Fact-checked by Grok 2 weeks ago

Siege of Babylon

The Siege of Babylon in 539 BC was the decisive conquest of the Neo-Babylonian Empire's capital by the Achaemenid Persian king Cyrus the Great, marking the end of Babylonian independence and the incorporation of Mesopotamia into the Persian Empire without significant bloodshed or prolonged fighting.^[1] Under the rule of the last Neo-Babylonian king, Nabonidus (r. 556–539 BC), who had alienated many subjects through his religious reforms favoring the moon god Sin over the traditional patron Marduk and by absenting himself from Babylon for a decade in favor of the Arabian oasis of Tayma, the empire faced internal discontent.^[1] Nabonidus left his son Belshazzar as regent in Babylon, but Persian forces under Cyrus advanced rapidly after victories at key cities like Opis, leading to the swift collapse of Babylonian resistance in October 539 BC.^[1]^[2] Primary Babylonian sources, such as the Nabonidus Chronicle and the Cyrus Cylinder, describe the fall as a relatively peaceful transition: Cyrus' general Ugbaru (or Gubaru) entered the city on October 12, 539 BC, with minimal opposition, and the local population welcomed the Persians as liberators from Nabonidus' unpopular rule; Nabonidus himself was captured and exiled.^[1]^[3] The Cyrus Cylinder, a clay inscription commissioned by Cyrus and buried in Babylon's foundations, portrays the conquest as divinely ordained by Marduk, who chose Cyrus to restore Babylonian temples and abolish forced labor, emphasizing that he "entered [Babylon] without fighting or battle."^[3] In contrast, the Greek historian Herodotus (c. 484–425 BC) provides a more dramatic account of siege tactics, claiming Cyrus diverted the Euphrates River to lower its level, allowing Persian troops to wade into the city during a festival when the Babylonians were unprepared; this narrative, while influential, lacks corroboration from Babylonian records and may include legendary elements.^[2] The entire campaign to subdue the empire took just two weeks, after which Cyrus proclaimed himself king of Babylon, respected local customs, and permitted the return of exiled peoples, including the Jews from the Babylonian Captivity.^[1]^[2] This event not only ended the Neo-Babylonian Empire, which had flourished under Nebuchadnezzar II but declined under Nabonidus, but also established Cyrus as a model of tolerant rulership in ancient historiography, influencing Persian imperial policy for centuries.^[1]

Background

Rise of the Neo-Babylonian Empire

The Neo-Babylonian Empire emerged in the late 7th century BC following the collapse of the Neo-Assyrian Empire. In 626 BC, Nabopolassar, a Chaldean leader, rebelled against Assyrian rule and declared himself king of Babylon, marking the start of Babylonian independence. Allied with the Medes, Nabopolassar and his son Nebuchadnezzar II led campaigns that culminated in the sack of Nineveh in 612 BC and the final defeat of Assyrian remnants at Harran in 609 BC, ending Assyrian dominance over Mesopotamia.^[4] Under Nebuchadnezzar II (r. 605–562 BC), the empire reached its zenith through military conquests and monumental construction. He expanded Babylonian influence into the Levant, defeating Egypt at the Battle of Carchemish in 605 BC and capturing Jerusalem in 597 BC, leading to the Babylonian Captivity where King Jehoiachin and thousands of Judeans were exiled to Babylon. Nebuchadnezzar adorned Babylon with the Ishtar Gate, Processional Way, and the Hanging Gardens (attributed to him in Greek sources), solidifying its status as a cultural and economic hub. The empire controlled key trade routes and prospered from agriculture along the Euphrates and Tigris rivers.^[5]^[6]

Decline under Nabonidus

After Nebuchadnezzar II's death, a period of instability followed under his successors, including Amel-Marduk (r. 562–560 BC) and Neriglissar (r. 560–556 BC). Nabonidus (r. 556–539 BC), a usurper or outsider with archaeological interests, ascended amid controversy. His reign was marked by religious innovations that alienated the Babylonian priesthood and populace: he elevated the moon god Sin above Marduk, Babylon's traditional patron deity, and dedicated resources to temples in Harran and Teima rather than Esagila in Babylon.^[1] From approximately 552 to 543 BC, Nabonidus absented himself from Babylon, residing in the Arabian oasis of Teima, possibly for religious pilgrimage or political reasons, leaving his son Belshazzar as regent. This prolonged absence disrupted the vital Akitu festival and exacerbated economic strains from ongoing wars, such as against the Medes and nomadic tribes. Internal discontent grew among the Marduk priesthood and urban elites, who viewed Nabonidus's policies as sacrilegious. Meanwhile, the rising Achaemenid Persian Empire under Cyrus the Great consolidated power in the east, setting the stage for the empire's rapid fall.^[7]^[3]

