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Curve

In mathematics, a curve is a one-dimensional object that generalizes the notion of a straight line, defined as a continuous mapping from a one-dimensional space, such as an interval of the real line, to an n-dimensional space, often parameterized by equations like x_i = f_i(t) or implicitly as f(x_1, x_2, \dots) = 0.^[1] Curves are fundamental in various branches of mathematics, including geometry, topology, and analysis, where they serve as building blocks for studying shapes, spaces, and functions. In topology, a curve is viewed as a one-dimensional continuum, emphasizing its connectedness and continuity without regard to specific embedding.^[1] In algebraic geometry, curves are defined as the zero sets of polynomials, such as f(x, y) = 0 over a field, leading to algebraic curves like conic sections (ellipses, parabolas, hyperbolas) that arise from quadratic equations and have been studied since antiquity for their projective properties.^[1]^[2] Curves can be classified by their dimensionality and embedding: plane curves lie entirely within a two-dimensional plane and include familiar examples like circles and cycloids, while space curves extend into three dimensions, such as helices, allowing for torsion and more complex twisting.^[3]^[4] They may also be open (with endpoints) or closed (forming loops without endpoints, like the Jordan curve, which divides the plane into interior and exterior regions), and simple if they do not intersect themselves.^[5]^[6] Further distinctions include smooth curves, which have continuous derivatives up to a desired order, enabling the study of properties like curvature and tangents in differential geometry.^[7] Beyond classification, curves play a crucial role in applications across mathematics and related fields. In calculus, parametric curves facilitate computations of arc length, surface area, and integrals, as seen in the parameterization of trajectories or in solving differential equations where integral curves represent solution families.^[8] In computer science and engineering, curves like Bézier and spline curves are essential for modeling smooth paths in graphics, animation, and computer-aided design, providing efficient representations for free-form shapes.^[9] Algebraic curves, particularly elliptic curves defined by equations like y^2 = x^3 + ax + b, underpin modern cryptography and number theory due to their group structure and finite field properties.^[10] These diverse roles highlight curves' versatility as tools for abstraction and problem-solving in both pure and applied contexts.

Basic Concepts

Definition and Classifications

In mathematics, a curve is fundamentally defined as a continuous mapping from an interval of the real line to a topological space, or equivalently, as the image of such a mapping.^[1] This definition relies on basic concepts from set theory, including intervals as connected subsets of the reals, and the notion of continuity in topological spaces, without requiring differentiability or other advanced structures.^[11] Topological curves represent the most general type, while subclasses like differentiable curves impose additional smoothness conditions.^[1] Curves are classified based on the ambient space in which they reside. Plane curves lie in the two-dimensional Euclidean space \mathbb{R}^2, space curves inhabit three-dimensional Euclidean space \mathbb{R}^3 or higher-dimensional Euclidean spaces \mathbb{R}^n for n \geq 3, and more abstractly, curves can be defined in smooth manifolds as continuous (or smooth) maps from an interval to the manifold.^[1]^[12] These distinctions highlight how the dimensionality and geometry of the target space influence the curve's properties and applications. Further classifications distinguish curves by their topology and intersection behavior. An open curve has distinct endpoints and does not loop back on itself, whereas a closed curve connects its endpoints, forming a loop without boundary.^[13] A simple curve neither intersects itself nor crosses its own path, in contrast to a self-intersecting curve, which does so at one or more points.^[1] These categories apply across plane, space, and manifold settings, providing a framework for analyzing connectivity and embedding.^[14] Basic examples illustrate these concepts in the plane. A line segment is an open, simple plane curve connecting two distinct points. A circle is a closed, simple plane curve equidistant from a center point. An ellipse, similarly, forms a closed, simple plane curve defined by the sum of distances to two foci being constant.

Parametric Representation

A parametric curve is defined as a continuous map \gamma: I \to \mathbb{R}^n, where I is an interval in \mathbb{R}, and \gamma(t) = (x_1(t), \dots, x_n(t)) with each component x_i: I \to \mathbb{R} being a continuous function.^[15] This representation allows curves in any dimension to be described via a single parameter t, tracing the path as t varies over I. For plane curves (n=2) and space curves (n=3), this form provides a concrete way to model paths that may not be expressible as simple graphs.^[16] A parametrization is regular if the derivative \gamma'(t) \neq 0 for all t \in I, ensuring the curve has no stationary points or cusps where the tangent is undefined.^[15] This condition guarantees a well-defined velocity vector \gamma'(t), which points along the curve and varies continuously, avoiding singularities that could distort geometric properties. Without regularity, the map may self-intersect or halt, as in the example \gamma(t) = (t^3, t^2) at t=0, where \gamma'(0) = (0,0).^[15] Reparametrization involves composing the original map with a diffeomorphism h: J \to I, yielding a new curve \tilde{\gamma}: J \to \mathbb{R}^n defined by \tilde{\gamma} = \gamma \circ h, where J is another interval and both h and h^{-1} are smooth bijections.^[17] This process changes the speed or starting point of traversal but preserves the image of the curve, as the points traced remain identical; orientation is maintained if h'(u) > 0 for all u \in J.^[17] Regular curves admit such reparametrizations freely, allowing flexibility in analysis without altering intrinsic geometry. Classic examples illustrate these concepts. The parabola in the plane is given by \gamma(t) = (t, t^2) for t \in \mathbb{R}, a regular parametrization with \gamma'(t) = (1, 2t) \neq (0,0).^[16] The helix in space is \gamma(t) = (\cos t, \sin t, t) for t \in \mathbb{R}, regular since \gamma'(t) = (-\sin t, \cos t, 1) \neq (0,0), winding uniformly around the z-axis.^[15] In the plane, many parametric curves coincide with graphs of functions, where \gamma(t) = (t, f(t)) for t in some interval, expressing y explicitly as a function of x.^[16] This form is limited to curves passing the vertical line test but serves as a bridge to non-parametric representations, such as the parabola example above. However, parametric forms excel for closed or multi-valued curves like circles, which cannot be single-valued graphs.^[16]

