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Shadow zone

The seismic shadow zone is a region on Earth's surface where seismographs fail to detect certain seismic waves generated by an earthquake, primarily due to the liquid nature of the planet's outer core, which refracts or blocks wave propagation.^[1] This phenomenon creates distinct areas of silence in global seismic recordings, revealing key insights into Earth's internal structure.^[2] There are two primary types of shadow zones associated with body waves from earthquakes. The S-wave shadow zone encompasses angular distances greater than approximately 103° from the epicenter, where shear waves (S waves) do not arrive because they cannot transmit through the liquid outer core, which lacks the rigidity needed for shear deformation.^[2] In contrast, the P-wave shadow zone lies between about 104° and 140° angular distance, where compressional waves (P waves) are bent or refracted at the core-mantle boundary, preventing their direct arrival at the surface in that band.^[1] These zones result from the sharp velocity changes at the core-mantle boundary, approximately 2,900 km beneath the surface, where wave speeds drop significantly in the denser, fluid outer core.^[1] The discovery of shadow zones revolutionized our understanding of Earth's interior in the early 20th century. British seismologist Richard Dixon Oldham first identified the absence of S waves at large distances in 1906, interpreting it as evidence for a liquid core layer that halted shear wave transmission.^[3] Building on this, Beno Gutenberg in 1913 precisely located the core-mantle boundary using refined seismic data, confirming the shadow zones' boundaries and solidifying the model of a differentiated Earth with a liquid outer core, mantle, and crust.^[4] These observations, derived from global earthquake records, remain fundamental to seismology, enabling the mapping of deep Earth properties without direct sampling.^[1]

Introduction

Definition and Overview

In seismology, a shadow zone refers to a region on Earth's surface where specific types of seismic waves generated by an earthquake fail to arrive directly, owing to refraction, reflection, or absorption at major internal boundaries such as the core-mantle boundary (CMB) and the inner core boundary (ICB).^[1] These zones arise because seismic waves, which propagate through Earth's layers, undergo significant bending or cessation when encountering discontinuities in material properties, like the transition from the solid mantle to the liquid outer core at the CMB.^[5] The S-wave shadow zone encompasses angular distances greater than approximately 103° from the earthquake's epicenter, extending to the antipodal point (180°), where shear waves (S-waves) do not penetrate the liquid outer core and thus do not reach distant stations.^[1] In contrast, the P-wave shadow zone lies between roughly 103° and 142° angular distance, where direct compressional waves (P-waves) are refracted away from the surface by the velocity decrease at the CMB, though later-arriving core-transmitted P-waves may be detected beyond this interval.^[6] These extents are determined by the geometry of wave paths and the radius of Earth's core, which is about 3,480 km.^[7] Conceptually, shadow zones can be visualized as conical or annular regions on the globe centered opposite the earthquake focus, with the S-wave zone forming a broad cap covering more than half the antipodal hemisphere and the P-wave zone appearing as a narrower band encircling the globe at intermediate distances.^[8] This geometry highlights how the spherical propagation of seismic waves interacts with Earth's heterogeneous interior to create these detectable absences in global seismograms.^[9]

Significance in Earth Science

The discovery of seismic shadow zones in the early 20th century marked a pivotal advancement in geophysics, providing the first direct evidence for Earth's layered internal structure, including the distinction between the solid mantle and the liquid outer core. By observing the absence of S-waves beyond approximately 104° from earthquake epicenters and the refraction of P-waves creating a partial shadow zone, scientists inferred a major boundary at the core-mantle interface where shear waves cannot propagate through the fluid outer core, while compressional waves are bent due to velocity changes.^[1] This revelation shifted understandings from a homogeneous Earth to a differentiated planet, enabling the mapping of deep discontinuities and the inference of material properties like density increases at boundaries.^[10] The identification of shadow zones laid foundational groundwork for modern Earth models, notably contributing to the development of the Preliminary Reference Earth Model (PREM) in 1981, which integrates global seismic travel-time data to define radial variations in density, seismic velocities, and attenuation throughout Earth's interior.^[11] PREM's parameters, such as the core-mantle boundary at a depth of about 2,891 km (yielding a core radius of approximately 3,480 km), were constrained by analyses of wave arrivals and absences that align with shadow zone observations, establishing a benchmark for interpreting seismic data.^[12] Beyond Earth, these principles have influenced planetary science, where analogous seismic shadowing from missions like NASA's InSight on Mars has helped delineate a liquid outer core and solid inner core with a radius of around 600 km, extending comparative models to other terrestrial bodies.^[13] Global seismograph networks, such as those coordinated by the International Seismological Centre and IRIS, have been essential in detecting and refining shadow zone patterns through dense coverage of earthquake records, allowing precise constraints on the core radius and density jumps of about 4–5 g/cm³ at the core-mantle boundary.^[1] These observations not only validate the liquid nature of the outer core but also inform geodynamical processes, such as convection driving plate tectonics, by highlighting how internal layering affects global wave propagation.^[10]