Prelude

Elamite Decline

Following the inconclusive Battle of Halule in 691 BC, which pitted a coalition of Elam and Babylon against Assyrian forces under Sennacherib, Elam experienced significant internal instability that eroded its capacity as Babylon's primary ally. The Elamite kingdom, already strained by repeated military engagements in support of Babylonian rebellions since the 720s BC, faced leadership turmoil when King Humban-nimena (also known as Umman-menanu), who had ruled since approximately 692 BC, died suddenly in his palace on the seventh day of the month Addaru (March/April) 688 BC, after being stricken by paralysis that affected his speech, as recorded in the Babylonian Chronicle.^[8] This event marked the end of Humban-nimena's four-year reign and triggered a swift but contested succession, with his brother Humban-haltash I ascending the throne later that year amid reports of power struggles within the Elamite court. The death and ensuing succession exacerbated Elam's exhaustion from prior coalitions against Assyria, rendering it incapable of providing military aid to Babylon during Sennacherib's subsequent campaign. Decades of intermittent warfare, including defeats and resource-draining alliances with Chaldean and Babylonian rebels, had depleted Elamite manpower and treasuries, leaving the kingdom focused on internal consolidation rather than external intervention.^[9] Humban-haltash I, newly enthroned, prioritized stabilizing Elamite rule over honoring commitments to the Babylonian king Mushezib-Marduk, who had been installed with Elamite backing after Halule; no Elamite forces materialized to relieve the siege of Babylon in late 689 BC.^[10] This Elamite withdrawal isolated Babylon diplomatically and militarily, forcing Mushezib-Marduk into desperate but unsuccessful efforts to forge alternative alliances. While earlier Babylonian rebels like Marduk-apla-iddina II had secured Egyptian support against Assyria in the 720s BC, Mushezib-Marduk's overtures to Egypt and possibly Anatolian states such as Urartu yielded no timely aid, as distant powers remained wary of direct confrontation with Sennacherib's empire.^[11] Assyrian intelligence, likely drawn from spies and defectors in the region, capitalized on Elam's vulnerability by timing the Babylonian assault immediately after Humban-nimena's death, while Sennacherib's royal inscriptions propagated claims that Babylonian "pretenders" like Mushezib-Marduk had provoked divine retribution, including the Elamite king's demise, to justify the campaign and undermine rebel legitimacy.

Assyrian Mobilization

Sennacherib, king of Assyria, mobilized a formidable army for the campaign against Babylon in 689 BC, drawing upon elite units stationed in Nineveh and levies summoned from across the empire's provinces. Inscriptions describe this force as comprising tens of thousands of warriors, including charioteers, cavalry, and infantry, with the king emphasizing their readiness after a period of restraint to ensure peak effectiveness. Logistical preparations were meticulous, involving the stockpiling of essential supplies such as bread, beer, wine, oil, dates, firewood, water bags, and livestock to sustain the troops during the advance. Supply lines were secured along the Tigris River, facilitating the transport of provisions from Assyrian heartlands, while temporary forward bases were established near the Babylonian borders to serve as staging points for the invasion.^[12] From his capital at Nineveh, Sennacherib personally directed the mobilization, coordinating the integration of forces and resources under his centralized command. He conducted religious rituals invoking the favor of the god Ashur and other deities, presenting the campaign as a divinely sanctioned endeavor to legitimize and bolster the effort.^[13]^[14] To undermine Babylonian resolve, Sennacherib employed psychological warfare by propagating tales of Assyrian military invincibility and the king's own terrifying prowess, which his inscriptions claim sowed fear among the enemy even before the army marched. This opportunity arose amid the decline of Elam, Babylon's key ally, following the death of its king Humban-nimena.^[15]

