratios greater than minimum. Here, \alpha defines the equilibrium curve via y = \frac{\alpha x}{1 + (\alpha - 1)x} for ideal binaries with constant \alpha, representing the slope of the curve in the x-y diagram. Steps are drawn between the operating lines (rectifying and stripping sections) and the equilibrium curve to count stages, with the intersection of operating lines at the q-line indicating feed stage. This visual approach reveals sensitivities, such as how varying \alpha shifts the curve and alters stage count; for instance, doubling \alpha can halve the stages needed near the diagonal curve limit. Developed by Warren L. McCabe and Ernest W. Thiele in 1925, the method remains a standard for preliminary binary column design despite computational alternatives. Relative volatility directly influences overall column efficiency by dictating stage requirements and reflux needs; higher \alpha (>5) enables sharp separations with fewer trays and lower energy, while low \alpha (<1.5) demands taller columns and higher reflux, increasing capital and operating costs. In the ethanol-water binary at 1 atm, where \alpha averages about 1.5 across typical operating compositions, the Fenske equation yields N_{\min} \approx 17 stages for separating from x_B = 0.01 to x_D = 0.90 (light component ethanol), calculated as \log[(0.90/0.10)/(0.01/0.99)] / \log(1.5) \approx 2.95 / 0.176 = 16.8, rounded up including the reboiler. This moderate \alpha exemplifies why ethanol dehydration often requires 50–100 actual stages at 1.2–1.5 times minimum reflux, highlighting the trade-off in efficiency for close-boiling systems.^[19]

Extractive and Azeotropic Distillation

An azeotrope occurs in a liquid mixture when the relative volatility between components equals 1, resulting in a constant boiling point where the vapor and liquid phases have identical compositions, preventing further separation by conventional distillation.^[20] A prominent example is the ethanol-water system, forming a minimum-boiling azeotrope at approximately 95.6 wt% ethanol and 4.4 wt% water, with a boiling point of 78.2°C, lower than that of pure ethanol (78.4°C) or water (100°C).^[21] This phenomenon arises due to positive deviations from Raoult's law, leading to enhanced vapor pressures in the mixture.^[20] Extractive distillation addresses separations where relative volatilities are low or azeotropes form by introducing a high-boiling solvent that selectively alters the activity coefficients of the components without forming a new azeotrope itself, thereby enhancing the relative volatility between the target mixture.^[22] The solvent, typically added in significant quantities (often 1-2 times the feed volume), interacts differently with each component to shift their relative volatilities, allowing one to be enriched in the distillate while the other moves to the bottoms, after which the solvent is recovered in a subsequent column.^[23] For instance, in separating the acetone-methanol azeotrope (where α ≈ 1 at certain compositions), water serves as an entrainer that increases the relative volatility of methanol over acetone to values exceeding 2, enabling methanol to be recovered as the overhead product while acetone and water exit the bottoms.^[24] This method is particularly effective for close-boiling mixtures, as the solvent's selective solvation reduces energy demands compared to pressure-swing alternatives.^[25] Azeotropic distillation, in contrast, employs a low-boiling entrainer that forms a new azeotrope with one or more components of the original mixture, exploiting phase separation or volatility shifts to break the initial azeotrope.^[26] The entrainer modifies the vapor-liquid equilibrium by creating a heterogeneous ternary azeotrope, which distills overhead and separates into immiscible layers upon condensation, allowing recycling of the entrainer and recovery of the purified component.^[27] In the ethanol-water system, benzene acts as such an entrainer, forming a ternary minimum-boiling azeotrope (boiling at 64.9°C) with ethanol and water, which shifts the relative volatility of ethanol over water from 1 (at the binary azeotrope) to greater than 1.5 in the stripping section of the column, facilitating the production of nearly pure ethanol (99+%) in the bottoms.^[28] The process typically involves a primary column where the ternary azeotrope is removed overhead, a decanter for phase separation (yielding a water-rich layer and an organic layer containing benzene and ethanol), and a secondary column to recover benzene for recycle, with the effective volatility enhancement occurring due to the entrainer's preferential association with water.^[29] A key industrial application is the production of absolute (anhydrous) alcohol from the 95.6% ethanol-water azeotrope using benzene as the entrainer in azeotropic distillation, a process historically significant for fuel and chemical manufacturing.^[27] In this setup, the azeotropic feed is introduced to the first column, where benzene addition (typically 10-20% of feed) generates the ternary azeotrope overhead, which condenses into two phases: an aqueous layer (primarily water with traces of ethanol) discarded or treated, and an organic layer recycled to the column.^[28] The bottoms yield high-purity ethanol (>99.5 mol%), as the entrainer alters the liquid-phase non-idealities to increase the effective relative volatility of ethanol relative to water from 1 to over 1.5 across the column stages, enabling efficient dehydration without excessive reflux.^[29] This method, while effective, has largely been supplanted by molecular sieves or pervaporation due to benzene's toxicity, but it exemplifies how entrainer selection can dramatically improve separation feasibility in low-volatility systems.^[27]

