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Simi Hills

The Simi Hills comprise a low-elevation, rocky mountain range within the Transverse Ranges of Southern California, extending across eastern Ventura County and western Los Angeles County between the Simi Valley and the San Fernando Valley.^[1] ^[2] The range covers approximately 110 square miles, runs primarily north-south for about 25 miles, and reaches a maximum elevation of 2,405 feet at Simi Peak.^[3] ^[4] Geologically, the Simi Hills feature sedimentary formations primarily from the Cenozoic era, with steep, highly dissected slopes rising from arroyo bottoms at around 250 feet to over 2,200 feet, shaped by tectonic activity and erosion.^[2] ^[5] Ecologically, the area supports chaparral shrublands, oak woodlands, and riparian zones with species such as California sycamores and arroyo willows, functioning as a critical wildlife corridor for terrestrial mammals and other fauna amid urban pressures.^[6] ^[7] Historically, the Simi Hills have been inhabited for millennia by Native American groups including the Chumash and Ventureño, who utilized the landscape for settlements, hunting, and cultural practices evidenced by polychrome pictograph sites and traditional ecological knowledge.^[8] ^[9]

Geography

Location and Boundaries

The Simi Hills constitute a low, rocky mountain range within the Transverse Ranges physiographic province of Southern California, primarily situated in southeastern Ventura County with extensions into northwestern Los Angeles County.^[1] Centered at approximately 34°14′ N latitude and 118°45′ W longitude, the range trends east-west for about 26 miles (42 km) in length and averages 7 miles (11 km) in north-south width.^[3] Reference coordinates for the range include 34.2244485°N, 118.7167571°W, corresponding to an approximate elevation of 2,139 feet (652 meters).^[10] The northern boundary of the Simi Hills aligns with the southern edge of the Simi Valley, demarcated in part by the Simi Fault, while the southern boundary abuts the northern margin of the Conejo Valley.^[11] To the east, the range interfaces with the San Fernando Valley via the Santa Susana Pass and adjoins the Santa Susana Mountains, whereas the western extent approaches the Ventura Freeway (U.S. Route 101) corridor near Thousand Oaks and transitions toward the Santa Monica Mountains.^[1] This configuration positions the Simi Hills as a transitional ridge between the inland Simi Valley and the coastal-influenced Conejo Valley, influencing local drainage patterns and urban development boundaries in the Greater Los Angeles area.

Topography and Peaks

The Simi Hills exhibit a topography dominated by low, rounded hills and broad, gently sloping valleys shaped by erosion, forming part of the western Transverse Ranges geomorphic province.^[12] Elevations generally range from about 500 feet (152 m) along the lower flanks adjacent to surrounding valleys to a high point of 2,405 feet (733 m).^[3] ^[13] The terrain includes dissected uplands with intermontane basins and mountain valleys, contributing to a landscape of moderate relief without steep escarpments typical of higher ranges.^[12] Simi Peak, at 2,405 feet (733 m) elevation—precisely 2,404.7 feet (733 m) per lidar measurements—stands as the highest summit in the range, located near the eastern boundary within the Santa Susana Pass area.^[13] ^[4] This prominence provides 360-degree vistas encompassing the Simi Valley, San Fernando Valley, and distant ranges like the Santa Monica Mountains.^[14] Other notable elevations include subsidiary ridges and knobs, such as those in the China Flat area, but none exceed 2,000 feet significantly, underscoring the range's subdued profile compared to adjacent highlands.^[14] The overall area spans approximately 110 square miles (285 km²) of such varied but consistently low-relief landforms.^[3]