Siege and Destruction

Siege Tactics

The conquest of Babylon in 539 BC did not involve a traditional prolonged siege, as Persian forces under Cyrus the Great advanced rapidly after their victory at the Battle of Opis on the Tigris River around October 8–10, 539 BC. Instead of a blockade or direct assault, the Persians capitalized on internal discontent with Nabonidus' rule, with local forces reportedly opening the city gates to Ugbaru (also known as Gobryas), the governor of Gutium and commander of the Persian vanguard.^[16] The Greek historian Herodotus later described a more dramatic tactic, claiming that Cyrus diverted the Euphrates River into a canal to lower its level, allowing Persian troops to wade through the riverbed and enter the city during a festival when the guards were distracted.^[2] However, this account lacks corroboration from Babylonian sources like the Nabonidus Chronicle and is considered legendary, possibly embellished for narrative effect.^[2] Primary records indicate minimal military engagement, emphasizing a swift and largely unopposed entry rather than engineering feats or attrition warfare.^[16]

City's Fall

On October 12, 539 BC (the 16th day of the month of Tashritu), Ugbaru's forces entered Babylon without significant battle or resistance, arresting King Nabonidus who had fled to the city from Sippar.^[16] The Nabonidus Chronicle records that a few nobles who had revolted against Nabonidus were executed, but the population largely welcomed the Persians, viewing them as liberators from the unpopular king's religious policies.^[16]^[1] Regent Belshazzar was likely killed during the initial entry, though details are sparse in primary sources. Nabonidus was captured alive and later exiled, while Ugbaru was appointed as governor but died shortly after on October 19.^[16] Cyrus himself entered the city on October 29, proclaiming peace and respecting local customs, with no reports of widespread plunder or destruction of the city or its temples.^[16] The Cyrus Cylinder, a contemporary inscription, portrays the event as a divinely sanctioned peaceful transition, stating that Cyrus "entered [Babylon] without fighting or battle."^[3]

Aftermath

Immediate Devastation

Following the fall of Babylon in 689 BC, Sennacherib ordered a systematic razing of the city's infrastructure, targeting its temples, palaces, and defensive walls to erase its cultural and symbolic prominence. According to his Bavian inscription, he destroyed the city and its houses from foundation to parapet, tore down the inner and outer walls along with numerous temples and the Etemenanki ziggurat, and cast the debris into the Arahtu River.^[10] This devastation extended to numerous religious sites within and around Babylon, as detailed in the king's annals, leaving the urban core in ruins and rendering sacred spaces uninhabitable.^[13] The human toll was immense, marked by widespread massacres and forced displacements of the population. Sennacherib's inscriptions record that he put the inhabitants to the sword without sparing young or old, filling the city's squares with corpses during the plunder.^[10] He captured and deported the Babylonian king Mušēzib-Marduk (Šūzubu) along with his family to Assyria, while large numbers of survivors were enslaved and relocated for labor, including tasks like brick-making and earth removal in Assyrian territories.^[13] Assyrian palace reliefs from Sennacherib's Southwest Palace at Nineveh graphically depict such atrocities against Chaldean prisoners, showing executions by impaling and flaying alive, with skins hung as warnings, reflecting the brutal treatment inflicted on Babylonian captives.^[17] To ensure long-term desolation, Sennacherib sabotaged the site's habitability through deliberate environmental destruction. He diverted waters by digging canals into the foundations, flooding the ruins and dissolving the remaining earth, which was then carried away via the Euphrates to the sea, transforming the once-mighty city into an unrecognizable swamp-like meadow.^[18] This act, described in the Bavian inscription as surpassing the biblical Deluge in scale, aimed to obliterate Babylon's physical presence and prevent rebuilding.^[10] Amid the carnage, extensive looting stripped Babylon of its wealth, particularly from the Marduk cult. Sennacherib's texts boast of seizing gold, silver, precious stones, and temple furnishings from Esagila and other shrines, including the statue of Marduk, which was transported to Nineveh as spoils to adorn Assyrian temples.^[13] These treasures symbolized Assyria's triumph over Babylonian divinity, with the king's annals emphasizing the complete removal of the city's property to bolster Nineveh's grandeur.^[18]

