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Senusret II

Senusret II, also known as Sesostris II, was the fourth pharaoh of Egypt's Twelfth Dynasty during the Middle Kingdom, reigning approximately from 1897 to 1878 BC.^[1]^[2] His rule, following that of his father Amenemhat II, emphasized monumental construction, most notably the pyramid complex at El-Lahun in the Fayum region, which featured a mudbrick pyramid encased in limestone and an adjacent mortuary temple.^[2] This site included the nearby planned workers' town of Kahun, one of the earliest examples of orthogonal urban layout in ancient Egypt, offering archaeological evidence of administrative organization, housing for laborers, and daily life under pharaonic oversight.^[3] Senusret II's era reflects continuity in the dynasty's policies of resource exploitation and infrastructure development, with artifacts such as gold jewelry from associated tombs highlighting artisanal craftsmanship, though his reign lacks extensive records of military campaigns compared to successors.^[1]

Ascension to Power

Co-regency with Amenemhat II

The co-regency between Senusret II and his father Amenemhat II is primarily attested by a double-dated inscription on the stela of the official Hapu from Aswan, recording the third regnal year of Khakheperre Senusret II (Horus name Seshemutawy) as equivalent to the thirty-fifth year of Nubkaure Amenemhat II (Horus name Hekenenmaat).^[4] This provides the highest documented regnal year for Amenemhat II, establishing that his sole rule extended to at least year 32, followed by a joint period with his son.^[4] The inscription reads: "made in regnal year three under the Majesty of the Horus Seshemutowy, King Khackheperre [Senusret II], corresponding to regnal year 35 under the Majesty of the Horus Hekenmacat, King Nubkaure [Amenemhat II]."^[4] Supporting evidence includes early monuments of Senusret II dated to his first regnal year, such as Alnwick Castle Stela No. 2, and his second year, as recorded in a Wadi Hammamat inscription, indicating the co-regency commenced near the outset of Senusret II's accession.^[4] A disputed stela of Senusret may align with year 2 or 3, further bracketing the overlap.^[4] While no additional double dates are known, the pattern of short co-regencies in the 12th Dynasty—evident in prior successions like Amenemhat I with Senusret I—suggests a deliberate mechanism for dynastic continuity, with Amenemhat II likely advanced in age after a 35-year reign.^[4] Scholars estimate the joint rule lasted at least three years, though some propose up to five, based on the attested overlap and absence of higher double dates; this brevity contrasts with longer co-regencies later in the dynasty but ensured a seamless transition without evident disruption.^[4]^[5] No contemporary texts detail administrative or ceremonial roles during this period, but the co-regency aligns with Middle Kingdom practices of associating heirs to legitimize rule and avert instability.^[4]

Debates on Reign Length and Chronology

The Turin Royal Canon attributes a reign of 19 years to the king immediately following Amenemhat II, conventionally identified as Senusret II (Khakheperre), though the entry is partially damaged and its precise attribution remains contested among Egyptologists.^[5] ^[6] In contrast, contemporary monuments and inscriptions provide evidence only up to Senusret II's regnal year 8, with isolated references to years 6 or 9 in some scarabs and stelae, but no datable artifacts or administrative records extending into a supposed later phase of rule.^[7] ^[8] This paucity of higher-year evidence has led scholars to question whether the Canon's 19 years apply to Senusret II or were misassigned, possibly belonging instead to his successor Senusret III, whose own reign is attested to at least year 19 and shows more extensive monumental activity. Many Egyptologists, prioritizing archaeological attestation over the fragmentary Canon, favor a shorter reign for Senusret II of approximately 7 to 10 years, arguing that the lack of dated inscriptions beyond year 8 indicates an abbreviated sole rule following any co-regency with Amenemhat II.^[7] For instance, Ian Shaw estimates 7 years based on the limited epigraphic record and pyramid construction timelines at El-Lahun, while others like Detlef Franke have proposed up to 10 years to accommodate minor later attestations without overstretching the evidence.^[7] A minority view upholds the 19-year figure from the Canon, citing potential undocumented administrative continuity or co-regency overlaps, though this position struggles against the empirical silence of the material record.^[9] This reign-length uncertainty contributes to broader chronological debates in Middle Kingdom reconstruction, where absolute dates for the 12th Dynasty vary between "high" and "low" frameworks differing by 20–30 years, primarily anchored to synchronisms with Mesopotamian rulers or radiocarbon data.^[10] In high chronologies, Senusret II's rule is placed ca. 1897–1878 BCE (aligning with a 19-year span), while low chronologies shift it to ca. 1870–1860 BCE or earlier, compressing the dynasty to fit shorter regnal estimates and revised Sothic cycle interpretations.^[7] Recent analyses favoring the high chronology resolve some tensions by validating longer reigns via Bayesian modeling of 14C dates from pyramid contexts, but the specific attribution for Senusret II remains unresolved without new epigraphic finds.^[10] Ultimately, the evidential primacy of dated monuments over textual summaries underscores a cautious preference for a reign under a decade, pending further corroboration.