Watersheds and Hydrology

The Simi Hills contribute drainage to two primary watersheds: the northern slopes feed into the Calleguas Creek Watershed via Arroyo Simi and associated tributaries, while the southern slopes direct runoff toward the Los Angeles River Watershed through creeks such as Bell Creek.^[15]^[16] The Calleguas Creek Watershed encompasses approximately 343 square miles, including contributions from southern-facing canyons in the Simi Hills like Sycamore Canyon, Bus Canyon, Runkle Canyon, and Black Canyon, which channel stormwater northward into Arroyo Simi before joining Calleguas Creek and ultimately the Pacific Ocean.^[15]^[17] In contrast, the Los Angeles River Watershed spans over 834 square miles, with headwaters originating in the Simi Hills and adjacent Santa Susana Mountains, where ephemeral streams like Bell Creek collect precipitation and convey it southeastward to the river's main stem.^[16] Hydrologic processes in the Simi Hills are dominated by a semi-arid Mediterranean climate, featuring seasonal rainfall concentrated in winter months (typically 15-20 inches annually), which generates episodic surface flows in deeply incised canyons but minimal baseflow outside of storm events.^[18] Streams are predominantly ephemeral, with flash flooding posing risks during intense precipitation, as evidenced by historical events exacerbating erosion in sedimentary terrains.^[17] Urbanization in adjacent valleys has altered natural hydrology through impervious surfaces, increasing peak discharges and reducing infiltration rates in downstream reaches.^[18] Groundwater hydrology relies on recharge from percolating stormwater in fractured bedrock aquifers within the hills' sedimentary formations, such as the Chatsworth and Santa Susana units, supplementing alluvial basins like the Simi Valley Groundwater Basin to the north.^[11]^[18] This basin, bounded southerly by the Simi Hills, stores water in unconsolidated alluvium and underlying bedrock, with recharge estimates influenced by canyon infiltration but challenged by over-extraction and contamination from historical industrial activities.^[11] Seeps and springs emerge locally where groundwater intersects surface outcrops, supporting limited riparian habitats amid overall low yields typical of upland fractured systems.^[19]

Climate and Weather Patterns

The Simi Hills feature a hot-summer Mediterranean climate (Köppen Csa), characterized by prolonged dry periods in summer and concentrated rainfall in winter, influenced by their inland position in Southern California.^[20] Annual temperatures typically range from winter lows around 46°F (8°C) to summer highs near 87°F (31°C), with an overall yearly average of approximately 62°F (17°C); diurnal fluctuations are pronounced due to clear skies and low humidity, often exceeding 20°F (11°C) daily in summer.^[21] Precipitation totals average 17 inches (432 mm) per year, with nearly all rainfall occurring from November to March; February records the highest monthly average at 3.5 inches (89 mm), while summer months receive negligible amounts, fostering drought-prone conditions.^[22]^[21] The wet season features 5-6 days of measurable rain per month on average, primarily from Pacific storms, whereas the dry season spans 8 months with fewer than 1 wet day per month.^[21] Notable weather patterns include periodic Santa Ana winds, which originate from high-pressure systems over the Great Basin and channel hot, gusty downslope flows through passes like the Santa Susana into the Simi Hills during autumn and early winter; these events, with speeds up to 50-80 mph (80-129 km/h), drastically lower humidity to 10-20% and elevate fire danger.^[23] Snowfall is rare and minimal, averaging 0 inches annually, though light accumulations have occurred at higher elevations above 2,000 feet (610 m) during exceptional cold fronts.^[22]