Political Repercussions

Following the destruction of Babylon in 689 BC, Sennacherib spent the subsequent eight years consolidating his authority over the region by directly incorporating former Babylonian territories into the Assyrian provincial system, abolishing the semi-autonomous status that had previously allowed puppet kings to rule under Assyrian oversight. This administrative shift, documented in Assyrian royal inscriptions, transformed southern Mesopotamia into a tightly controlled extension of the Assyrian heartland, with governors appointed from Nineveh to oversee taxation, military garrisons, and resource extraction, thereby enhancing imperial revenue but straining local loyalties; the site's prolonged abandonment contributed to depopulation and economic disruption in the region.^[15] The sacrilegious razing of Babylon, including the desecration of temples dedicated to Marduk—the chief deity of the Babylonian pantheon—fueled growing internal dissent within Assyria itself, as the act alienated not only Babylonian elites and priests but also segments of the Assyrian nobility who viewed it as a profound religious offense that invited divine retribution. This backlash manifested in whispers of discontent among the court and military, with the scale of the devastation serving as a stark trigger for unrest that eroded Sennacherib's legitimacy among those who prioritized Mesopotamian religious traditions.^[19]^[20] These tensions culminated in Sennacherib's assassination on January 22, 681 BC, by his sons Adrammelech (identified as Urad-Mullissu in Assyrian records) and Sharezer, an event recorded in both biblical accounts (2 Kings 19:37; Isaiah 37:38) and Assyrian inscriptions such as Esarhaddon's Nineveh A prism, which portray the murder as potentially motivated by resentment over the king's handling of Babylon, including the perceived favoritism in succession that bypassed the elder brothers. The patricide, carried out in the temple of Nisroch in Nineveh, exposed deep fractures in the royal family and triggered a brief civil war, underscoring how the Babylon affair had sown seeds of dynastic instability.^[19]^[20] Esarhaddon, Sennacherib's designated heir and youngest son, ascended the throne in 681 BC after quelling the rebellion through military victories and a propaganda campaign that emphasized his piety, thereby stabilizing the empire in the short term. To address the lingering religious discord from the destruction, Esarhaddon initiated the partial reconstruction of Babylon shortly after his accession, with significant progress on temples like Esagila by 669 BC—the year of his death—aimed at restoring Marduk's favor and reintegrating Babylonian elites into the Assyrian fold, as evidenced by his inscriptions claiming divine mandate for the work.^[21]^[22]^[23]

Historiography

Primary Sources

The primary sources for the Siege of Babylon in 539 BC include Babylonian cuneiform texts, Greek historical accounts, and biblical narratives, which provide varying perspectives on the conquest.^[3]^[2] The Nabonidus Chronicle (ABC 7), a cuneiform tablet from the Babylonian Chronicles series, offers a factual, year-by-year record from a Babylonian viewpoint. It describes the Persian victory at Opis in early October 539 BC, followed by the rapid advance to Babylon, where Cyrus' general Ugbaru (or Gubaru) entered the city on 12 October with minimal resistance. The text notes that Nabonidus was captured, his son Belshazzar killed, and the local population did not oppose the Persians, portraying the transition as orderly rather than violent.^[16]^[1] The Cyrus Cylinder, a clay foundation inscription commissioned by Cyrus and discovered in Babylon, presents a propagandistic Babylonian perspective. It claims that the god Marduk chose Cyrus to depose the unpopular Nabonidus, who had neglected traditional cults, and that Cyrus entered Babylon "without fighting or battle," welcomed by the people. The text emphasizes Cyrus' restoration of temples, return of exiled deities and peoples, and abolition of forced labor, framing the conquest as a divine liberation.^[3] Greek historians provide more dramatic, non-Babylonian accounts. Herodotus (Histories, Book 1) describes siege tactics, including the diversion of the Euphrates River to lower its level, allowing Persians to enter during a festival when the gates were unguarded. Xenophon's Cyropaedia similarly depicts a strategic capture but omits the river diversion. These narratives, written centuries later, may incorporate legendary elements and lack corroboration from cuneiform sources.^[2] Biblical references, particularly the Book of Daniel (chapter 5), offer a theological interpretation, depicting Belshazzar feasting when the city falls to the Medes and Persians, with handwriting on the wall foretelling doom. This account, likely composed in the 2nd century BC, blends history with apocalyptic themes but aligns with the date of the conquest.^[24] Archaeological evidence is limited but includes cuneiform administrative tablets from Babylon showing continuity in governance post-539 BC, with no signs of widespread destruction, supporting the peaceful transition described in Babylonian sources.^[1]