Measurement and Prediction

Experimental Methods

Experimental methods for determining relative volatility primarily involve measuring vapor-liquid equilibrium (VLE) data, from which the ratio of distribution coefficients or vapor-to-liquid mole fraction ratios for two components is calculated at specified temperatures and pressures. These techniques ensure that the system reaches equilibrium, allowing accurate sampling of coexisting phases to compute relative volatility α as α = (y_i / x_i) / (y_j / x_j), where y and x are vapor and liquid mole fractions, respectively, for components i and j. Laboratory-scale methods are widely used for precise binary or multicomponent systems, while industrial approaches scale up these principles for practical validation. Equilibrium still methods, such as the Rayleigh still, provide dynamic VLE data through batch differential distillation, where a liquid mixture is boiled in a pot, and the vapor is condensed and removed without reflux, leading to compositional changes over time. By analyzing the initial and final liquid compositions and the distillate, relative volatility is determined using integrated forms of the Rayleigh equation, assuming constant α for ideal cases; this method is particularly suited for wide-boiling mixtures at fixed temperature or pressure. For instance, in studies of alcohol-water systems, Rayleigh distillation has yielded relative volatilities with uncertainties around 5-10% when equilibrium is approximated.^[30]^[31] Static cell techniques offer higher precision for isothermal or isobaric VLE by maintaining both phases in a closed vessel until equilibrium is achieved, followed by sampling. Ebulliometry involves dynamic boiling point measurements in a recirculating apparatus, where the temperature rise with composition provides y-x data indirectly through the Clapeyron equation, enabling relative volatility calculation for systems like ethanol-water with α values up to 10 at low pressures. Circulating stills, often with vapor and liquid recirculation, enhance contact and equilibrium speed; double-circulation designs minimize holdup errors and are standard for binary VLE, producing precise y-x isotherms for relative volatility assessment in non-ideal mixtures, with reported accuracies better than 1% in composition. These methods are recommended for low-pressure systems (<1 MPa) due to their ability to handle azeotropic behaviors.^[32]^[33] At industrial scales, pilot plant distillations simulate full-scale operations to infer relative volatility from fractionation indices, such as overhead and bottoms compositions in continuous columns, often validated against lab data for solvents like sulfolane in hydrocarbon separations where α increases to 2.5-3. Online analyzers, including gas chromatography (GC), provide real-time composition measurements during pilot runs, allowing α computation from sampled streams; GC's high resolution (detection limits <0.1 mol%) makes it essential for multicomponent petroleum feeds. These approaches bridge lab precision with process realities, though they require calibration against pure standards.^[34]^[35] Accuracy in these measurements is critical, as non-equilibrium conditions or impurities can introduce errors up to 20% in α; for example, incomplete phase separation in stills leads to biased y-x data, while thermal gradients affect ebulliometric temperatures. Standard methods like ASTM D86 for atmospheric distillation of petroleum fractions approximate volatility curves but incur large errors (10-30%) when used for true VLE due to kinetic limitations, necessitating corrections via GC analysis for reliable relative volatility in fractions like naphtha. Best practices include multiple replicates and thermodynamic consistency tests to ensure data quality.^[36]^[32]