Geology

Geological Formation

The Simi Hills formed as part of the western Transverse Ranges through Cenozoic tectonic compression driven by the interaction between the Pacific and North American plates, transitioning from subduction to transform faulting along the San Andreas system. This north-south shortening initiated significant uplift and folding in the Miocene, with accelerated deformation during the Pliocene and Pleistocene as regional right-lateral shear concentrated strain into thrust faults and anticlines.^[24] The range's structural framework includes south-verging folds, such as those in the Camarillo fold belt, and major boundary faults like the Simi Fault and Santa Susana Thrust, which demarcate the northern margin and facilitated differential uplift against adjacent basins.^[25]^[26] Exposed bedrock primarily comprises Upper Cretaceous sedimentary rocks of the Chatsworth Formation, a thick (at least 1,400 meters) sequence of sand-rich turbidites and conglomerates deposited in a deep-sea fan environment during the late Campanian to early Maastrichtian stages, approximately 72–66 million years ago.^[27] This formation dominates the hills' core and outcrops prominently in areas like Stoney Point, reflecting paleocurrents from a northwestern source tied to the ancient continental margin.^[28] Unconformably overlying these are Paleogene to Neogene units, including the wedge-shaped Simi Conglomerate of interbedded nonmarine sandstones and coarse conglomerates, the upper Eocene to lower Miocene Sespe Formation of fluvial and alluvial deposits, and Miocene marine strata such as the Vaqueros and Topanga formations.^[29]^[2] Subsequent tectonic events deformed these strata into tight folds and reverse faults, with evidence of Paleocene low-angle thrusting on structures like the Burro Flats fault and late Pleistocene reactivation along the Simi fault zone, contributing to the range's rugged topography and seismic hazard potential.^[30]^[25] Volcanic rocks are minor, limited to localized Miocene lava flows, while the absence of significant plutonic basement reflects the dominance of sedimentary cover in this fold-thrust belt setting.^[31]

Paleontological Resources

The Simi Hills preserve paleontological resources primarily within marine sedimentary formations spanning the Late Cretaceous to Miocene epochs, reflecting episodic submergence under ancient Pacific seabeds. These deposits yield fossils of invertebrates and vertebrates, offering evidence of prehistoric marine ecosystems dominated by mollusks, gastropods, and aquatic mammals. Ground-disturbing activities, such as construction and seismic events, have periodically exposed specimens, underscoring the region's high paleontological sensitivity as documented in environmental assessments.^[32]^[33] The Upper Cretaceous Chatsworth Formation, a thick sequence of shales and sandstones exceeding 6,000 feet in thickness and widely exposed in the hills, contains fossiliferous beds particularly in its lower sections, preserving marine faunas including diverse gastropod species.^[34]^[35] Systematic analyses of these gastropods from Simi Hills localities in Ventura and Los Angeles counties reveal taxa adapted to shallow to deep marine environments, contributing to reconstructions of Late Cretaceous biodiversity and biostratigraphy.^[35] Overlying Paleocene units have yielded late Paleocene molluscan assemblages, including new species discoveries near Meier Canyon, indicating faunal transitions following the Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction.^[36] Miocene strata host vertebrate remains, exemplified by a 600-pound, 4-foot-long fossil block containing aquatic vertebrate elements—likely a marine mammal or reptile—dating to approximately 15 million years ago, uncovered in 2019 after Ridgecrest earthquakes dislodged it from a hillside north of State Route 118.^[37]^[38]^[39] This find, studied by local paleontologists, highlights the Miocene marine regression phases that once covered the Simi area, with brackish and fully marine megafossils reported in related units like the Simi Conglomerate and Las Virgenes Sandstone.^[29] Such resources necessitate mitigation protocols in development projects to preserve in situ specimens.^[33]