Fundamentals of Seismic Waves

Characteristics of P-Waves and S-Waves

Primary (P) waves, also known as compressional or pressure waves, are longitudinal seismic waves in which particle motion occurs parallel to the direction of wave propagation, causing alternating compression and dilation of the medium.^[14] These waves can propagate through solids, liquids, and gases because they rely on volumetric changes rather than shear deformation.^[5] In the Earth's crust and mantle, P-waves typically travel at speeds ranging from 6 to 13 km/s, depending on the material's density and elasticity, while in the liquid outer core, their speed decreases to approximately 8 km/s due to the absence of shear strength.^[5]^[15] Secondary (S) waves, or shear waves, are transverse seismic waves where particle motion is perpendicular to the direction of propagation, resulting in shearing deformation without volume change.^[14] Unlike P-waves, S-waves can only travel through solids and are unable to propagate through fluids or gases, as these media lack a shear modulus to support transverse motion.^[5] In the Earth's crust and mantle, S-wave speeds are generally 3.5 to 7 km/s, roughly 60% of P-wave velocities in the same regions, reflecting their dependence solely on shear properties.^[5]^[16] The propagation speeds of these waves are governed by the elastic properties and density of the medium. For P-waves, the speed v_p is given by

v_p = \sqrt{\frac{K + \frac{4}{3} \mu}{\rho}},

where K is the bulk modulus (resistance to compression), \mu is the shear modulus (resistance to shear), and \rho is the density.^[17] For S-waves, the speed v_s simplifies to

v_s = \sqrt{\frac{\mu}{\rho}},

since they depend only on shear modulus; in liquids, where \mu = 0, S-waves cannot propagate.^[17] These relationships highlight how P-waves are faster and more versatile in transmission compared to S-waves.^[5]

Propagation Through Earth's Layers

Earth's interior is structured into distinct layers based on seismic wave propagation characteristics, density, and composition. The outermost layer, the crust, varies in thickness from approximately 5 km beneath oceanic basins to 70 km under continental regions and is composed primarily of solid silicate rocks.^[18] Beneath the crust lies the mantle, extending to a depth of about 2,900 km, which consists of solid but viscous ultramafic silicates like olivine and perovskite, allowing for slow convection.^[19] The core is divided into the outer core, a 2,200 km thick layer of liquid iron-nickel alloy, and the inner core, a solid sphere with a radius of roughly 1,220 km, also primarily iron with alloying elements.^[18] These layers form a radially symmetric model derived from global seismic observations, where each boundary marks significant changes in material properties.^[20] Seismic waves, including P-waves and S-waves, undergo refraction and reflection when encountering these layer boundaries due to contrasts in wave velocities and densities. Refraction occurs as waves bend toward the normal when entering a medium with higher velocity or away from the normal in lower-velocity media, governed by Snell's law: \sin i / v_1 = \sin r / v_2, where i is the angle of incidence, r is the angle of refraction, and v_1 and v_2 are the velocities in the respective media.^[21] Reflections happen when waves bounce back at interfaces with sharp impedance contrasts, such as the Mohorovičić discontinuity (Moho) between crust and mantle, where P-wave velocity jumps from about 6-7 km/s to 8 km/s.^[20] These interactions cause wave paths to curve gradually within layers due to velocity gradients from increasing pressure and temperature with depth, enabling seismologists to map interior structure.^[19] At the core-mantle boundary (CMB), approximately 2,900 km deep, propagation effects become particularly pronounced due to the transition from solid mantle to liquid outer core. P-wave velocity drops sharply from 13.7 km/s in the lowermost mantle to 8 km/s in the outer core, causing significant refraction and partial reflection of waves.^[22] S-waves, which require shear strength, cannot propagate through the liquid outer core and thus cease entirely upon crossing the CMB, highlighting the fluid nature of this layer.^[18] Within the outer core, P-waves travel at reduced speeds averaging around 8-10 km/s, while at the inner core boundary, velocities increase again as waves enter the solid inner core, where both P- and S-waves resume propagation.^[20] These boundary-specific disruptions underscore how velocity contrasts dictate wave behavior across Earth's layers.^[19]