Thermodynamic Models

Thermodynamic models provide predictive tools for estimating relative volatility based on molecular structure and physical properties, enabling the design of separation processes without extensive experimental data. Group contribution methods, such as the UNIFAC (UNIversal Functional Activity Coefficient) model, estimate activity coefficients (γ) by decomposing molecules into functional groups and using interaction parameters derived from experimental vapor-liquid equilibrium (VLE) data. Developed by Fredenslund et al. in 1975, UNIFAC calculates γ_i for component i as the sum of combinatorial and residual contributions, allowing prediction of non-ideal liquid behavior in mixtures. For binary systems, relative volatility is then computed from the relation

\alpha_{ij} = \frac{\gamma_i P_i^{\sat}}{\gamma_j P_j^{\sat}}

where P^{\sat} denotes saturation vapor pressure, assuming ideal vapor phase behavior.^[37] This approach is particularly useful for screening solvents in extractive distillation, as it relies solely on group parameters without system-specific fitting.^[38] Equation-of-state (EOS) models, like the Peng-Robinson EOS, predict VLE for non-ideal systems by solving for fugacity equality between phases, from which distribution coefficients (K-values) are derived to obtain relative volatility as α_{ij} = K_i / K_j. Introduced by Peng and Robinson in 1976, the model uses a cubic form with temperature-dependent attraction and repulsion terms, making it suitable for high-pressure hydrocarbon separations where activity coefficient methods falter. For instance, in propylene-propane systems, Peng-Robinson combined with COSMO-RS for mixing rules predicts relative volatility with average absolute relative deviations below 5% across wide temperature ranges.^[39] It excels in capturing compressibility effects in dense phases but requires binary interaction parameters for accuracy in polar or associating mixtures. The corresponding-states principle extends these predictions for hydrocarbons by correlating properties at reduced conditions (T_r = T/T_c, P_r = P/P_c), where T_c and P_c are critical temperature and pressure. For non-polar fluids like alkanes, reduced volatility charts estimate α from acentric factors (ω), which quantify molecular shape deviations from sphericity; higher ω differences lead to greater α at equivalent reduced states. This method, rooted in Pitzer's 1939 work and refined for volatility, simplifies estimations for petroleum fractions without individual component data, assuming similarity in intermolecular forces. Validation studies highlight model strengths and limitations through comparisons with experimental α for benchmark systems. In hydrocarbon pairs like ethane-propane, both UNIFAC and Peng-Robinson yield predictions within 2-5% deviation, aligning well with ideal assumptions. However, for polar mixtures such as ethanol-water, where strong hydrogen bonding causes azeotropy, predicted α from UNIFAC shows deviations exceeding 20% near the azeotropic composition due to incomplete group parameter coverage for self-association. Peng-Robinson performs similarly in such cases, with errors up to 15-25% without tailored mixing rules, underscoring the need for hybrid approaches in highly non-ideal systems.^[40]^[41]

