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S6G reactor

The S6G is a pressurized water nuclear reactor designed by General Electric for propulsion in the United States Navy's Los Angeles-class attack submarines (SSN-688 class).^[1]^[2] It generates approximately 165 MW of thermal power, driving two 26 MW steam turbines that produce up to 35,000 shaft horsepower for a single propeller, enabling submerged speeds of around 25-33 knots and surfaced speeds of 15-20 knots without the need for refueling over the submarine's typical 33-year service life.^[1]^[3]^[4] The reactor uses highly enriched uranium fuel (originally ~97% U-235, later adjusted to ~93%), contained in a compact core designed for high reliability and safety in underwater operations.^[1]^[4] Introduced in the mid-1970s as the U.S. Navy's third-generation submarine reactor, the S6G represented a significant advancement over predecessors like the S5W, incorporating a modified design derived from the D2G surface-ship reactor to achieve greater power density and speed for countering Soviet submarine threats during the Cold War.^[2]^[5]^[4] The reactor plant, including its compartment measuring 33 feet in diameter, 42 feet long, and weighing 1,680 tons, was first tested in the land-based D1G prototype at the Kesselring Site in West Milton, New York.^[2] Early Los Angeles-class boats (Flight I, SSN-688 to SSN-718) used an initial 150 MWt D1G-2 core, while later variants (Flight II from SSN-719) featured an upgraded 165 MWt D2W core for enhanced performance; most Flight I submarines underwent mid-life refueling to the D2W configuration.^[2]^[4] The S6G powers 62 Los Angeles-class submarines built between 1972 and 1996, with approximately 23 in commission as of 2025, forming the backbone of the U.S. Navy's fast-attack submarine fleet for missions including anti-submarine warfare, intelligence gathering, and strike operations via vertical launch systems for Tomahawk missiles on later boats. The Navy plans to refuel and extend the service lives of up to seven submarines to help maintain fleet numbers.^[1]^[4]^[6]^[7] Its standardized design has contributed to an exemplary safety record, with no radiological incidents across over 6,200 reactor-years of U.S. naval nuclear operations.^[1] Ongoing training for S6G operators occurs on moored training ships, ensuring sustained expertise as the class transitions toward retirement in favor of newer Virginia-class submarines.^[8]

Development

Origins

In the late 1960s, the U.S. Navy's nuclear propulsion program sought to advance beyond the S5W reactors powering Sturgeon-class submarines, driven by the need for faster and quieter attack submarines to counter evolving Soviet threats.^[4] This shift emphasized designs capable of higher speeds and enhanced stealth, laying the groundwork for the next generation of submerged propulsion systems.^[9] The S6G reactor's origins are directly linked to the Los Angeles-class (SSN-688) submarine program, with development commencing in the late 1960s and formal funding allocated in the FY1970 budget.^[10] Reactor work began around 1970 under the direction of Knolls Atomic Power Laboratory (KAPL), operating under contract with General Electric (GE), to create a propulsion plant tailored for the class's inaugural vessels.^[9] The program initiation in 1967-1968 responded to strategic requirements, culminating in the lead ship's construction starting in 1972 and commissioning in 1976.^[10] Initial design incorporated the D1G-2 core, adapted from the 148 MWt D2G reactor previously used in surface combatants like the USS Bainbridge (CGN-25), to meet submarine-specific constraints such as limited hull space.^[9] The pressurized water reactor (PWR) configuration was selected for its compact footprint, high power density, and ability to support natural circulation during submerged operations, enabling reliable performance without auxiliary pumps that could generate noise.^[4] Core design goals prioritized a 33-year operational life without refueling, achieved through the use of highly enriched uranium (HEU) fuel to maximize energy density and endurance.^[4] This approach ensured seamless integration within the submarine's structural limits, supporting extended missions with minimal logistical demands.^[9]