Formation and Characteristics of Shadow Zones

S-Wave Shadow Zone

The S-wave shadow zone forms because shear waves (S-waves) cannot propagate through the liquid outer core of Earth, where the shear modulus μ is zero, resulting in a shear wave velocity V_s = √(μ/ρ) of zero, with ρ denoting density.^[23] At the core-mantle boundary (CMB), S-waves incident from the solid mantle undergo total reflection or absorption due to this lack of shear strength in the fluid outer core, preventing any direct transmission across the boundary.^[2] Consequently, no direct S-waves arrive at seismic stations beyond an epicentral angular distance of approximately 103° from the earthquake source.^[2] The extent of the S-wave shadow zone spans the antipodal hemisphere, covering angular distances from about 103° to 180° relative to the epicenter, encompassing roughly 154° of Earth's surface where direct S-waves are absent./09%3A_Earths_Interior/9.01%3A_Understanding_Earth_Through_Seismology) This geometry arises from the spherical propagation of S-waves through the mantle until they encounter the CMB; rays with steeper incidence angles reflect back into the mantle, while those grazing the boundary define the shadow's onset, creating a sharp cutoff beyond which no direct arrivals occur.^[2] The zone's width is thus determined by the radius of the core and the mantle's velocity structure, leading to a complete absence of S-wave signals in seismograms within this region, though weak diffracted waves may faintly skirt the core's edge in some recordings.^[22] Detection of the S-wave shadow zone relies on the observed complete absence of direct S-wave arrivals in global seismogram networks beyond 103° epicentral distance, a phenomenon consistently recorded since the establishment of worldwide seismic stations.^[2] This absence is confirmed by triplication zones near 103°, where multiple S-wave paths through the lowermost mantle—due to velocity gradients in the D″ layer—produce overlapping arrivals just before the shadow boundary, providing a clear demarcation of the non-transmissive region at the CMB.^[24]

P-Wave Shadow Zone

The P-wave shadow zone arises from the abrupt refraction of primary (P) waves at the core-mantle boundary (CMB), where P-wave velocity decreases sharply from approximately 13.7 km/s in the lower mantle to 8.0 km/s in the liquid outer core.^[22] This velocity reduction causes P waves incident on the CMB to bend steeply upward into the mantle, preventing direct transmission to the Earth's surface in certain angular ranges and forming a "forbidden" zone devoid of undeviated P arrivals.^[5] Waves that graze the CMB undergo diffraction, propagating along the boundary before leaking back into the mantle as weak, delayed signals, while those that penetrate the core and traverse the solid inner core re-emerge as PKP phases after significant delay.^[8] Geometrically, the P-wave shadow zone manifests as an annular band on the Earth's surface, spanning epicentral distances from about 103° to 142° from the earthquake hypocenter.^[1] The inner edge aligns closely with the onset of the S-wave shadow zone, as both result from core boundary effects, while the outer edge corresponds to the emergence of PKP waves following their passage through the inner core.^[22] In the preceding distance range of 20° to 103°, P-wave arrivals exhibit triplication due to multiple refracted paths interacting with velocity gradients in the mantle and upper core, producing overlapping branches in travel-time curves from direct mantle propagation, CMB reflections, and shallow core refractions./03:_Earths_Interior/3.02:_Imaging_Earths_Interior) Detection of the P-wave shadow zone reveals a partial rather than complete absence of signals, with weak diffracted P waves (Pd phase) detectable throughout the zone at reduced amplitudes, confirming the refractive nature of the boundary.^[5] At approximately 142°, the PKP waves—representing P waves that have traversed the outer core and solid inner core—emerge with distinct arrivals, marking the zone's termination and providing evidence for the core's layered structure through their travel times and polarizations.^[8] P-wave velocities in the core, ranging from 8.0 km/s in the outer region to higher values in the inner core, underpin these propagation behaviors without direct transmission in the shadow interval.^[22]