Historical Development

Ancient and Medieval Contributions

In ancient Greece, the study of curves began with foundational geometric constructions emphasizing straight lines and circles as the basic elements of plane figures. Euclid's Elements, compiled around 300 BCE, systematically defined a circle as a plane figure bounded by a single line such that all straight lines drawn from a fixed point within the figure to the bounding line are equal in length, establishing circles and lines as the primary curves amenable to rigorous proof and construction. This work laid the groundwork for understanding curves as loci defined by geometric properties, without algebraic representation, and influenced subsequent mathematical traditions by prioritizing deductive reasoning from axioms.^[18] The discovery of conic sections marked a significant advancement in conceptualizing more complex curves. Around 350 BCE, Menaechmus introduced conic sections by intersecting planes with cones at various angles, identifying the parabola, ellipse, and hyperbola as distinct loci arising from these intersections, initially motivated by solving the Delian problem of doubling the cube. Apollonius of Perga further refined this in his comprehensive treatise Conics (circa 200 BCE), providing detailed classifications and properties of these curves—treating the circle as a special ellipse—through synthetic geometry, including theorems on tangents, asymptotes, and diameters, all derived from cone sections without reference to coordinates. These contributions expanded the scope of curves beyond elementary figures, viewing them as geometric entities defined by their generative processes.^[19]^[20] In ancient India, mathematical treatments of curves focused on practical applications in astronomy, particularly involving circular arcs. Aryabhata, in his Aryabhatiya (499 CE), approximated π as 3.1416 (stated as approximately 62832/20000), enabling precise calculations of arc lengths and chord distances on circles for planetary tables and eclipse predictions, representing an early quantitative approach to curved paths in spherical geometry. This approximation facilitated the computation of sine values and arc measures, bridging geometric intuition with numerical methods for circular curves.^[21] During the Islamic Golden Age, scholars integrated and extended Greek ideas, applying curves to algebraic and physical problems. Omar Khayyam, in his Algebra (1070 CE), developed geometric solutions to cubic equations by constructing intersections between conic sections (such as parabolas or hyperbolas) and circles or straight lines, treating roots as points on these curves and thus geometrically resolving equations like x³ + a x² = b x that eluded simpler constructions. Similarly, Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen), in works like Book of Optics (1011–1021 CE) and On the Configuration of the World (1038 CE), employed conic sections to model light reflection from curved mirrors—solving the locus problem of rays from a point to a spherical surface via intersecting conics—and to describe planetary motions through geometric configurations of eccentric circles and epicycles, enhancing the application of curves to optics and astronomy.^[22]^[23]^[24] A key limitation of ancient and medieval approaches to curves was their restriction to figures constructible using only a ruler (straightedge) and compass, or derivable as conic sections from cones, which precluded general methods for arbitrary or transcendental curves and emphasized synthetic over analytic techniques. This focus on constructibility ensured exactness in proofs but delayed broader classifications until the advent of coordinate geometry.^[25]

17th to 19th Century Advancements

The invention of analytic geometry in the early 17th century by René Descartes and Pierre de Fermat marked a pivotal shift in the study of curves, allowing them to be represented as algebraic equations in a coordinate system. In his 1637 treatise La Géométrie, Descartes introduced a method to describe geometric figures using Cartesian coordinates, where curves such as the parabola could be expressed by equations like y = x^2, enabling algebraic manipulation to solve geometric problems.^[26] Independently, Fermat developed a similar approach in his 1636 manuscript Ad Locos Planos et Solidos Isagoge, using coordinates to classify loci as plane or solid curves based on the equations governing their points, thus laying foundational tools for analyzing curve properties through algebra.^[27] The development of calculus by Isaac Newton and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz in the late 17th century provided methods to determine tangents and normals to curves, addressing longstanding geometric challenges. Newton's fluxional calculus, outlined in his 1669 work De Analysi, used rates of change (fluxions) to find the slope of tangents at any point on a curve, such as by approximating the instantaneous rate via limits of secant lines.^[28] Similarly, Leibniz's differential calculus, published in 1684, employed infinitesimals to compute tangents and normals, with the derivative representing the slope as \frac{dy}{dx}, facilitating the study of curve behavior at points of interest.^[29] These innovations extended to rectification, the process of finding arc lengths; Leonhard Euler advanced this in his 1748 Introductio in Analysin Infinitorum, deriving integral formulas for arc length, such as s = \int_a^b \sqrt{1 + \left(\frac{dy}{dx}\right)^2} \, dx for plane curves, though exact rectification remained elusive for transcendental curves.^[30] A key milestone was Maria Gaetana Agnesi's 1748 Istituzioni Analitiche, the first comprehensive textbook to systematically apply calculus to curves, including her namesake "witch of Agnesi" curve, defined by y = \frac{8a^3}{x^2 + 4a^2}, which she analyzed for tangents, areas, and asymptotes using differential methods. In the 19th century, Carl Friedrich Gauss advanced differential geometry in his 1827 Disquisitiones Generales Circa Superficies Curvas, developing the theory of curved surfaces and introducing Gaussian curvature as the product of the principal curvatures, quantified in relation to the osculating surfaces. This work, including the Theorema Egregium, demonstrated that the Gaussian curvature of a surface is an intrinsic property, independent of its embedding in three-dimensional space, influencing later developments in curve and surface theory.^[31]^[32]