Ecology

Native Flora

The native flora of the Simi Hills is adapted to a Mediterranean climate with dry summers and periodic wildfires, forming communities such as chaparral, coastal sage scrub, and oak woodlands. Chaparral dominates steeper slopes and rocky areas, consisting of dense, evergreen shrubs that regenerate after fire. Key species include chamise (Adenostoma fasciculatum), which forms extensive stands, and various ceanothus (Ceanothus spp.), known for their vibrant spring blooms and nitrogen-fixing roots.^[40] Laurel sumac (Malosma laurina) and mountain mahogany (Cercocarpus betuloides) contribute to the shrub layer, providing structural diversity and habitat for pollinators.^[40] Chaparral yucca (Hesperoyucca whipplei), with its tall flower stalks, is also characteristic, blooming dramatically before dying back.^[41] Coastal sage scrub occurs in lower, drier elevations and open areas, featuring aromatic, drought-deciduous shrubs with greater openness than chaparral. Prominent species are California sagebrush (Artemisia californica), California buckwheat (Eriogonum fasciculatum), and purple sage (Salvia leucophylla), which release volatile oils that can inhibit understory growth.^[40] California sunflower (Encelia californica) adds seasonal color with yellow daisy-like flowers. These plants thrive in shallow, well-drained soils and support specialized insects and birds.^[40] Oak woodlands occupy canyon bottoms and north-facing slopes with deeper soils, anchoring the landscape with long-lived trees. Coast live oak (Quercus agrifolia), an evergreen species, forms the canopy, often accompanied by understory poison oak (Toxicodendron diversilobum) and toyon (Heteromeles arbutifolia), which produce red berries for wildlife.^[42] Valley oak (Quercus lobata), deciduous and riparian-associated, grows in moister sites alongside California sycamore (Platanus racemosa) and California black walnut (Juglans californica).^[42] These woodlands enhance biodiversity, hosting over 300 vertebrate species regionally, though fragmentation threatens their extent.^[42]

Wildlife and Fauna

The Simi Hills function as a vital terrestrial wildlife corridor, enabling gene flow and population replenishment for species between the coastal Santa Monica Mountains and inland ranges like the Santa Susana Mountains, amid fragmented urban habitats. This connectivity supports diverse fauna adapted to chaparral, oak woodland, and riparian ecosystems, though urbanization and roads pose barriers to movement.^[6]^[7] Mammalian fauna includes common species such as mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus), coyotes (Canis latrans), and bobcats (Lynx rufus), which utilize the area's open spaces for foraging and dispersal. Mountain lions (Puma concolor) are present, with documented breeding activity; for instance, a female lion (P-77) produced an all-female litter of three kittens in 2023, and a den containing four kittens was located in 2018 near highway-surrounded habitats. Black bears (Ursus americanus) occasionally venture into the region, with sightings reported in recent years, though they are less resident than in more northern ranges. Inventories in portions of the Simi Hills, such as the Santa Susana Field Laboratory, have identified 15 mammal species overall.^[43]^[44]^[45] Avian diversity is notable, with approximately 60 bird species recorded in surveyed areas, including the federally endangered Least Bell's vireo (Vireo bellii pusillus), which breeds in riparian zones. Raptors such as red-tailed hawks (Buteo jamaicensis) and smaller passerines thrive in the varied terrain.^[46] Reptiles and amphibians number at least 11 species in local inventories, with broader surveys in the urbanized Simi Hills capturing 3,379 individuals across 21 species from 2019 to 2021, indicating resilience in small habitat patches despite fragmentation. The California red-legged frog (Rana draytonii), a federally threatened species, persists in creeks, with post-2018 Woolsey Fire surveys confirming breeding populations amid recovery efforts. Common reptiles include western fence lizards (Sceloporus occidentalis) and southern Pacific rattlesnakes (Crotalus oreganus helleri).^[46]^[47]