Historical Discovery

Early Seismological Observations

The foundations of instrumental seismology emerged in the 19th century, transitioning from simple seismoscopes to devices capable of recording the timing and amplitude of ground motions. By the mid-to-late 1800s, innovations like horizontal pendulum seismographs allowed observers to detect seismic activity from distant sources, with records often indicating significant delays in wave arrivals or outright absences for far-off earthquakes, hinting at non-uniform propagation through the Earth's interior.^[25]^[26] Entering the early 20th century, systematic analysis of global earthquake records revealed striking anomalies in seismic phases, including the consistent absence of S-waves at epicentral distances greater than approximately 103°. These patterns, evident in seismograms from large events, suggested the existence of internal structural barriers that prevented direct transmission of shear waves across specific angular ranges. Such early insights were constrained by the limitations of the era's instrumentation and observational infrastructure, including a worldwide network of only about 100 seismic stations by 1910, which provided sparse coverage for triangulating wave paths. Interpretations relied on qualitative diagrams assuming a homogeneous Earth model, where straight-line or simple curved trajectories failed to explain the observed delays and gaps in arrivals.^[27]^[28]

Contributions of Key Scientists

British seismologist Richard Dixon Oldham provided the initial identification of the S-wave shadow zone in 1906 through his analysis of records from the San Francisco earthquake. He observed the complete absence of S-waves at large angular distances and interpreted this as evidence for a liquid core layer that could not transmit shear waves, marking the first recognition of a distinct core structure within Earth.^[3]^[29] Building on this, Beno Gutenberg provided a refined interpretation of the S-wave shadow zone through his 1913 analysis of seismic records from distant earthquakes. By constructing travel-time curves for P- and S-waves at epicentral distances greater than 80°, he confirmed the absence of S-waves beyond approximately 103° angular distance, attributing it to their inability to traverse a liquid outer core. This led Gutenberg to propose a core-mantle boundary at a depth of about 2,900 km, marking a sharp discontinuity where P-wave velocities dropped significantly before increasing again within the core.^[30]^[4] Inge Lehmann advanced the model of Earth's interior in 1936 by investigating P-wave anomalies in seismograms from Scandinavian stations, particularly noting diffuse arrivals at distances around 120° to 140° that deviated from existing travel-time predictions. She interpreted these as PKP phases—P-waves refracted through a high-velocity solid inner core embedded within the liquid outer core—resolving discrepancies in earlier models that assumed a fully liquid core. Lehmann positioned the inner core boundary at approximately 5,150 km depth, a structure that explained the observed wave accelerations and was later corroborated through refined seismic arrays and computational modeling in the 1970s.^[31] Gutenberg and Lehmann both relied on the systematic plotting of empirical travel-time curves derived from global seismograph networks to infer wave paths, complemented by ray-tracing simulations that assumed spherical symmetry and piecewise constant or linearly varying velocities in Earth's layers. These techniques enabled the modeling of wave refraction, reflection, and diffraction at density contrasts, directly linking shadow zone boundaries to phase transitions in the core without requiring in situ measurements.^[30]