Domestic Governance

Economic and Agricultural Initiatives

Senusret II prioritized agricultural expansion in the Faiyum oasis, initiating irrigation infrastructure to reclaim arable land from Lake Moeris (modern Birket Qarun). He oversaw the construction of canals linked to the Bahr Yusuf channel, which channeled Nile floodwaters into the depression, enabling systematic drainage and cultivation of previously marshy areas. These projects, datable to his reign circa 1897–1878 BCE, enhanced grain yields and supported population growth by increasing Egypt's agricultural output.^[11] Complementing these efforts, Senusret II's economic policies included resource extraction to fund construction and trade. Expeditions to the Sinai Peninsula targeted turquoise and copper mines, with inscriptions documenting at least two such missions dispatched during his rule, yielding materials essential for jewelry, tools, and temple adornments. These operations, involving semi-permanent camps, bolstered state revenues through exported goods and raw materials, integrating mining into the broader domestic economy.^[12]^[13] Such initiatives reflected a strategic emphasis on self-sufficiency, with Faiyum developments providing surplus agriculture to offset reliance on Nile Valley floods, while mineral imports diversified economic resilience amid variable harvests. Archaeological evidence from El-Lahun, near the Faiyum, corroborates administrative oversight of these works, including records of labor mobilization for canal maintenance.^[14]

Administrative Reforms and Royal Court

The construction of the planned workers' settlement at El-Lahun (ancient Kahun), adjacent to Senusret II's pyramid complex, exemplifies the pharaoh's administrative oversight in managing large-scale projects and sustaining the royal mortuary cult. Built on an orthogonal grid around 1895 BC, the town accommodated approximately 3,000–4,000 inhabitants, including skilled laborers, overseers, and support staff, with segregated quarters for elites and workers to enforce social hierarchy and efficient resource distribution. Archaeological evidence from the site, including seals and ostraca, indicates direct royal control over provisioning, with granaries and workshops integrated into the layout to facilitate centralized supply chains for construction and ongoing cult maintenance.^[15]^[16] Administrative documents from the Kahun Papyri, unearthed in the town's debris between 1888 and 1899, reveal a bureaucratic system handling diverse functions such as labor rosters, temple inventories, legal contracts, and economic oversight, underscoring the era's emphasis on record-keeping and accountability without evidence of radical structural overhauls from prior reigns. These texts document oversight by mid-level officials reporting through hierarchical channels, likely culminating in the vizier's bureau, as attested by vizierial seals found at the site, which regulated sealed goods and official correspondence. Such mechanisms supported fiscal stability during a period of prosperity, with no attested diminishment of provincial nomarchs' roles, preserving a balance between central directives and local execution.^[15] The royal court under Senusret II operated from Itj-tawy near Lisht, with key officials appointed to execute policy and expeditions. High steward Khnumhotep III, elevated to the court as a youth, managed royal missions including a Red Sea venture and trade to Byblos, highlighting the court's role in coordinating foreign resource acquisition. Evidence of vizierial activity, inferred from administrative seals and papyri, points to the tjaty (vizier) as the chief executive, supervising judicial, fiscal, and personnel matters, though specific names for Senusret II's vizier remain unattested in surviving records. The court's structure reflected continuity with Amenemhat II's era, prioritizing loyalty and competence in appointees to maintain dynastic stability amid growing bureaucratic complexity.^[16]