Influencing Factors

Temperature and Pressure Dependence

The temperature dependence of relative volatility arises primarily from the differing vapor pressure-temperature behaviors of the components in a mixture, as described by the Clausius-Clapeyron equation, which relates the slope of the vapor pressure curve to the enthalpy of vaporization: \frac{d \ln P^\text{sat}}{dT} = \frac{\Delta H_\text{vap}}{RT^2}. For binary systems, the relative volatility \alpha_{ij} \approx \frac{P_i^\text{sat}}{P_j^\text{sat}} (assuming ideality) thus varies with temperature based on the difference in \Delta H_\text{vap} between components i and j. In most practical cases, particularly for non-polar hydrocarbon mixtures where the more volatile component has a lower \Delta H_\text{vap}, \alpha decreases as temperature increases, since the vapor pressures converge at higher temperatures. This trend is evident in the benzene-toluene system, a classic example of near-ideal behavior. At 80°C and atmospheric pressure, the saturation vapor pressure of benzene is 760 mmHg, while that of toluene is approximately 290 mmHg, yielding \alpha \approx 2.62. At 100°C, benzene's vapor pressure rises to about 1375 mmHg and toluene's to 562 mmHg, resulting in \alpha \approx 2.45, a noticeable decline.^[42]^[43] Such changes, though modest for closely boiling components, significantly impact separation efficiency in processes like distillation, where higher \alpha facilitates easier separation.^[7] The pressure dependence of relative volatility is more subtle for ideal mixtures, where \alpha remains independent of total pressure at fixed temperature, as it depends solely on the ratio of saturation vapor pressures. However, in real non-polar systems at elevated pressures, non-ideal effects—such as variations in fugacity coefficients—cause \alpha to decrease, particularly as conditions approach the critical point, where the distinction between liquid and vapor phases blurs and volatility differences diminish.^[44] In vacuum distillation, operating at reduced pressure lowers the boiling temperature for a given composition, indirectly enhancing \alpha for systems where volatility increases at lower temperatures, such as many pharmaceuticals and fine chemicals. This minimizes thermal degradation while improving separation sharpness; for heat-sensitive materials, pressures as low as 0.1 atm are often employed to exploit this effect. Graphically, the temperature dependence is often represented by plotting \log \alpha versus $1/T, which approximates a straight line for many systems when saturation pressures are modeled via the Antoine equation: \log_{10} P^\text{sat} = A - \frac{B}{T + C}, where parameters A, B, and C are component-specific. The slope of this plot reflects the difference in enthalpies of vaporization, providing a predictive tool for \alpha across operating temperatures without extensive experimentation.^[42]

Composition and Non-Ideality Effects

In real binary mixtures, the relative volatility \alpha_{ij} is not constant but varies significantly with the liquid-phase composition x, reflecting deviations from ideal behavior. This dependence arises because \alpha_{ij} is influenced by the composition-dependent activity coefficients \gamma_i(x) and \gamma_j(x), such that \alpha_{ij} = \frac{\gamma_i P_i^\text{sat}}{\gamma_j P_j^\text{sat}}, where P_i^\text{sat} and P_j^\text{sat} are the saturation vapor pressures of the pure components.^[45] For instance, in the ethanol-water system at 101.3 kPa, \alpha (ethanol relative to water) is approximately 2 at low ethanol mole fractions (x \approx 0), but decreases progressively to 1 at the azeotropic composition of x \approx 0.89 (95.6 wt% ethanol), beyond which no further enrichment by distillation is possible.^[46] Non-ideal interactions manifest as positive or negative deviations from Raoult's law, quantified through activity coefficients greater than or less than unity, respectively. Positive deviations (\gamma > 1) occur when unlike-molecule interactions are weaker than like-molecule interactions, increasing vapor pressures and often leading to minimum-boiling azeotropes where \alpha exhibits a minimum of 1. Negative deviations (\gamma < 1) result from stronger unlike-molecule attractions, lowering vapor pressures and producing maximum-boiling azeotropes where \alpha can fall below 1 in certain composition ranges. These behaviors are modeled using excess Gibbs energy (G^E) expressions, such as those in the Margules or van Laar equations, which capture the composition dependence of \gamma and explain the resulting minima or maxima in \alpha.^[37] In polar systems like ethanol-water, hydrogen bonding plays a key role in non-ideality. The hydroxyl groups enable hydrogen bonds between ethanol and water, but the hydrophobic ethyl chain of ethanol disrupts the extensive water hydrogen-bond network, leading to positive deviations in activity coefficients and a reduction in \alpha. This interaction weakens the overall intermolecular forces compared to the pure components, facilitating the formation of a minimum-boiling azeotrope at 78.2°C. In contrast, the acetone-chloroform system exhibits negative deviations due to strong hydrogen bonding between the carbonyl oxygen of acetone and the hydrogen of chloroform, resulting in a maximum-boiling azeotrope at 64.5°C and 34.3 wt% acetone, where \alpha (acetone relative to chloroform) drops below 1 in the chloroform-rich region.^[45] This differs markedly from nearly ideal systems like benzene-toluene, where weak dispersion forces yield activity coefficients close to 1 and a constant \alpha \approx 2.5 across compositions.^[7]