Implications for Earth's Interior Structure

Evidence for Liquid Outer Core

The absence of S-waves beyond approximately 103° angular distance from an earthquake epicenter creates a shadow zone that provides direct evidence for the liquid nature of the Earth's outer core. Shear waves (S-waves) cannot propagate through fluids due to their zero shear modulus (μ = 0), which is a defining property of liquids lacking rigidity to sustain shear stress. This blockage at the core-mantle boundary (CMB) results in no direct S-wave arrivals in the antipodal region, confirming that the outer core behaves as a fluid rather than a solid. Additionally, seismic phases such as ScS, which represent S-waves reflecting off the CMB, further support this interpretation by showing strong reflections consistent with an impedance contrast at a solid-liquid interface, where S-waves are unable to penetrate the outer core.^[2]^[32]^[33] Supporting evidence from P-waves reinforces the liquidity of the outer core. At the CMB, P-wave velocities exhibit a sharp reduction from about 13.7 km/s in the lowermost mantle to approximately 8 km/s in the outer core, a discontinuity attributable to the transition from solid silicate mantle to liquid metallic alloys under extreme conditions. This velocity drop aligns with laboratory models of liquid iron-nickel alloys subjected to pressures around 1.3 million atmospheres (136 GPa), where compressional waves propagate but shear waves do not, matching the observed seismic behavior. The consistency of this reduction across global seismic datasets constrains geophysical models to require a fluid outer core composition, primarily molten iron with lighter elements like sulfur or oxygen to achieve the necessary density and velocity profiles.^[34]^[22]^[35] Seismic models further validate the liquid outer core through density constraints derived from wave propagation and gravitational data. Density increases abruptly at the CMB from roughly 5.6 g/cm³ in the lower mantle to 9.9 g/cm³ in the outer core, a jump exceeding even surface rock-air contrasts and necessitating a compositionally distinct, fluid layer to explain the observed seismic refraction and reflection patterns. This density profile, combined with the absence of S-wave transmission, definitively rules out pre-1913 solid-core models that assumed a uniform rigid interior without accounting for the shadow zone data, as such models failed to reproduce the velocity and attenuation behaviors now standard in Earth reference models like PREM.^[36]

Evidence for Solid Inner Core

The detection of PKP waves, which are compressional waves that penetrate the inner core, at epicentral distances greater than approximately 142° serves as primary evidence for a solid inner core embedded within the liquid outer core. These waves emerge from the P-wave shadow zone after refraction through the outer core, with their arrival times indicating a distinct velocity increase to about 11 km/s in the inner core, higher than the 8–10 km/s in the surrounding outer core material. This velocity jump implies greater rigidity and a non-zero shear modulus in the inner core, as the ability to support shear deformations is characteristic of a solid phase rather than a fluid.^[37]^[38] The gap in P-wave arrivals prior to 142°—often termed the shadow gap—arises because refracted P-waves in the low-velocity liquid outer core follow curved paths that avoid intersecting the inner core until grazing incidences at larger angular distances. For paths with epicentral angles less than about 143°, the waves turn back toward the mantle without entering the inner core, creating this observational void. Further confirmation comes from PKJKP phases, which involve a shear-wave segment (J-phase) traversing the inner core before converting back to P-waves; their detection demonstrates shear wave propagation across the inner core boundary (ICB), directly verifying its solid nature and the existence of the boundary itself at a depth of around 5,150 km.^[39]^[40] Seismic travel-time analyses of these phases, combined with velocity modeling, yield a inner core radius of 1,220 km, with the boundary defined by a sharp increase in P-wave speed. Compositionally, the inner core is inferred to consist of a solid iron-nickel alloy, solidified under extreme conditions including temperatures of approximately 6,000 K at the ICB and pressures reaching 3.6 million atmospheres, which exceed the melting point of pure iron but are stabilized by the alloying and immense pressure.^[41]^[42]^[43]