Role of Nomarchs in Provincial Control

During the reign of Senusret II (c. 1897–1878 BC), nomarchs functioned as appointed provincial governors responsible for implementing royal directives within Egypt's nomes, the administrative districts that divided the kingdom into roughly 42 units along the Nile Valley and Delta.^[17] These officials, often drawn from elite families loyal to the throne, oversaw critical aspects of local governance, including the assessment and collection of taxes in grain, livestock, and labor; maintenance of irrigation networks to support agricultural output; adjudication of minor disputes; and coordination of corvée labor for state projects such as canal construction and pyramid building.^[18] Their authority derived from the pharaoh but was subject to oversight by central viziers and royal inspectors, reflecting the 12th Dynasty's ongoing shift toward bureaucratic centralization while retaining local expertise for efficient resource extraction. Senusret II cultivated harmonious relations with nomarchs, allowing them to accumulate substantial wealth—sometimes rivaling royal levels—through perquisites from provincial revenues, which incentivized loyalty and minimized unrest.^[1] This approach contrasted with the more aggressive curtailment of nomarchal power under his successor, Senusret III, and ensured stable provincial control amid domestic initiatives like the development of the Faiyum region's irrigation systems, where nomarchs facilitated labor mobilization without documented resistance. A notable example is Sarenput II, nomarch of Elephantine (the First Nome of Nubia), who served from at least the latter part of Senusret II's reign into Senusret III's. Stationed at Egypt's southern frontier, Sarenput managed trade routes, border security, and interactions with Nubian polities, as evidenced by his tomb inscriptions at Qubbet el-Hawa emphasizing service to the king and oversight of local administration. Biographical stelae and tomb reliefs from this period depict nomarchs as intermediaries who propagated royal ideology locally, erecting monuments that glorified the pharaoh while asserting their own status, thereby reinforcing hierarchical unity.^[19] However, emerging central mechanisms—such as royal estates (ḥwt) encroaching on nome lands and direct appointments over hereditary succession—gradually eroded independent nomarchal dynasties, signaling the transition to a more streamlined bureaucracy by the late 12th Dynasty.^[20] This balanced delegation of control under Senusret II supported economic prosperity and administrative coherence, averting the fragmentation seen in prior eras.^[17]

Foreign Policy and Expeditions

Military Campaigns in Nubia

Historical records indicate no major military campaigns or conflicts in Nubia during the reign of Senusret II (c. 1897–1878 BC), marking a period of relative inactivity in the region following the expansions under Senusret I and preceding the aggressive operations of Senusret III.^[21] ^[22] Egyptian control over Lower Nubia was maintained through pre-existing fortifications established in the early 12th Dynasty, primarily serving trade oversight and resource procurement rather than active conquest or suppression of rebellions.^[22] This approach allowed Nubian intermediaries to facilitate the flow of goods like gold, ivory, and cattle northward, with Egyptian garrisons focusing on surveillance and toll collection instead of offensive actions.^[23] Inscriptions and stelae from Senusret II's time reference resource extraction activities in Nubian territories, including diorite quarrying near Toshka and copper mining, but these expeditions appear to have been economically driven and escorted by protective forces without documented battles or territorial advances.^[24] The absence of victory monuments, prisoner depictions, or laudatory texts boasting subjugation—common in Nubian records of adjacent rulers—suggests a deliberate policy of stability over militarism, possibly to prioritize internal developments like Fayum irrigation projects.^[25] Nubian polities, such as the C-Group culture, continued semi-autonomous activities south of the forts, with minimal interference, enabling uninterrupted tribute payments that bolstered Egypt's treasury. This lull in hostilities may reflect strategic restraint, as Egyptian annals and biographical inscriptions from officials like those at Buhen or Mirgissa do not record punitive raids or reinforcements under Senusret II, contrasting with the explicit militarization under his successors.^[22] The maintenance of the Second Cataract barrier system ensured border security, deterring large-scale incursions while permitting controlled interactions, a pragmatic extension of Amenemhat II's non-interventionist stance.^[23] Overall, Senusret II's handling of Nubia emphasized exploitation of established networks for wealth accumulation over expansion, contributing to the dynasty's economic prosperity without the costs of warfare.^[21]