Milestones

The development of the S6G reactor was overseen by the U.S. Navy's Naval Reactors program under Admiral Hyman G. Rickover, who emphasized rigorous testing and safety protocols throughout the process.^[11] In the early 1970s, Knolls Atomic Power Laboratory (KAPL), in collaboration with General Electric, conducted land-based testing of the reactor's D1G-2 core at the Kesselring site in West Milton, New York, to validate safety features and operational efficiency; there was no dedicated prototype facility for the full S6G plant, as the core testing leveraged the existing D1G prototype infrastructure.^[2] The first operational integration of the S6G reactor took place in USS Los Angeles (SSN-688), the lead ship of the Los Angeles-class submarines, during her construction at Newport News Shipbuilding; the reactor was installed by 1974, coinciding with the submarine's launch on April 6 of that year.^[12] Following sea trials, USS Los Angeles was commissioned on November 13, 1976, marking the S6G's entry into naval service, after which full-power trials demonstrated reliable performance under operational conditions.^[12] The S6G, a pressurized water reactor, drew on the design heritage of prior naval propulsion systems to achieve enhanced compactness and reliability for submarine applications.^[13] Subsequent milestones included core evolution within the Los Angeles class: the initial Flight I submarines, from SSN-688 to SSN-718, utilized the D1G-2 core rated at approximately 150 MWt for their S6G plants.^[2] Starting with USS Providence (SSN-719), commissioned in 1985 but with construction advancing in 1984, the program transitioned to the improved D2W core rated at 165 MWt, offering extended fuel life and better efficiency; this upgrade was applied to all subsequent boats and retrofitted into earlier vessels during refueling overhauls.^[2]

Design

Core and Fuel

The S6G reactor employs a compact pressurized water reactor (PWR) design with a cylindrical core configuration, utilizing light water as both coolant and moderator to achieve efficient neutron economy in a naval environment.^[3] The core integrates fuel assemblies arranged to support sustained operation, with fuel rods clad in Zircaloy to contain fission products and enhance corrosion resistance under high-pressure conditions.^[3] This setup enables the reactor to generate thermal power in the range of 148 to 165 MWt, prioritizing compactness and shielding for submarine integration.^[4] Fuel elements in the S6G consist of a uranium-zirconium alloy (approximately 85% uranium and 15% zirconium), enriched to 93%–97.3% U-235 highly enriched uranium (HEU) to minimize volume while providing a long operational life without intermediate refueling, typically designed for 20–30 years of service.^[14]^[15] The HEU fuel is formed into plates or rods optimized for high burnup and reactivity stability, incorporating burnable poisons such as gadolinium and boron to flatten the neutron flux and control excess reactivity over the core's lifetime.^[3] Reactivity control is managed through control rods fabricated from absorbers like hafnium or silver-indium-cadmium alloys, inserted into dedicated core positions to regulate fission rates and enable rapid shutdown.^[3] The core design includes a negative temperature coefficient of reactivity, which inherently reduces reactivity as coolant temperature rises, enhancing stability during power transients.^[4] Additionally, soluble boron injection serves as a secondary shutdown mechanism, providing prompt reactivity suppression in emergency scenarios.^[3] The S6G core evolved from prototype developments, initially incorporating the D1G-2 core rated at around 150 MWt with shorter fuel pins, later upgraded to the D2W configuration at 165 MWt featuring advanced pelletized fuel for improved thermal efficiency and safety margins.^[4] This progression, derived briefly from earlier D2G prototypes, emphasized enhanced fuel integrity and operational reliability for extended submarine deployments.^[4]