20th Century and Modern Developments

In the early 20th century, advancements in topology and manifold theory reframed curves as abstract one-dimensional manifolds, either diffeomorphic to the real line \mathbb{R} (for open curves) or the circle S^1 (for closed curves), emphasizing properties invariant under continuous deformations. This conceptualization, central to differential topology, allows curves to be studied as embedded submanifolds in higher-dimensional spaces, where local Euclidean neighborhoods facilitate global analysis. Henri Poincaré pioneered this approach by extending curve analysis to higher dimensions, introducing the fundamental group in 1894 to classify closed curves on surfaces based on their homotopy equivalence—loops that cannot be deformed into each other without crossing.^[33] In his 1895 paper Analysis Situs, Poincaré formalized these ideas for n-dimensional manifolds, treating curves as generators of homology groups and establishing algebraic invariants for their topological behavior.^[34] Key 20th-century innovations included space-filling curves, which map a one-dimensional interval onto higher-dimensional regions, blurring dimensional boundaries. Giuseppe Peano described the first such continuous surjection from [0,1] to the unit square in 1890, demonstrating that topological dimension need not align with intuitive geometric filling. David Hilbert refined this in 1891 with a iterative geometric construction, the Hilbert curve, which approximates the square through successive subdivisions while maintaining better spatial locality than Peano's version. Fractal curves emerged concurrently, exemplified by Helge von Koch's 1904 construction of the Koch curve—a nowhere-differentiable path obtained by iteratively replacing line segments with equilateral triangles—leading to the Koch snowflake, a closed curve of infinite perimeter enclosing finite area. The Jordan curve theorem, positing that every simple closed curve in the plane divides it into an interior and exterior region, received its first rigorous proof in 1905 from Oswald Veblen, using axiomatic projective geometry to resolve earlier analytic gaps. In algebraic geometry, Bernhard Riemann introduced Riemann surfaces in 1851 as compact one-dimensional complex manifolds, equivalent to smooth projective algebraic curves, where multi-valued functions like square roots branch analytically; 20th-century theorems, such as the uniformization theorem (1907–1913), further unified their complex structure with polynomial equations.^[35] Computational applications advanced through Pierre Bézier's 1960s development of parametric polynomial curves for Renault's UNISURF system, enabling precise, adjustable representations in computer-aided geometric design (CAGD) for graphics and manufacturing. Later, in the 1970s–1980s, non-uniform rational B-splines (NURBS) extended these methods, becoming standard for modeling complex free-form curves and surfaces in industries like automotive design and animation as of 2025.^[36] In physics, curves model worldlines as timelike paths in Minkowski spacetime, introduced by Hermann Minkowski in 1908 to geometrize special relativity, where particle trajectories maximize proper time along geodesics.^[37]

Topological Curves

Definition and Properties

In topology, a curve is defined as the continuous image of the closed interval [0, 1] into a topological space X.^[38] This image inherits key properties from the domain: it is compact, as the continuous image of a compact set, and path-connected, meaning any two points in the curve can be joined by a continuous path within it.^[38] Topological curves possess a Hausdorff dimension of 1 when realized as embeddings, reflecting their one-dimensional structure in metric spaces like \mathbb{R}^n.^[39] For embeddings—continuous injective maps that are homeomorphisms onto their images—the curve is locally Euclidean, homeomorphic to an open interval in \mathbb{R} at each interior point, ensuring no self-intersections and preserving the topology of the domain. In contrast, immersions are continuous maps that are locally injective but may self-intersect globally, allowing curves to overlap without violating local topology.^[40] Examples illustrate these distinctions: a knot is a topological embedding of the circle S^1 (the image of [0,1]/\{0 \sim 1\}) into \mathbb{R}^3, forming a closed, non-self-intersecting loop that cannot be continuously deformed to the unknot without crossing itself.^[41] Simple arcs, such as the image of an open or half-open interval under an embedding, represent non-closed curves connecting two distinct points, while loops correspond to closed curves like those based at a fixed point. Closed topological curves, or loops, play a central role in algebraic topology by generating homotopy classes in the fundamental group \pi_1(X, x_0) of a path-connected space X based at x_0; two loops are homotopic if one can be continuously deformed into the other while fixing endpoints, with concatenation defining the group operation.^[38]

Simple Closed Curves and Jordan Theorem

In topology, a simple closed curve in the plane, often called a Jordan curve, is defined as a continuous injective map from the unit circle S^1 to the Euclidean plane \mathbb{R}^2, or equivalently, the homeomorphic image of S^1.^[42] This means the curve is closed, non-self-intersecting, and topologically equivalent to a circle.^[42] The Jordan curve theorem states that every such simple closed curve divides the plane into exactly two connected components: a bounded interior region and an unbounded exterior region, with the curve serving as the boundary of each.^[43] The theorem was stated by Camille Jordan in 1887, though his proof was flawed. The first rigorous proof was given by Oswald Veblen in 1905 using non-metrical analysis situs.^[44] An important extension is the Schoenflies theorem, which asserts that if J is a simple closed curve in \mathbb{R}^2, then the closure of the bounded component of \mathbb{R}^2 \setminus J is homeomorphic to the closed unit disk \overline{D^2}.^[45] This result, named after Arthur Schoenflies, strengthens the Jordan curve theorem by guaranteeing that the interior is topologically a disk; it can be proved using the Riemann mapping theorem or Morse theory.^[45] While the Jordan and Schoenflies theorems hold in the plane, they fail in higher dimensions without additional assumptions, such as tameness. A famous counterexample is the Alexander horned sphere in \mathbb{R}^3, a wild embedding of S^2 whose complement has a bounded component that is not simply connected.^[46] In complex analysis, the Jordan curve theorem underpins the study of simply connected domains bounded by such curves, enabling applications like the Riemann mapping theorem, which guarantees a conformal map from any simply connected domain in the complex plane (with non-empty boundary) onto the unit disk.^[47]^[48]