Mining and Trade Operations in Sinai

Senusret II dispatched mining expeditions to the Sinai Peninsula to exploit its rich deposits of turquoise and copper, essential for Egyptian jewelry, tools, and cosmetics.^[12] These operations focused on sites like Serabit el-Khadim in southwestern Sinai, where turquoise veins were quarried alongside copper ores, supporting the production of high-value artifacts during the Middle Kingdom.^[12] Expeditions were logistically supported via Red Sea ports such as Mersa Gawasis, facilitating overland and maritime access to the mining districts.^[26] Archaeological evidence includes Inscription 79 (IS 79) at Serabit el-Khadim, carved on a pale red sandstone base of a headless kneeling statuette measuring 175 cm in height, which records Senusret II's royal titles and attests to mining activities under his authority.^[12] A companion inscription, IS 80, similarly documents an expedition to the site, indicating at least one organized venture during his reign, likely involving teams of workers, overseers, and divine invocations to Hathor, the local deity linked to turquoise procurement.^[26] These efforts were part of a broader 12th Dynasty pattern of pharaonic oversight, with Senusret II's missions numbering among the fewer but targeted operations compared to successors like Amenemhat III.^[27] A basalt stela from Wadi Gasüs, dated to the first year of Senusret II's reign, depicts the king with the god Sopd and references the "land of Shesmt" (Sinai), associating the region with malachite extraction for kohl production and underscoring early royal interest in these resources.^[12] While primarily extractive, the expeditions facilitated limited trade networks, exchanging Egyptian goods for minerals and possibly fostering contacts with local Bedouin groups, though records emphasize state-controlled procurement over commercial barter.^[12] Such operations bolstered Egypt's economy without recorded military engagements, reflecting a period of peaceful resource acquisition.^[26]

Extent of Territorial Influence

Senusret II maintained Egypt's territorial boundaries as inherited from his predecessors, encompassing the Nile Valley from the Delta southward to the First Cataract, with administrative outposts and forts securing Lower Nubia against local unrest. Some Nubian fortifications, including those at key riverine sites, were initiated or reinforced during his reign to safeguard trade routes and resource extraction, though the majority of major constructions occurred under Senusret III. Evidence of quarrying operations for diorite, copper, and amethysts in Nubian territories attests to sustained Egyptian oversight, yielding materials integral to royal monuments and economy without documented conquests or boundary shifts.^[28] In the Sinai Peninsula and Eastern Desert, Senusret II asserted influence through organized mining expeditions targeting turquoise, copper, and other minerals, as recorded in inscriptions at sites like Serabit el-Khadim and Wadi el-Hudi. These ventures, supported by logistics from Red Sea harbors such as Mersa Gawasis, involved hundreds of workers and enhanced Egypt's resource base, demonstrating de facto control over desert transit routes and extraction zones despite the absence of permanent garrisons.^[26]^[12]^[29] Egypt's broader sphere of influence under Senusret II extended economically to the Levant via trade in goods like cedar and lapis lazuli, and southward to Punt through maritime operations, but lacked territorial incorporation or military subjugation in these areas. This approach prioritized exploitation of peripheral zones over expansion, aligning with a reign characterized by internal stability rather than aggressive frontier pushing.^[30]

Monuments and Burials

Pyramid Complex at El-Lahun

The pyramid complex of Senusret II at El-Lahun, constructed during the early 19th Dynasty (c. 1897–1878 BCE), occupies a strategic position on the desert escarpment at the northeastern entrance to the Fayum depression, facilitating oversight of regional agricultural and irrigation projects. The main pyramid features a mudbrick core built atop a natural limestone knoll for stability, encased in fine Tura limestone blocks, with a square base measuring 106 meters per side, an original height of 48.6 meters, and a slope angle of approximately 42 degrees.^[2]^[31]^[32] This design marked an economical shift from stone-dominated Old Kingdom pyramids, relying on local mudbrick for the bulk while preserving aesthetic and protective casing, though much casing was quarried away post-construction. The complex incorporated a small mortuary temple on the eastern facade for cult rituals, but lacks evident traces of a causeway or valley temple, likely due to the site's elevated terrain and proximity to the Nile's influence.^[2]^[16] A distinctive architectural innovation is the pyramid's southern entrance, accessed via a vertical shaft descending from beneath the floor of an adjacent subsidiary tomb attributed to an unidentified royal woman, rather than the conventional northern approach; this placement, combined with the rocky pedestal, created a "floating" appearance as sand dunes obscured the base in antiquity.^[33]^[34] The subterranean passage leads to a corridor system and burial chamber hewn from bedrock, measuring about 5.5 by 3.2 meters with a corbelled granite roof; upon excavation, it contained only an empty quartzite sarcophagus, indicating ancient robbery.^[16] Surrounding the main structure are subsidiary pyramids and mastabas, primarily on the southern and eastern sides, housing burials of queens and princesses such as Sithathoriunet, whose tomb yielded exquisite gold jewelry, scarabs, and cosmetic vessels now in museum collections.^[35]^[36] British Egyptologist William Matthew Flinders Petrie conducted the primary excavations in 1889–1890 and 1914, clearing debris from the pyramid, temple, and subsidiary tombs while documenting the site's deterioration from stone reuse and natural erosion; these efforts uncovered fragments of reliefs depicting royal iconography and architectural elements like limestone cladding remnants.^[16]^[35] The adjacent Kahun town, a purpose-built workers' settlement with a grid layout enclosing about 20 hectares, supported construction and maintenance, housing laborers, overseers, and artisans; administrative papyri from the site reveal details of supply logistics, labor organization, and mortuary cult operations, highlighting centralized state control under Senusret II.^[37]^[15] Geophysical surveys in recent decades have mapped unexcavated ruins north of the pyramid, confirming the complex's extent and aiding preservation efforts against modern threats like groundwater rise.^[2]