Biodiversity and Conservation Challenges

The Simi Hills support diverse ecosystems including coastal sage scrub, oak woodlands, and chaparral, hosting numerous native plant species adapted to Mediterranean climates with dry summers and wet winters.^[7] Wildlife includes approximately 60 bird species, 15 mammals, 11 reptiles and amphibians, and 11 butterfly species, with evergreen oaks providing critical food and shelter.^[46] Endangered species such as Braunton's milk-vetch (Astragalus brauntonii), federally listed in 1997, occur in grassland and coastal sage scrub habitats within the range, alongside state-endangered plants like Santa Susana tarweed.^[48]^[49] The federally threatened least Bell's vireo (Vireo bellii pusillus) also inhabits riparian areas.^[46] Conservation faces significant threats from invasive non-native species, particularly annual grasses that dominate post-fire regrowth in northern Simi Hills hotspots, reducing native biodiversity and elevating fire risks through increased fuel loads.^[50]^[51] Wildfires, such as the 2018 Woolsey Fire, exacerbate these issues by prompting rapid non-native plant proliferation and forcing wildlife like mountain lions to avoid burned habitats, leading to heightened anthropogenic risks including road crossings and vehicle collisions.^[52]^[53] Habitat fragmentation from urban development isolates populations, with the Simi Hills serving as a vital connectivity corridor for species moving between the Santa Monica Mountains and broader ranges, necessitating efforts to maintain permeable landscapes.^[6] Historical industrial activities at sites like the Santa Susana Field Laboratory have introduced contaminants, though remediation has allowed biodiversity recovery, highlighting challenges in balancing cleanup with ecological restoration.^[54] Ongoing urbanization pressures demand strategic conservation, including habitat preservation and invasive species management, to sustain the region's ecological integrity amid climate-driven fire intensification.^[7]

History

Indigenous and Prehistoric Periods

The Simi Hills region exhibits evidence of human occupation extending back approximately 10,000 to 13,000 years, linked to Paleo-Indian hunter-gatherers who utilized the area's diverse terrain for seasonal foraging and lithic tool production.^[55]^[56] Archaeological surveys have documented scattered artifacts, including stone tools and temporary campsites, indicative of mobile prehistoric populations adapting to the local oak woodlands and riparian zones prior to the development of more sedentary societies.^[57] By around 2,000 to 3,000 years ago, the region transitioned to occupation by Ventureño Chumash bands, who established semi-permanent villages such as Shimiji near present-day central Simi Valley and Kasiti in the eastern hills, alongside Ta'apu in Tapo Canyon.^[56]^[58] These communities, part of the broader Chumash cultural sphere, relied on acorn processing, small-game hunting, fishing in seasonal streams, and trade networks extending to coastal shell bead exchanges and asphaltum for waterproofing.^[58] The eastern Simi Hills represented a transitional zone with overlapping Fernandeño (Tongva) influences, evidenced by mixed stylistic elements in local material culture.^[9] Prehistoric rock art sites, such as the Burro Flats Painted Cave, feature polychrome pictographs in Chumash-style motifs—including geometric patterns, animal figures, and anthropomorphic forms—dated through associated stratigraphy and regional correlations to between 500 and 1,500 years ago.^[57]^[9] These sites, along with rock shelters and midden deposits, reflect ceremonial practices and territorial markers amid a landscape managed through controlled burns to promote edible plants like chia and wild oats.^[59] Chumash oral traditions, corroborated by ethnohistoric accounts, describe the hills as vital hunting grounds for deer and rabbits, sustaining populations until Spanish mission recruitment in the late 18th century disrupted indigenous autonomy.^[58]^[56]

European Settlement and Ranching Era

European settlement in the Simi Hills region commenced with Spanish colonial expansion in the late 18th century, following explorations tied to Mission San Buenaventura established in 1782. The area fell under Spanish land concession systems designed for ranching and resource extraction, with Rancho Simi—encompassing approximately 113,000 acres of valley floor and surrounding hills—conceded on December 8, 1795, to soldier Santiago de la Cruz Pico as the first such grant in Ventura and Santa Barbara counties.^[60]^[61] This vast tract, known as El Rancho San José de Simí, was intended primarily for cattle grazing, leveraging the hills' oak woodlands and grasslands for pastoral operations while the valley supported initial settlement structures.^[62] Under Mexican rule after 1821, the rancho's boundaries were formalized, with Governor Micheltorena ordering possession on April 25, 1843, amid ongoing disputes over native land use and mission secularization effects.^[63] Ranching intensified, focusing on large-scale livestock herding—primarily cattle and horses—with the Simi Hills serving as key range lands for seasonal grazing and wild game hunting to supplement herds. The Pico family constructed the Simi Adobe around 1810 as the rancho headquarters, a structure that endured as a focal point for vaquero operations until American acquisition.^[62] Dry farming of grains emerged alongside ranching, though arid conditions limited yields without irrigation.^[64] The U.S. conquest in 1846 and subsequent Land Act of 1851 prompted claims filings, with Rancho Simi patented to heirs and assignees like the de la Guerra family by the 1870s, preserving ranching dominance into the late 19th century. Cattle drives and hide-and-tallow production characterized the era, though overgrazing in the hills began degrading native grasslands by the 1880s, coinciding with subdivision pressures from railroad arrivals.^[64] This period transitioned ranching from colonial feudalism to commercial ventures, setting precedents for later agricultural shifts.^[65]