Differentiable Curves

Smoothness and Parametrization

A curve \gamma: I \to \mathbb{R}^n, where I is an interval, is classified by the smoothness of its parametrization, determined by the continuity of its derivatives. Specifically, \gamma is of class C^k if it is k times differentiable and the k-th derivative \gamma^{(k)} is continuous on I.^[49] Curves of class C^\infty, which are infinitely differentiable with all derivatives continuous, are termed smooth.^[49] A stricter subclass comprises analytic curves, where the components of \gamma are real analytic functions, meaning they admit local power series expansions converging to the function in some neighborhood.^[50] For smooth curves, parametrization choices significantly influence geometric properties. A key reparametrization is the unit speed form, where the derivative satisfies \|\gamma'(t)\| = 1 for all t \in I. Such a parametrization exists for any regular smooth curve, defined as one where \gamma'(t) \neq 0 everywhere, and can be obtained by integrating the arc length function.^[16] This canonical form simplifies computations in differential geometry by normalizing the speed to unity.^[51] In the differentiable category, curves are further distinguished by whether their parametrizations are immersions or embeddings. An immersion is a C^1 map \gamma such that \gamma' is nowhere zero, ensuring local injectivity: near any point, \gamma behaves like a line without self-intersections.^[51] An embedding strengthens this to global injectivity, requiring \gamma to be a homeomorphism onto its image, with the map proper (preimages of compact sets are compact).^[51] Differentiable embeddings thus form a smoother subclass of topological embeddings, which are merely continuous injective proper maps.^[51] A classic example of a non-smooth point occurs in the semicubical parabola, given implicitly by y^2 = x^3 or parametrically by \gamma(t) = (t^2, t^3) for t \in \mathbb{R}. At the origin (t=0), \gamma'(0) = (0,0), violating regularity and rendering the curve merely C^0 (continuous) but not C^1 there, as the cusp prevents a well-defined tangent.^[51] This singularity highlights how smoothness failures manifest as sharp turns or self-tangencies.

Arc Length and Rectification

For a smooth parametrized curve \gamma: [a, b] \to \mathbb{R}^n with \gamma'(t) \neq 0, the arc length L from a to b is given by the integral

L = \int_a^b \|\gamma'(t)\| \, dt,

where \|\cdot\| denotes the Euclidean norm. This formula arises as the limit of the lengths of inscribed polygonal approximations to the curve, providing a precise measure of its total extent. A curve is rectifiable if the supremum of the lengths of all polygonal approximations is finite; for such curves, the rectification theorem guarantees the existence of a unique arc-length parametrization \tilde{\gamma}: [0, L] \to \mathbb{R}^n where \|\tilde{\gamma}'(s)\| = 1 for all s, effectively "straightening" the curve by using distance along it as the parameter. This reparametrization simplifies analysis by making the speed constant and equal to unity, and the total length L serves as the domain's endpoint. Not all continuous curves are rectifiable; the Koch curve, constructed iteratively by replacing line segments with equilateral triangular protrusions, exemplifies a non-rectifiable curve with infinite length despite being bounded in the plane.^[52] Each iteration increases the length by a factor of $4/3, leading to divergence in the limit.^[52] Historically, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz advanced the rectification of curves through quadrature methods, reducing the length of transcendental curves like the cycloid to integrals solvable via his newly developed calculus, as detailed in his contributions to the Acta Eruditorum.^[53]

Geometry of Plane and Space Curves

Curvature and Osculating Circle

In differential geometry, the curvature of a curve quantifies its local bending at a point, serving as an extrinsic measure of how sharply the curve deviates from being straight.^[54] For a plane curve parameterized by arc length s, where the parameterization \gamma(s) has unit speed \|\gamma'(s)\| = 1, the curvature \kappa(s) is defined as the magnitude of the second derivative: \kappa(s) = \|\gamma''(s)\|.^[54] This represents the rate of change of the unit tangent vector with respect to arc length, capturing the instantaneous turning rate.^[54] For a general parameterization \gamma(t) of a plane or space curve, not necessarily unit speed, the curvature is given by the formula \kappa(t) = \frac{\|\gamma'(t) \times \gamma''(t)\|}{\|\gamma'(t)\|^3}, where the cross product yields a vector whose magnitude measures the bending in the plane spanned by the first two derivatives.^[54] In the plane, this simplifies to \kappa(t) = \frac{|x'(t)y''(t) - y'(t)x''(t)|}{(x'(t)^2 + y'(t)^2)^{3/2}} for \gamma(t) = (x(t), y(t)).^[54] For plane curves, a signed curvature \tilde{\kappa}(t) is often used, omitting the absolute value to distinguish between left and right turns relative to the orientation: \tilde{\kappa}(t) = \frac{x'(t)y''(t) - y'(t)x''(t)}{(x'(t)^2 + y'(t)^2)^{3/2}}.^[54] Positive signed curvature indicates counterclockwise turning, while negative indicates clockwise, providing directional information essential for applications like path planning.^[55] The osculating circle at a point on the curve is the unique circle that best approximates the curve locally, matching its position, tangent, and curvature up to second order.^[56] Its radius, known as the radius of curvature, is \rho = [1](/page/1)/\kappa, and its center lies along the principal normal direction at distance \rho from the point.^[56] This circle is defined as the limit of circles passing through three nearby points on the curve as they approach the given point, ensuring second-order contact.^[56] Classic examples illustrate these concepts clearly. For a circle of radius r parameterized as \gamma(t) = (r \cos t, r \sin t), the curvature is constant at \kappa = 1/r, with the osculating circle coinciding with the curve itself everywhere.^[54] In contrast, a straight line has zero curvature \kappa = 0, corresponding to an osculating circle of infinite radius, which degenerates to the line itself.^[54]