Modern Research and Observations

Seismic Tomography Techniques

Seismic tomography employs inversion techniques to construct three-dimensional models of Earth's velocity structure by analyzing the travel times of seismic waves from numerous earthquakes recorded at global stations. This method inverts millions of body-wave arrival times, such as P and S phases, to resolve lateral and radial heterogeneities in the mantle and core that deviate from spherically symmetric models, thereby refining the interpretation of shadow zones where wave amplitudes are attenuated due to refraction and reflection at internal boundaries. For instance, global models like SPiRaL incorporate over 4 million arrival times to produce high-resolution velocity perturbations, enabling the detection of structural variations that smear the edges of classical shadow zones observed in early seismology.^[44] In applications to shadow zones, 3D tomography maps the topography of the core-mantle boundary (CMB), revealing undulations with amplitudes of approximately ±3 km that influence wave propagation and contribute to the observed blurring of shadow boundaries. Joint tomographic-geodynamic inversions of P-wave travel times, including PcP and PKP phases, couple mantle velocity anomalies with CMB topography to produce consistent models, reducing discrepancies between different phase datasets and improving constraints on boundary undulations. Additionally, finite-frequency effects are accounted for using sensitivity kernels derived from normal-mode theory, which quantify how 3D perturbations affect wave delay times beyond ray-theoretic paths, enhancing resolution and ray coverage in regions of sparse sampling near the core where classical approximations fail. These kernels, particularly for core-penetrating phases like PKP, allow for better incorporation of scattering and diffraction, leading to more accurate imaging of heterogeneities that impact shadow zone delineation.^[45]^[46]^[47] Primary data for these tomographic studies come from dense global seismograph networks, notably the Incorporated Research Institutions for Seismology (IRIS) Global Seismographic Network (GSN), which has provided broadband recordings since the 1980s through its consortium of over 150 stations worldwide. The GSN's high-fidelity data enable the collection of vast datasets from teleseismic events, supporting inversions that require extensive path coverage to resolve deep structures. For low-amplitude core phases like PKP waves, which are critical for probing the outer core and CMB but often obscured by noise, array processing techniques such as beamforming and interferometry are applied to enhance signal detection and extract precise arrival times from temporary or permanent seismic arrays.^[48]^[49]^[50]

Recent Discoveries on Core Dynamics

Recent studies utilizing seismic waveform doublets—pairs of similar earthquakes recorded at different times—have revealed that Earth's inner core rotation has slowed significantly since around 2010, transitioning to a backtracking motion relative to the mantle. This differential rotation, previously super-rotating at rates of 0.05–0.15° per year, reversed direction between 2008 and 2023, with the inner core now moving slightly slower than the Earth's surface.^[51]^[52] Observations of repeating seismic signals, particularly in PKP waves that graze the inner core boundary, indicate this behavior is part of a roughly 70-year cycle, where the inner core alternates between speeding up and slowing down, influencing the timing and clarity of arrivals near the P-wave shadow zone edges.^[53]^[54] In early 2025, seismic analyses provided the first direct evidence of structural deformation at the inner core's surface, suggesting it is less rigidly solid than previously assumed and undergoes viscous changes due to interactions with the surrounding turbulent outer core. These deformations, estimated to reach heights of over 100 meters in places, manifest as temporal variations in the inner core boundary's shape, detected through discrepancies in wave propagation patterns from repeating earthquakes.^[55]^[56] Such outer core turbulence not only deforms the inner core boundary but also contributes to enhanced scattering of seismic waves at the core-mantle boundary, potentially sharpening or blurring the boundaries of the S-wave shadow zone by altering low-velocity regions.^[57]^[58] These dynamic changes in core rotation and structure have implications for the geomagnetic field, as variations in inner core motion can influence the geodynamo process, potentially modulating the frequency of field reversals during periods of rapid growth or oscillation.^[59] Furthermore, seismic observations reveal inner core anisotropy relative to the Preliminary Reference Earth Model (PREM), with P-wave velocity variations of up to 3–4% faster along the polar axis compared to equatorial directions, and hemispherical differences of 0.5–2%, as incorporated in modern tomographic models, better accounting for observed seismic travel-time anomalies linked to shadow zone phenomena.^[60]^[61] In August 2025, AI-assisted modeling suggested that silicon in the inner core stabilizes a cubic crystal structure, explaining observed slow seismic wave speeds and potentially refining predictions of wave behavior near shadow zone boundaries.^[62]