Cooling and Propulsion Systems

The S6G reactor employs a pressurized water reactor (PWR) design with a primary coolant system consisting of a closed loop that circulates demineralized water at approximately 2,200 psi to absorb heat from the reactor core. This system utilizes four main coolant pumps to provide forced circulation during high-power operations, ensuring efficient heat transfer while maintaining the coolant below boiling point. For enhanced stealth during submerged operations, the design incorporates provisions for natural circulation as a fallback mode, allowing the reactor to operate at reduced power levels without pump activation, thereby minimizing acoustic signatures.^[13]^[3]^[16] Heat from the primary coolant is transferred to a secondary loop via vertical U-tube steam generators, which produce saturated steam at around 500°F without a reheat cycle. These generators feed steam directly to two main turbines, isolating the radioactive primary coolant from the secondary system to prevent contamination. The compact arrangement of the loops and components is optimized to fit within the 33-foot diameter reactor compartment of Los Angeles-class submarines, contributing to the overall spatial efficiency of the vessel.^[13]^[1]^[17] The propulsion system integrates the steam turbines with reduction gears connected to a single propeller shaft, enabling direct mechanical drive for the submarine's advancement. Auxiliary systems include decay heat removal pumps for emergency cooling during shutdowns and feedwater control mechanisms to optimize turbine efficiency and maintain steam quality. These features, combined with sound isolation measures around pumps and piping, reduce operational noise, supporting the stealth requirements of attack submarines.^[13]^[3]

Specifications

Power Output

The S6G reactor, powering Los Angeles-class submarines, features a thermal power rating of 148–150 MWt for its original D1G-2 core, which was upgraded to 165 MWt with the D2W core introduced starting with USS Providence (SSN-719.^[2] This upgrade enhanced energy production without requiring major redesigns, supporting sustained high-performance operations. The reactor's thermal efficiency converts heat to mechanical power at rates typical for naval pressurized water reactors, emphasizing flexible output over maximal stationary efficiency.^[3] In propulsion, the S6G delivers approximately 35,000 shaft horsepower (shp) total through steam turbines driving a single propeller shaft, enabling speeds exceeding 15 knots (28 km/h) when surfaced and over 25 knots (46 km/h) when submerged, with classified maximum sprint speeds estimated at around 33 knots.^[18] ^[19] This represents a substantial advancement over the preceding S5W reactor's 15,000 shp in Sturgeon-class submarines, doubling propulsive capability for faster transit and tactical maneuvering. For electrical generation, the system includes two 26 MW steam turbine generators that provide shipboard power for critical auxiliaries, including weapons systems, sensors, and onboard equipment.^[18] The design achieves high power density, facilitating a compact footprint suitable for submarine constraints, and supports a refueling-free service life of up to 33 years, optimizing long-term operational reliability.^[20]

Physical Characteristics

The S6G reactor is designed as a compact pressurized water reactor to fit within the constrained space of U.S. Navy attack submarines, particularly later blocks of the Los Angeles-class (SSN-688). The reactor compartment measures approximately 33 feet (10 meters) in diameter and 42 feet (13 meters) in length, forming a cylindrical structure that integrates seamlessly into the submarine's pressure hull.^[2] This configuration allows for vertical installation amidships in the approximately 360-foot-long hull, optimizing weight distribution and structural balance for submerged operations.^[2] Fully assembled, the reactor plant weighs about 1,680 tons, encompassing the core, pressure vessel, coolant systems, and shielding. The pressure vessel, constructed from stainless steel, provides the necessary containment for the reactor under operational stresses.^[2] Shielding is achieved through an integrated module featuring lead layers for gamma radiation absorption and surrounding water tanks for neutron moderation, ensuring crew safety while minimizing the overall footprint.^[3] The design incorporates corrosion-resistant alloys throughout, capable of enduring prolonged immersion in saltwater environments without degradation.^[21] Additionally, the structure is engineered for high shock resistance from underwater explosions or collisions, through reinforced support frameworks and material selections that maintain integrity during naval combat scenarios.^[2]