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In a VLE measurement with double circulation of vapor and liquid phases, the most simple way to avoid liquid phase analysis is to use an ebulliometer and ...
[31]
[PDF] Pilot plant study on the extractive distillation of toluene ...
It is observed that [hmim][TCB] produces three times higher relative volatilities than the reference solvent. On the other hand, the separation of toluene –.
[32]
[PDF] The effect of organic and inorganic salt on the relative volatility of ...
This thesis work was undertaken to investigate what effects the presence of a dissolved organic or inorganic salt would have on the vapor-liquid equilibrium and ...<|separator|>
[33]
Methodology for the experimental measurement of vapor–liquid ...
Oct 15, 2016 · A method has been developed to determine experimental equilibrium distillation curves using a modified ASTM D86 distillation apparatus.
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Group‐contribution estimation of activity coefficients in nonideal ...
A group-contribution method is presented for the prediction of activity coefficients in nonelectrolyte liquid mixtures.
[35]
Predicting solvent effects on relative volatility behavior in extractive ...
Dec 31, 2019 · For comparison purpose, also traditional VLE prediction with the UNIFAC method using ASPEN Plus software was performed. Section snippets.
[36]
Precise correlation of propylene-propane system and its analysis of ...
Oct 15, 2018 · The study uses COSMO-RS and Peng-Robinson equation to predict propylene-propane VLE, finding relative volatility depends on temperature and ...
[37]
[PDF] VLE Prediction of Azeotropic Systems using UNIQUAC and UNIFAC ...
The objective of the present investigation is to determine the VLE data using UNIQUAC and UNIFAC Models for four azeotropic systems namely ethanol-water, ...
[38]
Analysis of the UNIFAC-Type Group-Contribution Models at the ...
In UNIFAC (Fredenslund et al., 1975), like in all the group-contribution models based on the local composition concept, the activity coefficient of a component ...
[39]
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0378381218302528
[40]
Toluene - the NIST WebBook
Toluene thermophysical properties from 178 to 800 K at pressures to 1000 Bar, J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data, 1989, 18, 1565-636.
[41]
Responses of azeotropes and relative volatilities to pressure variations
Here we analyze and show examples of azeotrope composition and temperature responses to variations of pressure. ... ethanol/acetonitrile/water azeotropic system.<|separator|>
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[PDF] Study Of The Dynamics And Control Of Vapor ... - Lehigh Preserve
the high sensitivity of relative volatility (on a relative basis) to pressure in this system. As pressure is increased, relative volatility decreases which ...
[43]
Optimum vacuum distillation pressure - ScienceDirect.com
In many important industrial separations, relative volatilities increase as temperatures decrease, so low pressure operation reduces reflux ratios, vapor boilup ...
[44]
Guidelines for the Analysis of Vapor–Liquid Equilibrium Data
Aug 10, 2017 · The relative volatility α12 = (x(2)1÷x(1)1)÷(x(2)2÷x(1)2), where x(1)1 and x(2)1 are the mole fractions of the more volatile component in the ...
[45]
Review of Pervaporation and Vapor Permeation Process Factors ...
The water/ethanol system presents particularly significant distillation challenges in this range because the relative volatility is close to 1 and exhibits an ...