Torsion and Frenet-Serret Apparatus

For space curves, torsion provides a measure of how the curve twists out of the osculating plane defined by the tangent and principal normal vectors, complementing the role of curvature in describing bending. For a unit-speed parametrization \gamma(s) of a regular curve in \mathbb{R}^3, the torsion \tau(s) is given by

\tau(s) = -\frac{\gamma'(s) \cdot (\gamma''(s) \times \gamma'''(s))}{\|\gamma'(s) \times \gamma''(s)\|^2}.

^[57] This scalar quantity, analogous to curvature but capturing three-dimensional deviation, is zero for planar curves and positive or negative depending on the handedness of the twist.^[58] The Frenet-Serret apparatus consists of the orthonormal moving frame along the curve, comprising the unit tangent vector T(s) = \gamma'(s), the principal normal N(s) = T'(s)/\|T'(s)\| (pointing toward the center of osculation), and the binormal B(s) = T(s) \times N(s), which is perpendicular to the osculating plane.^[57] The evolution of this frame is governed by the Frenet-Serret formulas, a system of differential equations that relate the derivatives of the frame vectors to the curvature \kappa(s) and torsion \tau(s):

\frac{dT}{ds} = \kappa N, \quad \frac{dN}{ds} = -\kappa T + \tau B, \quad \frac{dB}{ds} = -\tau N.

^[58] These equations reveal that the tangent changes direction solely due to curvature, while the normal and binormal incorporate both bending and twisting effects.^[57] The fundamental theorem of space curves asserts that the curvature \kappa(s) > 0 and torsion \tau(s) uniquely determine a regular curve up to a rigid motion (Euclidean transformation) in \mathbb{R}^3.^[57] Specifically, given continuous functions \kappa and \tau on an interval, there exists a unique unit-speed curve \gamma: I \to \mathbb{R}^3 (up to position and orientation) satisfying the Frenet-Serret formulas with those invariants, obtained by integrating the frame equations with initial conditions.^[58] This theorem underscores the intrinsic nature of \kappa and \tau as complete geometric invariants for space curves. A representative example is the circular helix, parametrized by \gamma(t) = (a \cos t, a \sin t, b t) for constants a > 0, b \neq 0, which has constant curvature \kappa = a/(a^2 + b^2) and constant torsion \tau = b/(a^2 + b^2).^[57] After reparametrization to unit speed, the helix satisfies the Frenet-Serret formulas with these constants, illustrating steady twisting around an axis. In contrast, any planar curve embedded in \mathbb{R}^3 has \tau(s) = 0 everywhere, reducing the frame to two dimensions and the formulas to the planar case.^[58]

Algebraic Curves

Definitions in Affine and Projective Spaces

In affine space \mathbb{A}^2, an algebraic curve is defined as the zero set V(p) = \{(x, y) \in \mathbb{A}^2 \mid p(x, y) = 0\}, where p is a polynomial in two variables over a field k, such as \mathbb{C} or \mathbb{R}.^[59]^[60] This set represents the solution locus to the equation p(x, y) = 0, and the curve is considered plane if embedded in \mathbb{A}^2. If p is irreducible, then V(p) forms an irreducible affine curve; otherwise, the curve decomposes into irreducible components corresponding to the zero sets of the irreducible factors of p.^[59]^[60] To extend affine curves to projective space \mathbb{P}^2, the projective closure is obtained via homogenization: introduce a new variable [z](/page/Z) and form the homogeneous polynomial

[\tilde{p}](/page/Tilde)([x, y](/page/X&Y), [z](/page/Z))

of the same degree as p by multiplying each term of p(x/z, y/z) by z^{\deg(p)}. The projective curve is then V(\tilde{p}) = \{[x : y : z] \in \mathbb{P}^2 \mid \tilde{p}(x, y, z) = 0\}, where [x : y : z] denotes homogeneous coordinates.^[59]^[60] This closure adds points at infinity, which are the intersection points of V(\tilde{p}) with the line at infinity \{[z](/page/Z) = 0\}, ensuring the curve is compact in the projective setting and preventing asymptotic behavior observed in the affine plane.^[59]^[60] Irreducible components in the projective case similarly arise from the homogeneous prime ideals defining the curve.^[59] Algebraic curves are classified as rational if they admit a parametrization by rational functions, meaning their function field is isomorphic to the field of rational functions in one variable over k, such as lines which can be parametrized as (t, at + b).^[59] In contrast, non-rational curves (those of positive genus), like elliptic curves, do not possess such a global rational parametrization and require more complex descriptions.^[59] For instance, a circle, realized as the conic x^2 + y^2 = 1 in affine space, is rational and can be parametrized using rational functions via stereographic projection.^[59] Representative examples include conics, which are algebraic curves of degree 2 defined by quadratic polynomials, such as the affine equation x^2 + y^2 - 1 = 0 for the unit circle, whose projective closure is x^2 + y^2 - z^2 = 0 with points at infinity [1 : i : 0] and [1 : -i : 0] over \mathbb{C}.^[59]^[60] Cubic curves of degree 3 provide another key class, exemplified by elliptic curves given in affine form by y^2 = x^3 + ax + b where the discriminant $4a^3 + 27b^2 \neq 0 ensures smoothness, and whose projective closure is y^2 z = x^3 + a x z^2 + b z^3 with a single point at infinity [0 : 1 : 0].^[59]^[60] These examples illustrate how affine definitions extend projectively while preserving algebraic structure.^[59]