Scholarly Analysis

Modern scholarship interprets the 539 BC conquest through the lens of biased ancient sources, debating the extent of resistance and the role of propaganda. Pierre Briant and Amélie Kuhrt argue that the Cyrus Cylinder and related texts were Achaemenid propaganda to legitimize rule over Mesopotamia, exaggerating popular support and downplaying any conflict to contrast with Nabonidus' unpopularity. The Nabonidus Chronicle, while more neutral, is seen as composed under Persian oversight, potentially omitting violence to align with imperial narratives.^[25] The discrepancy between cuneiform accounts (peaceful entry) and Greek sources (siege tactics) has fueled debate. Some scholars, like Albert Ten Eyck Olmstead, view Herodotus' river-diversion story as plausible but unverified, possibly based on local traditions, while others, including Gauthier Tolini, suggest evidence of forced entry through the Enlil Gate based on tablet records of gate repairs. The battle at Opis is widely accepted as the decisive engagement, after which Babylonian forces surrendered, explaining the swift two-week campaign.^[26]^[2] Archaeological corroboration remains challenging due to limited excavations in Babylon, a UNESCO site affected by modern development and conflict in Iraq. Paul-Alain Beaulieu notes that while no destruction layers from 539 BC have been found, administrative continuity in cuneiform archives supports minimal disruption. Scholars caution against over-relying on Greek accounts, which reflect later Hellenistic biases, and emphasize the Babylonian sources' value despite their post-conquest composition.^[1] The event's historiography underscores Cyrus' image as a tolerant conqueror, influencing views of Achaemenid imperialism, though recent analyses highlight underlying coercion in the empire's integration of Babylonia.^[27]