Architectural Innovations and Construction Details

Senusret II's pyramid at El-Lahun represented a shift in Middle Kingdom construction practices, employing a mudbrick core supported by an internal framework of limestone radial arms for structural integrity, overlaid with limestone cladding that has since been removed. This marked one of the earliest large-scale uses of mudbrick for the pyramid body, diverging from the stone-dominated methods of prior dynasties, while incorporating stone-filled trenches around the base to mitigate water damage from the nearby floodplain. The structure was anchored to a natural yellow limestone outcrop approximately 12 meters high, into which four steps were hewn to form the foundational core, reducing material demands and enhancing stability on elevated terrain away from flood-prone lowlands.^[16]^[1]^[38] A key innovation was the southern entrance, positioned unconventionally on the pyramid's south face and disguised within a subsidiary tomb attributed to one of the pharaoh's daughters, such as Princess Sithathoriunet, to mislead potential robbers; this led via a descending shaft and corridor to the subterranean burial chamber, evoking motifs of Osiris's rebirth in the passage design. The burial chamber itself featured a finely crafted red granite sarcophagus and an alabaster offering table, with the overall layout separating the southern royal interment from northern cult chapels to bolster security and ritual functionality. The pyramid reached a height of about 50 meters with a base measuring roughly 107 meters, capped by an inscribed granite pyramidion, and was designed under the oversight of architect Anupy, reflecting adaptive engineering to local geology and resource availability.^[39]^[16]^[1]

Associated Tombs and Discovered Treasures

The tomb of Princess Sithathoryunet, a daughter of Senusret II, located adjacent to his pyramid at El-Lahun, contained a notable cache of jewelry discovered by excavator Guy Brunton in 1914. This hoard, termed the "Treasure of Lahun," included gold pectorals, necklaces, and other ornaments hidden in a concealed niche within her underground burial chamber.^[40] The artifacts, primarily crafted from gold with inlays of semiprecious stones such as lapis lazuli and carnelian, featured hieroglyphic inscriptions bearing Senusret II's throne name Khakheperre, emphasizing royal patronage and protective symbolism like the falcon of Horus and coiled uraeus serpents.^[40] ^[41] A prominent item from this discovery is the pectoral and necklace of Sithathoryunet, centered on a cartouche of Senusret II flanked by deities and offering scenes, demonstrating advanced Middle Kingdom lapidary techniques and theological motifs linking the king to solar and divine rebirth.^[40] These pieces, now housed in institutions like the Metropolitan Museum of Art, represent rare intact royal jewelry from the period, likely intended for funerary use but preserved due to the tomb's relative obscurity until modern excavation.^[40] Other associated finds from subsidiary tombs in the complex include scarabs and amulets bearing the king's names, underscoring the interconnected nature of royal and familial burials.^[41] Further excavations around El-Lahun yielded a golden uraeus diadem element attributable to Senusret II, uncovered by Flinders Petrie during his work at the site, symbolizing the pharaoh's divine authority as protector against chaos.^[42] Tombs of queens and high officials linked to Senusret II's court, such as those in the nearby pyramid town, produced additional grave goods like pottery and seals, though lacking the opulence of the princess's treasure, reflecting hierarchical resource allocation in provincial necropoleis.^[42] These discoveries highlight the deliberate concealment strategies employed in 12th Dynasty burials to safeguard valuables from ancient tomb robbers.