20th-Century Industrialization

The Santa Susana Field Laboratory (SSFL), located within the Simi Hills, represented the primary site of 20th-century industrialization in the region, established in 1947 when North American Aviation leased approximately 2,600 acres of rugged terrain from the U.S. government for rocket propulsion research and testing.^[66] Operations commenced in 1948, focusing initially on liquid-propellant rocket engines critical to post-World War II military and space programs, including developments that supported the Mercury, Gemini, Apollo, and Space Shuttle missions.^[67] ^[68] The facility expanded into nuclear research by the 1950s under Atomics International, a subsidiary of North American, encompassing four administrative areas dedicated to engine hot-fire tests, reactor experiments, and materials testing, which employed thousands of workers and drove economic growth in adjacent Simi Valley.^[69] ^[70] Earlier industrial activities included limited oil extraction, with development of fields such as the Tapo field north of Santa Susana beginning in the early 1900s, yielding modest production from sedimentary formations within the Simi Hills' geological structures.^[71] By the 1920s, quarrying operations emerged, exemplified by the Coquina Mine operating from 1929 to 1935, where steam-powered equipment extracted shell deposits for fertilizer production, marking an initial shift from ranching toward resource exploitation in the hills.^[72] The aerospace focus at SSFL intensified during the Cold War, with over 30,000 rocket tests conducted by the late 20th century, positioning the Simi Hills as a strategic hub for U.S. defense innovation while transitioning the local economy from agriculture to high-tech industry.^[66] This development, however, concentrated industrialization in isolated hillside facilities to leverage the remote terrain for safety, limiting broader urban-industrial sprawl within the hills themselves until decommissioning efforts began in the 1990s.^[67]

Human Impacts

Parks and Recreational Areas

The Simi Hills encompass multiple open space preserves and parks managed primarily by the Mountains Recreation and Conservation Authority (MRCA) and the Rancho Simi Recreation and Park District, totaling over 5,600 acres of preserved land dedicated to public use.^[73] These areas support hiking, mountain biking, equestrian trails, and wildlife viewing, with access points facilitating connections to broader regional trail networks like the Rim of the Valley Corridor.^[74] Entry fees apply at select sites, such as $5 for parking at MRCA-managed parks, to fund maintenance and conservation.^[75] Sage Ranch Park, spanning 625 acres at approximately 2,000 feet elevation in the northwestern Simi Hills, features a 2.6-mile loop trail amid massive sandstone outcrops, oak woodlands, and chaparral, with vistas extending to the San Fernando Valley and Pacific Ocean.^[75] The park includes an outdoor amphitheater suitable for educational programs and serves as a wildlife corridor linking the Simi Hills to adjacent ranges, though visitors must adhere to leash rules for dogs and fire restrictions during dry seasons.^[76] El Escorpión Park, a 3-acre gateway in the southwestern Simi Hills near West Hills, provides access to over 500 acres of connected open space preserve trails, including routes to Castle Peak (elevation 1,840 feet) and the Cave of Munits, a Chumash-era site with pictographs.^[77] Popular for moderate 2-4 mile out-and-back hikes with 500-800 feet of elevation gain, the area accommodates rock climbing on volcanic outcrops and equestrian use, operating from sunrise to sunset without fees.^[78] Smaller neighborhood parks like Simi Hills Park offer shaded picnic areas and short walking paths adjacent to the Simi Hills Golf Course, emphasizing passive recreation in a cooler microclimate.^[79] Collectively, these sites face usage pressures from urban proximity, prompting MRCA enforcement of no-trace principles to mitigate erosion and invasive species spread.^[80]