Degree, Genus, and Singularities

In algebraic geometry, the degree of a plane algebraic curve C defined by a homogeneous polynomial F(X, Y, Z) of degree d in the projective plane \mathbb{P}^2 is d, which represents the highest total degree of the monomials in F. This invariant determines key intersection properties, such as Bézout's theorem, which states that two plane curves of degrees d_1 and d_2 intersect in d_1 d_2 points counting multiplicity, provided they have no common component.^[61] For a smooth (nonsingular) projective plane curve of degree d, the genus g—a topological invariant measuring the number of "holes" in the Riemann surface associated to the curve—is given by the formula

g = \frac{(d-1)(d-2)}{2}.

This degree-genus formula arises from the adjunction formula or Hurwitz's theorem applied to the canonical embedding of the curve. For example, a smooth cubic curve (d=3) has genus 1, corresponding to an elliptic curve, while a smooth quartic (d=4) has genus 3.^[61]^[62] Singularities occur at points P on the curve where the partial derivatives \partial F / \partial X, \partial F / \partial Y, and \partial F / \partial Z vanish simultaneously, indicating a lack of smoothness. The presence of singularities reduces the geometric genus p_g below the arithmetic genus p_a = (d-1)(d-2)/2, with the difference given by p_a - p_g = \sum \delta_P, where \delta_P is the \delta-invariant (or Milnor number in some contexts) at each singular point P. For curves with only ordinary multiple points—where the tangent cone at P consists of r_P distinct lines, with r_P the multiplicity—the \delta-invariant simplifies to \delta_P = r_P(r_P - 1)/2, yielding

p_g = \frac{(d-1)(d-2)}{2} - \sum_P \frac{r_P(r_P - 1)}{2}.

An ordinary double point (node, r_P = 2, two distinct tangents) contributes \delta_P = 1, while a triple point (r_P = 3) contributes \delta_P = 3. For non-ordinary singularities like a cusp (a double point with a single tangent and intersection multiplicity 3 with the tangent line), \delta_P = 2, further lowering the genus; for instance, an irreducible cubic with a cusp has geometric genus 0.^[61] Common types of singularities on plane curves include nodes and cusps, classified by their local equations in affine coordinates. A node has local form y^2 = x^2(x + 1) (two real branches crossing transversely), while a cusp is y^2 = x^3 (a single branch with a sharp turn). Higher-order singularities, such as tacnodes or ramphoid cusps, increase \delta_P more substantially and can be resolved via normalization or blow-ups to recover the smooth model whose genus matches p_g. The total number and type of singularities are constrained by Plücker formulas, linking them to the degree and dual curve class.^[61]