Succession and Dynastic Continuity

Family Relations and Heirs

Senusret II's chief consort was Khenemetneferhedjet I Weret, attested on monuments as bearing the title "King's Wife" and identified as the mother of his successor.^[16] Her name appears alongside Senusret II's on stelae and other inscriptions, confirming her role in the royal household.^[16] Among his offspring, Senusret III is verifiably his son and heir, as evidenced by direct succession and maternal linkage through Khenemetneferhedjet I Weret; a possible brief coregency between father and son is suggested by overlapping regnal dating in contemporary records.^[16] ^[43] Daughters include Sithathoriunet, whose tomb—located adjacent to Senusret II's pyramid at El-Lahun—contained jewelry inscribed with her name and her father's cartouches, such as a pectoral featuring the throne name Khakheperre.^[16] ^[40] Another daughter, Nofret, is attested by two life-sized statues from Tanis bearing the explicit title "King's Daughter," providing epigraphic confirmation of her lineage.^[16] No other sons are definitively attested as potential rivals or co-heirs, underscoring Senusret III's unchallenged position in dynastic continuity.^[16]

Transition to Senusret III

Senusret III (Kha-kaure), the son of Senusret II and his principal queen Khnemetneferhedjet I (also known as Weret), acceded to the throne directly following his father's death, marking a smooth dynastic transition within the 12th Dynasty.^[44] The exact date of Senusret II's death is uncertain, but conventional chronology places it circa 1878 BCE, at the end of a reign whose length remains debated: the Turin King List credits him with 19 years, while limited archaeological attestations suggest as few as 8 years of effective sole rule.^[45] Senusret II was interred in his pyramid complex at El-Lahun (Illahun), where excavations have uncovered elements of his burial equipment, including a gold uraeus diadem indicative of royal funerary rites, though the tomb itself had been looted in antiquity.^[16] Unlike the co-regencies attested for prior 12th Dynasty rulers—such as Senusret I with Amenemhat I or Senusret II with Amenemhat II—evidence for an overlap between Senusret II and III is minimal and inconclusive, primarily a single scarab seal bearing both kings' names, which Egyptologist William J. Murnane deemed insufficient to establish a formal coregency in his analysis of Middle Kingdom overlaps.^[46] This scarcity contrasts with the dynasty's pattern of grooming heirs through shared rule to ensure stability, yet the transition proceeded without recorded disruption, reflecting the era's robust administrative continuity. Senusret III's early monuments and inscriptions, including those from his Nubian campaigns, demonstrate immediate assertion of authority, building on his father's infrastructural legacies in the Faiyum region.^[43]

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[37]
[PDF] late middle kingdom - eScholarship
The large number of papyri found at el-Lahun (the pyramid town of Senusret II) also includes religious, mathematical, medical, and literary papyri (Collier and ...
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Middle Kingdom Pyramids: The Lesser Known Pyramids of Ancient ...
Oct 18, 2024 · Amenemhat I's pyramid had a 276-foot base, a height of 180 feet, and a 54-degree slope. ... Pyramid of Senusret II, c. 1897-1878 BCE ...
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The pyramid of Senusret II in El-Lahun - Inside-Egypt
... Kahun Papyri was discovered in the western part of the city. They show both the administration and economy of the town, as well as private affairs of its ...
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Pectoral and Necklace of Sithathoryunet with the Name of Senwosret II
It was found among the jewelry of Princess Sithathoryunet in a special niche of her underground tomb beside the pyramid of Senwosret II at Lahun. Hieroglyphic ...
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Pectoral and necklace of Sithathoryunet - Smarthistory
Pectoral and necklace of Sithathoryunet with the name of Senwosret II, Middle Kingdom, Dynasty 12, reign of Senwosret II, c. 1887–1878 BCE, Egypt.
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Uraeus of Senusret II - Egypt Museum
The golden uraeus of Senusret II was discovered by Flinders Petrie in 1920 during his excavations around the Pyramid of Senusret II at Lahun.
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Senusret III: Warrior and innovator - The Past
Oct 15, 2025 · Senusret III is best known for his military campaigns in Nubia and the southern Levant, which were so important they were remembered in ...
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“Mesmerizing and Terrifying”: Senusret III's Unique Macrotia - PMC
Jan 1, 2024 · Born to Senusret II and his sister-wife, Khenmetneferhedjet-waret [4], Senusret III rose to the Egyptian throne in approximately 1836 BCE [3].
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Turin king list: Contents | Pharaoh.se
Many of the names are orthographically incorrect or outright lost due to the poor state of the papyrus. Total preserved reigns: 313 years, 2 months, 5 days.
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SAOC 40. Ancient Egyptian Coregencies
Any working Egyptologist will agree that discussions of alleged coregencies bulk large in the literature concerned with the history of ancient Egypt.Missing: Senusret | Show results with:Senusret