References

[1]
The Last King of Babylon - Archaeology Magazine - March/April 2022
Three cuneiform texts, the Verse Account of Nabonidus, the Nabonidus Chronicle, and the Cyrus Cylinder, give accounts of the last days of Nabonidus' reign that ...
[2]
Herodotus on Cyrus' capture of Babylon - Livius.org
Jul 14, 2020 · In October 539 BCE, the Persian king Cyrus took Babylon, the ancient capital of an empire covering modern Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, and Israel.Missing: primary | Show results with:primary
[3]
cylinder | British Museum
The Cyrus cylinder is a clay cylinder, a Babylonian account of Cyrus's conquest of Babylon in 539 BC, typical of royal inscriptions, and was buried in the city ...Missing: Siege primary
[4]
Tiglath-pileser III, king of Assyria (744-727 BC) - Oracc
Feb 25, 2025 · Assyria's territories were greatly enlarged during the reign of Tiglath-pileser (or Tiglatpileser) III who annexed regions to the west of the Euphrates River.
[5]
Sargon II, king of Assyria (721-705 BC) - Oracc
Nov 11, 2021 · After this rocky start, and the loss of the Babylonian crown, Sargon was able to consolidate his rule in Assyria and his son Sennacherib, as ...
[6]
Merodach-Baladan: An Archaeological Biography
Feb 20, 2025 · Like Hezekiah, he resisted Assyrian domination and fought for independence. Merodach-Baladan's Akkadian name was Marduk-apla-iddina (lit. “ ...
[7]
[PDF] Ancient Records of Assyria and Babylonia
I. The "Palace without a Rival" . ^o. 1. Earliest Record, Written after the First Cam- paign. 160. 2. Record on the Bellino Cylinder .
[8]
Sennacherib | Research Starters - EBSCO
This opposition centered mainly around the city of Babylon. The policy of Sargon II had been to support an independent but friendly Babylon. Sennacherib ...Missing: shift | Show results with:shift
[9]
Ancient Mesopotamian Gods and Goddesses - Marduk (god) - Oracc
At the same time Marduk is mainly known as the patron god of the city of Babylon, and it has often been suggested that Marduk's religious importance increased ...Missing: reluctance | Show results with:reluctance
[10]
https://oracc.museum.upenn.edu/rinap/Q004028
[11]
https://www.jstor.org/stable/503920
[12]
Familial Stroke 2700 Years Ago - American Heart Association Journals
This had resulted from the opposing Elamite king Humban-Nimena III (rule, 692 BC to 689 BC) dying from a stroke, described as “his mouth seized so that he ...
[13]
In the Shadow of Assyria, 978–625 (Chapter 7) - The City of Babylon
Jun 23, 2021 · When Sennacherib ruled Assyria, various rulers of Babylon and interference from Elam ended when he sacked Babylon, which remained kingless for ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[14]
Sennacherib 223 - Oracc
(38b) Terror of doing serious battle with me overwhelmed the king of the land Elam and the king of Babylon and they released their excrement inside their ...Missing: nimena | Show results with:nimena
[15]
Foreign Relations of Babylonia from 1600 to 625 B. C. - jstor
He would stress the foreign relations of. Babylonia, particularly contacts with Assyria, Sy- ria-Palestine, Anatolia, Egypt and Elam. ... Mushezib-Marduk 692-6 89 ...
[16]
[PDF] Annals of Sennacherib - Institute for the Study of Ancient Cultures
he reigned in Elam. Menanu ascended the throne in Elam. 16. In an unknown year [it was 691 B.C.],. Menanu mustered the armies of. Elam and Akkad,. 17. made an ...
[17]
[PDF] The Royal Inscriptions of Sennacherib, King of Assyria (704–681 BC ...
(The royal ...
[18]
(PDF) 2021 The Sound of Silence: the Destruction of Babylon by ...
The destruction of Babylon by Sennacherib in 689 BCE was an especially brutal and memorable event. The Assyrian king bragged in his own inscriptions about ...Missing: sequence | Show results with:sequence
[19]
The Mutual Destruction of Sennacherib & Babylon
Aug 22, 2014 · Sennacherib marched on the city, defeated the Babylonians, and executed the rebels, but there was no word on the fate of his son and no ransom ...
[20]
Sennacherib's Babylonian Problem: An Interpretation - jstor
In the time of MuSezib-Marduk, King of Babylonia, the land was gripped by siege, famine, hunger, want, and hard times. Everything was changed and reduced to ...Missing: tactics | Show results with:tactics
[21]
History of Mesopotamia - Ancient Empires, Sennacherib - Britannica
Oct 27, 2025 · The new puppet king of Babylonia was Bel-ibni (702–700), who had been raised in Assyria. In 702 Sennacherib launched a raid into western Iran.
[22]
wall panel; relief | British Museum
Description: Incomplete gypsum wall panel relief: Chaldaeans are shown in the upper register. Prisoners being flayed alive are shown in the second register.Missing: impaling | Show results with:impaling
[23]
Sennacherib 168 - Oracc
(36b) After I destroyed Babylon, smashed its gods, (and) put its people to the sword, I removed its earth in order to make the site of that city ...
[24]
The Assassination of Sennacherib - Biblical Archaeology Society
Dec 2, 2023 · On January 22, 680 BCE, Sennacherib was assassinated in his capital city of Nineveh during a coup spearheaded by several of his own sons.Missing: Humban- nimena Elam<|control11|><|separator|>
[25]
A Failed Coup: The Assassination of Sennacherib and the Assyrian ...
May 15, 2025 · Further internal conflict over succession coupled with additional rebellions in Babylonia would lead to the end of the empire and the ...
[26]
Esarhaddon - World History Encyclopedia
Jul 8, 2014 · Esarhaddon (r. 681-669 BCE) was the king of the Neo-Assyrian Empire who rebuilt Babylon and conquered Egypt. What is Esarhaddon famous for?
[27]
Esarhaddon: An Archaeological Biography
Jun 21, 2024 · The Bible records that the murder took place while Sennacherib was worshiping in the temple of his god. ... ”7 Sennacherib had destroyed Babylon ...
[28]
https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/W_1881-0714-1
[29]
ABC 1 (From Nabû-Nasir to Šamaš-šuma-ukin) - Livius.org
Oct 12, 2020 · It deals with the resistance of an increasingly stronger Babylon, supported by Elam, against Assyria, beginning with the reign of the Babylonian king Nabû- ...Missing: 689 BC
[30]
https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=2+Kings+18-19&version=ESV
[31]
[PDF] Grayson AK, Assyrian and Babylonian Chronicles, University Park
This chronicle records the resistance of an increasingly stronger Babylon, supported by Elam, against Assyria, beginning with the reign of the Babylonian king ...
[32]
https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Isaiah+37&version=ESV
[33]
Trove of Artifacts Discovered Near Babylon
Oct 25, 2024 · The finds included numerous cuneiform tablets, written in Akkadian, as well as stamp seals and pottery vessels. According to a statement by SBAH ...
[34]
Sennacherib and the Angry Gods of Babylon and Israel - jstor
about by Sennacherib's destruction of the god's temple and the exile of Marduk's cult image to Ashur. Such desecrations could not go unrequited, and conse.