References

[1]
Curve -- from Wolfram MathWorld
In analytic geometry, a curve is continuous map from a one-dimensional space to an n -dimensional space.
[2]
[PDF] Here is a list of the most important curves in mathematics, so you ...
It is so natural to go from linear equations to quadratic equations. Straight lines use 1,x, y. Second degree curves include x2, xy, y2. If we go on to x3 and ...
[3]
Plane Curve -- from Wolfram MathWorld
A plane curve is a curve that lies in a single plane. A plane curve may be closed or open. Curves which are interesting for some reason and whose properties ...
[4]
Space Curve -- from Wolfram MathWorld
A space curve is a curve that can pass through any region of three-dimensional space, unlike a plane curve which must lie in a single plane.
[5]
Closed Curve -- from Wolfram MathWorld
In the plane, a closed curve is a curve with no endpoints and which completely encloses an area. See also Curve, Jordan Curve, Simple Curve.
[6]
Simple Curve -- from Wolfram MathWorld
Simple Curve: SimpleCurves A curve is simple if it does not cross itself. See also Closed Curve, Jordan Curve Explore with Wolfram|Alpha
[7]
Smooth Curve -- from Wolfram MathWorld
A smooth curve is a continuous map f from a one-dimensional space to an n -dimensional space which on its domain has continuous derivatives up to a desired ...
[8]
Calculus II - Parametric Equations and Curves
Apr 10, 2025 · In this section we will introduce parametric equations and parametric curves (i.e. graphs of parametric equations). We will graph several ...
[9]
[PDF] Intro to Curves - Department of Computer Science
• M and G matrices vary by curve. – Hermite, Bézier, spline, etc. Page 37. 37. Some Types of Curves. • Hermite. – def'd by two end points and two tangent ...
[10]
[PDF] Elliptic curves and their Practical Applications - BearWorks
Finding rational points that satisfy functions known as elliptic curves induces a finitely- generated abelian group. Such functions are powerful tools that ...
[11]
continuous map in nLab
Jun 14, 2025 · Continuous maps are the homomorphisms between topological spaces. In other words, the collection of topological spaces forms a category, often denoted Top,
[12]
curve in nLab
Oct 18, 2025 · A regular curve, which is a parametrized smooth curve whose velocity, ie the derivative with respect to the parameter, is never zero.
[13]
Closed curve - Math.net
A closed curve is a curve with no endpoints. A closed curve flows continuously with no breaks or gaps. It forms a shape with a region or regions that have area.
[14]
Plane Curve: Definition, Examples - Statistics How To
Types of Plane Curve · Simple plane curves are non intersecting. In other words, they do not cross their own paths. · A closed plane curve has no endpoints; it ...
[15]
[PDF] Differential Geometry of Curves
be a parameterized differentiable. Let α: I → R be a parameterized differentiable curve. For each t ∈ I s t α'(t) ≠ 0 the tangent line to α.
[16]
[PDF] Math 162A - Introduction to Differential Geometry
To describe curves and surfaces in differential geometry, we parametrize using functions. ... It is now time for the formal definition of a curve. 3. Page 4 ...
[17]
[PDF] Differential Geometry of Curves and Surfaces by Do Carmo.
If two regular curves have same image, they are related by reparametrization, since regular curves have a unique canonical reparametrization. Arc length ...
[18]
[PDF] A SURVEY OF EUCLID'S ELEMENTS 1. Definitions, Axioms and ...
A circle is a plane figure contained by one line such that all the straight lines falling upon it from one point among those lying within the figure are equal ...
[19]
Conic Sections in Ancient Greece
The knowledge of conic sections can be traced back to Ancient Greece. Menaechmus is credited with the discovery of conic sections around the years 360-350 BC.
[20]
[PDF] 4. Alexandrian mathematics after Euclid — II Apollonius of Perga
Two well-known conics are the circle and the ellipse. These arise when the intersection of cone and plane is a closed curve. The circle is a special case of the ...
[21]
Birth, growth and computation of pi to ten trillion digits
Apr 11, 2013 · To find an approximate value of π, Aryabhatta gives the following prescription: Add 4 to 100, multiply by 8 and add to 62,000. This is ' ...
[22]
geometric solutions of quadratic and cubic equations - Project Euclid
In his Al-jabr wa'l muqabalah, Omar Khayyam also gave geometric solutions to cubic equations. You will see that his methods are sufficient to find geometrically ...
[23]
A Polymath in the 10th Century - Science
Ibn al-Haytham showed that geo- metrical figures could be built systematically with the help of intersections of conic curves, and that these curves could be ...Missing: medieval | Show results with:medieval
[24]
Ibn Al-Haytham: Father of Modern Optics - PMC - PubMed Central
Nearly half of his surviving works are on mathematics, 23 of them are on astronomy, and 14 of them are on optics, with a few on other areas of science. Not all ...Missing: curves | Show results with:curves
[25]
[PDF] Abstract Three geometric construction problems—the duplication of ...
However, the desired curves and segments cannot be constructed with a straightedge and compass, so this approach also goes beyond the strictest interpretation ...
[26]
Descartes' Mathematics - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Nov 28, 2011 · ... curves that were not constructible by straightedge and compass. For instance, Pappus rendered the construction of the neusis a solid problem ...Missing: medieval | Show results with:medieval
[27]
[PDF] fermat. coordinate geometry
Whenever the end point of the unknown quantity describes a straight line or a circle, we have a plane locus; when it describes a parabola, hyperbola, or ellipse ...
[28]
Isaac Newton - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Dec 19, 2007 · Isaac Newton (1642–1727) is best known for having invented the calculus in the mid to late 1660s (most of a decade before Leibniz did so independently)
[29]
[PDF] 12. The development of calculus 13. Newton and Leibniz
Geometric and physical attributes of curves, such as tangents and normals to curves, the concept of curvature, and the relation of these to questions about ...
[30]
[PDF] On the Surface Area of Scalene Cones and Other Conical Bodies
Let the arc [length] of this curve be called s. Since s = Z dxp1 + pp, then s = xp1 + pp −. Z xp dp. √. 1 + pp . Thus the rectification of the curve depends ...
[31]
[PDF] General investigations of curved surfaces of 1827 and 1825 ...
von Carl Friedrich Gauss, (1827). Deutsch herausgegeben von A. Wangerin ... in the theory of plane curves, according to which the measure of curvature should be.
[32]
[PDF] THE GAUSS-BONNET THEOREM CHRISTIAN SCHNELL 1. A short ...