Deployment

Usage in Submarines

The S6G reactor serves as the primary nuclear propulsion system for all 62 Los Angeles-class attack submarines (SSN-688 through SSN-773), which were commissioned between 1976 and 1996, providing the fleet with reliable, long-duration underwater operations essential for modern naval warfare.^[18] Developed by General Electric, over 60 S6G reactor plants were developed and manufactured by General Electric under the oversight of the Knolls Atomic Power Laboratory, enabling these submarines to maintain high speeds and extended patrols without frequent surfacing.^[2]^[3] The reactors' design adaptations for compact submarine integration allowed for seamless installation across the class, supporting the U.S. Navy's transition to a more capable attack submarine force during the late Cold War era.^[3] Variations in reactor cores distinguish the early and later flights of the Los Angeles class. Flight I submarines (SSN-688 to SSN-718) were equipped with the D1G-2 core, which provided baseline performance for initial deployments, while those from Flight II (SSN-719 to SSN-750) and later incorporated the upgraded D2W core for improved quieting and higher power output, enhancing stealth and operational flexibility.^[2]^[22] These enhancements contributed to the submarines' versatility in diverse mission profiles, including anti-submarine warfare through torpedo and mine deployment, precision strike operations via Tomahawk cruise missiles, and intelligence gathering with advanced sonar systems.^[23] The nuclear propulsion afforded by the S6G enables submerged endurance of approximately 90 days, primarily limited by crew provisions rather than fuel, allowing for prolonged covert operations far from home ports.^[24] As the Los Angeles-class fleet has aged, decommissioning has progressed methodically, with early boats like USS Los Angeles (SSN-688) retired in 2010 and fully decommissioned by 2011, followed by defueling of their S6G reactors for secure storage at naval facilities.^[12] Later hulls continue operational service into the 2020s. As of July 2025, approximately 23 Los Angeles-class submarines remain in active service, continuing to support U.S. Navy operations.^[6]^[6] This widespread deployment has solidified the S6G as a cornerstone of U.S. submarine propulsion, powering missions that span global oceans and adapt to evolving threats.^[25]

Maintenance and Upgrades

The S6G reactor is designed with a lifetime core intended to operate for approximately 33 years without refueling, aligning with the service life of the Los Angeles-class submarines it powers. However, to extend operational efficiency and incorporate technological improvements, major overhauls occur every 10 to 15 years. These depot-level modernizations, known as Depot Planned Incremental Availability (DPIA) periods, typically last about two years and include swapping the original D1G-2 core (rated at around 150 MWt) for the upgraded D2W core (165 MWt), which enhances power output and fuel economy. The D2W core was first introduced in 1984 on Flight II submarines (SSN-719 and later), and by the 2020s, fleet-wide conversions had been completed for earlier Flight I boats to standardize capabilities across the class.^[2]^[4] Upgrade programs for the S6G have focused on improving acoustic performance and structural integrity, particularly in response to evolving submarine warfare requirements. In the post-1980s era, quieting enhancements were implemented through redesigns of primary coolant pumps, which are a significant noise source, reducing the reactor plant's detectability at operational speeds. Additionally, during 1990s overhauls, reactor vessel head replacements addressed potential cracking issues related to stress corrosion, ensuring long-term reliability without compromising safety margins. These modifications were integrated during routine DPIAs to minimize downtime while aligning the S6G with advancements in later Los Angeles-class variants.^[2] Maintenance activities are conducted at specialized facilities, primarily Puget Sound Naval Shipyard in Washington and Norfolk Naval Shipyard in Virginia, which handle nuclear-certified depot-level work for the U.S. Navy's submarine fleet. These shipyards oversee the comprehensive inspections, component replacements, and system recalibrations required for the S6G, including steam generator maintenance and control rod drive mechanism overhauls, all under strict Naval Reactors oversight.^[26] Upon submarine decommissioning, the S6G reactor undergoes defueling to remove spent fuel assemblies, a process managed by Naval Reactors in coordination with the Department of Energy (DOE). The defueled reactor compartment is then packaged and transported to DOE sites, such as the Hanford Site in Washington or the Idaho National Laboratory, for interim dry storage pending a permanent geological repository. This end-of-life handling ensures secure containment of radioactive materials, with spent naval fuel comprising a portion of DOE's managed inventory under federal regulations.^[27]^[28]

References

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SRS provides for the safe receipt and interim storage of SNF assemblies including SNF from domestic and foreign test and research reactors. The majority of ...