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Shear properties of Earth's inner core constrained by a detection of J ...
Oct 19, 2018 · Seismic J waves, shear waves that traverse Earth's inner core, provide direct constraints on the inner core's solidity and shear properties.
[40]
Differential PKiKP Travel Times and the Radius of the Inner Core
The data support an inner core radius of 1220–1230 km, the exact value depending on the model P velocity near the inner core boundary. ... A velocity structure of ...
[41]
A velocity structure of the Earth's core - GeoScienceWorld
Mar 3, 2017 · In the new velocity model 132, the velocity of the bottom of the mantle is 13.44 km/sec; the core mantle boundary is placed at 2892 ± 2 km.
[42]
SPiRaL: a multiresolution global tomography model of seismic wave ...
In this study, we consider more than 4 million body wave arrival times for a variety of P and S waves including crustal, regional and teleseismic phases (Table ...
[43]
Tomography of core–mantle boundary and lowermost mantle ...
We propose an innovative approach to mapping CMB topography from seismic P-wave traveltime inversions.
[44]
Structural sensitivities of finite-frequency seismic waves
Summary. We use the normal-mode theory to investigate the sensitivities of the delay times of finite-frequency seismic waves to 3-D perturbations in wave s.
[45]
Traveltime sensitivity kernels for PKP phases in the mantle
We investigate the finite-frequency effects of perturbations of compressional wave velocity on the traveltimes of PKP phases. Owing to their long paths in ...
[46]
Seismic Tomography- Incorporated Research Institutions for ... - IRIS
Seismic tomography allows us to visualize cross sections of the crust and mantle and works through a process similiar to a CT scan (or CAT scan) of the Earth ...Missing: PKP | Show results with:PKP
[47]
Achievements and Prospects of Global Broadband Seismographic ...
Jul 19, 2022 · Global seismographic networks (GSNs) emerged during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, facilitated by seminal international ...
[48]
Extracting seismic core phases with array interferometry - Lin - 2013
Feb 12, 2013 · Deep propagating seismic body waves can be extracted using array interferometry Core phases ScS and PKIKP2 propagating between stations can ...
[49]
Inner core backtracking by seismic waveform change reversals
Jun 12, 2024 · The inferred rate of super-rotation has settled to about 0.05–0.15° per year, and motion in the past decade may have slowed. Similar rates have ...
[50]
USC study confirms the rotation of Earth's inner core has slowed
The new USC study provides unambiguous evidence that the inner core began to decrease its speed around 2010, moving slower than the Earth's surface.
[51]
Earth's inner core has slowed so much it's moving backward ... - CNN
Jul 5, 2024 · New research confirms the rotation of Earth's inner core has been slowing down as part of a decades-long pattern. How this slowdown might affect ...
[52]
Study confirms rotation of Earth's inner core has slowed
Jun 18, 2024 · Scientists have proven that the Earth's inner core is backtracking – slowing down – in relation to the planet's surface, as shown in new research published in ...Missing: 2025 | Show results with:2025
[53]
Earth's inner core less solid than previously thought — USC News
Feb 10, 2025 · Deformed inner core. The physical activity is best explained as temporal changes in the shape of the inner core. The new study indicates that ...
[54]
Earth's inner core may have changed shape, say scientists - BBC
Feb 10, 2025 · The inner core is usually thought to be shaped like a ball, but its edges may actually have deformed by 100m or more in height in places, ...
[55]
Scientists Detect Shape-Shifting Along Earth's Solid Inner Core
Feb 10, 2025 · Turbulent flow in the outer core or gravitational pull from denser parts of the mantle could have deformed the inner core boundary, which might ...
[56]
Earth's inner core is less solid than previously thought
Feb 11, 2025 · “What we ended up discovering is evidence that the near surface of Earth's inner core undergoes structural change,” Vidale said. ... Deformed ...
[57]
Geomagnetic field and the growth of the Earth's inner core
Oct 22, 2025 · Magnetic field polarity reversals are reduced with the growth of the Earth's inner core. •. Transitions from weak-field to strong-field ...
[58]
Hemispherical anisotropic patterns of the Earth's inner core - PNAS
Seismic waves that sample the eastern hemisphere of the inner core can be adjusted by a model velocity that is 0.5–2.0% faster than Preliminary Reference Earth ...
[59]
Anisotropy of Earth's inner core - ResearchGate
Aug 6, 2025 · ... Another essential feature of Earth's inner core is its elastic anisotropy. P-wave velocity is ∼3% -4% faster along the polar axis than that ...Abstract · References (112) · Recommended Publications