A curved surface is said to possess continuous curvature at one of its points , if the directions of all the straight lines drawn from to points of the surface ...
[33]
Henri Poincaré - Biography - MacTutor - University of St Andrews
Poincaré introduced the fundamental group (or first homotopy group) in his paper of 1894 to distinguish different categories of 2-dimensional surfaces.
[34]
[PDF] Papers on Topology - School of Mathematics
Jul 31, 2009 · ... Poincaré before topology. In the introduction to his first major topology paper, the Analysis situs, Poincaré. (1895) announced his goal of ...
[35]
[PDF] Algebraic curves and Riemann surfaces
It begins with the definitions and first properties of Riemann surfaces, with special attention paid to the Riemann sphere, complex tori, hyperelliptic curves, ...
[36]
On Pierre Bézier's life and motivations - ScienceDirect
This paper presents two letters written by Pierre Bézier in October–November 1999 on the context and the motivations for the creation of the 'Bézier curves' ...
[37]
[PDF] Space and Time - UCSD Math
It was Hermann Minkowski (Einstein's mathematics professor) who announced the new four- dimensional (spacetime) view of the world in 1908, which he deduced from ...
[38]
[PDF] Algebraic Topology - Cornell Mathematics
... path joining each x ∈ X to x0 . It is less trivial to show that there are ... continuous map f :I→X where I is the unit interval [0,1]. The idea of ...
[39]
A new fractal dimension: The topological Hausdorff dimension
The value of the topological Hausdorff dimension is always between the topological dimension and the Hausdorff dimension, in particular, this new dimension is a ...
[40]
[PDF] 3 Immersions and Embeddings - UCSD Math
An immersion is a differentiable mapping. An embedding is an immersion that is a homeomorphism onto its image, inheriting the subspace topology.
[41]
[PDF] An introduction to knot theory and the knot group - UChicago Math
A knot is an embedding of the circle S1 in R3. The intuitive meaning behind a knot can be directly discerned from its name, as can the motivation for the ...
[42]
Jordan Curve -- from Wolfram MathWorld
A Jordan curve is a plane curve which is topologically equivalent to (a homeomorphic image of) the unit circle, i.e., it is simple and closed.
[43]
https://mathworld.wolfram.com/JordanCurveTheorem.html
[44]
Schönflies Theorem -- from Wolfram MathWorld
This theorem may be proved using the Riemann mapping theorem, but the easiest proof is via Morse theory. The generalization to n dimensions is called Mazur's ...
[45]
[PDF] June 10, 2021 THE JORDAN CURVE THEOREM 1. Arc and Jordan ...
Jun 10, 2021 · (2) Jordan curve theorem was generalized to higher dimensions by Brouwer: ... counterexample is the Alexander horned sphere. Page 7. THE ...
[46]
[PDF] arXiv:2011.04831v1 [math.CV] 9 Nov 2020
Nov 9, 2020 · By the Riemann mapping theorem and Caratheodory's theorem, any Jordan curve can be crossed by an arc of σ-finite length that intersects the ...Missing: complex | Show results with:complex
[47]
[PDF] an improved riemann mapping theorem and complexity in potential ...
Abstract. We discuss applications of an improvement on the Riemann map- ping theorem which replaces the unit disc by another “double quadrature do-.
[48]
[PDF] Differential Geometry of Curves and Surfaces by Do Carmo.
Ck. means k times differentiable and kth derivative is continuous. C∞ is smooth, infinitely differentiable. (3) Chain rule. Consider Rm f→ Rn g.
[49]
[PDF] the convenient setting for real analytic mappings
Aug 21, 1989 · A mapping will be called real analytic if it maps smooth curves to smooth curves and real analytic curves to real analytic curves. This ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[50]
[PDF] INTRODUCTION TO DIFFERENTIAL GEOMETRY
Mar 18, 2013 · v but not on the choice of the curve γ used in the definition. ... embedding if it is a proper injective immersion. Remark 1.39. In our ...
[51]
Koch Curve -- from Wolfram MathWorld
Algebra Applied Mathematics Calculus and Analysis Discrete Mathematics Foundations of Mathematics Geometry History and Terminology Number Theory Probability ...
[52]
[PDF] The rectification of quadratures as a central foundational problem for ...
Aug 2, 2012 · Leibniz's rectification construction is in Leibniz [1694d], where the same point is repeated in similar words: Bernoullis construction is “ ...
[53]
Curvature -- from Wolfram MathWorld
Curvature has two main types: extrinsic and intrinsic. Extrinsic curvature is the first type studied, and the simplest form encountered in calculus.<|control11|><|separator|>
[54]
[PDF] Day 19 Differential Geometry of Plane Curves and G1 Bezier Splines
In this definition, we have positive curvature and negative curvature. The sign determines the direction of turning. If the curvature is positive then the curve ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[55]
Osculating Circle -- from Wolfram MathWorld
The osculating circle of a curve C at a given point P is the circle that has the same tangent as C at point P as well as the same curvature.
[56]
None
Below is a merged summary of "Torsion, Frenet-Serret Equations, and Fundamental Theorem of Curves" from do Carmo’s *Differential Geometry of Curves and Surfaces*, consolidating all information from the provided segments into a comprehensive and dense response. To maximize detail and clarity, I will use a table format for key concepts (e.g., definitions, formulas, and examples) where applicable, followed by narrative explanations and a list of useful URLs. Page references are included where provided, and variations in formulas or examples are noted.
[57]
[PDF] The Frenet–Serret formulas∗ - Brooklyn College
Jan 19, 2017 · 1 The Frenet–Serret frame of a space curve. We will consider smooth curves given by a parametric equation in a three-dimensional space.
[58]
[PDF] INTRODUCTION TO ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY
Jan 5, 2020 · A plane curve is called a curve because it is defined by one equation in two variables. Its algebraic dimension is one. But because our scalars ...
[59]
[PDF] Introduction to Arithmetic Geometry 18.782
Sep 5, 2013 · A curve is an algebraic variety of dimension 1 (defined over a field k). In n-dimensional affine space kn, this means we have a system of n − 1.<|control11|><|separator|>
[60]
[PDF] ALGEBRAIC CURVES - Mathematics
Jan 28, 2008 · The general study of affine and projective varieties is continued in Chapters 4 and 6, but only as far as necessary for our study of curves.
[61]
An overview of algebraic geometry through the lens of plane curves
Mar 8, 2024 · We can now state another theorem, the “degree-genus formula”, which begins to hint at the interplay between algebra and geometry which arises in ...