Industrial Sites and Infrastructure

The Santa Susana Field Laboratory (SSFL), spanning approximately 2,850 acres in the Simi Hills of Ventura County, California, served as a primary site for rocket engine development and nuclear research from the 1940s to the 2000s.^[81] Operated initially by North American Aviation (later Rockwell International) and later by Boeing, the facility tested engines for programs including Mercury, Gemini, Apollo, and the Space Shuttle, contributing to U.S. space exploration efforts.^[68] Nuclear reactor experiments, including the Sodium Reactor Experiment in the 1950s, were conducted at Area IV, marking early advancements in reactor technology but also leading to partial meltdowns.^[67] Infrastructure supporting SSFL included dedicated test stands, propellant storage facilities, and access roads integrated into the rugged terrain, with the site elevated between 1,640 and 3,000 feet.^[69] The laboratory's isolation in the hills facilitated high-thrust testing while minimizing urban risks, though it relied on regional power grids and water supplies from the surrounding Simi Valley area. Decommissioning began in the early 2000s, transitioning the site toward environmental remediation under oversight from the California Department of Toxic Substances Control (DTSC), with Boeing and NASA committed to cleanup by 2016 targets that faced delays.^[68]^[81] Beyond SSFL, the Simi Hills host limited industrial activity, primarily legacy infrastructure like transmission lines and minor quarrying remnants, but no active large-scale manufacturing. Regional highways, including State Route 118 traversing the Santa Susana Pass, provide key connectivity, linking the hills to Simi Valley and the San Fernando Valley with engineered cuts and bridges completed in the 1960s to accommodate growing traffic volumes exceeding 200,000 vehicles daily by the 2010s.^[82] Rail infrastructure via the Coast Main Line parallels the pass, supporting freight and passenger services through tunnels bored in the 19th and 20th centuries.^[83] These elements underscore the hills' role in facilitating industrial and transport corridors amid natural constraints.

Environmental Contamination and Remediation Efforts

The Santa Susana Field Laboratory (SSFL), a 2,850-acre site in the Simi Hills used for rocket engine testing and nuclear research from the late 1940s until 2003, represents the primary locus of environmental contamination in the region.^[69] Activities at SSFL, operated by entities including North American Aviation (later Boeing) and Atomics International (under NASA and DOE contracts), released contaminants such as perchlorate from rocket propellants, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), dioxins, volatile organic compounds, heavy metals, and radionuclides including strontium-90, cesium-137, and plutonium-239.^[68] A partial meltdown at the Sodium Reactor Experiment in July 1959 released radioactive gases without public disclosure at the time, contributing to soil and groundwater pollution across Areas I (rocket testing), II (liquid metals), and IV (nuclear facilities).^[84] Groundwater plumes have migrated off-site, affecting seeps and canyons in the Simi Hills.^[69] Remediation efforts began under federal Resource Conservation and Recovery Act permits in the 1990s, transitioning to oversight by the California Department of Toxic Substances Control (DTSC) following a 2003 state agreement with Boeing, NASA, and DOE.^[69] This pact, amended in 2010, mandated cleanup to background levels—defined as pre-industrial contamination—for soils and structures by 2017, with NASA responsible for its 450-acre portion and DOE for the 90-acre Energy Technology Engineering Center in Area IV. Excavation and removal of hot spots, such as PCB-contaminated soils in Area I, commenced in phases, but the 2017 deadline passed without full compliance, leaving an estimated 95% of radiological contamination unaddressed per DTSC records.^[85] Costs have escalated beyond initial projections, reaching hundreds of millions by 2019, partly due to disputes over removal standards versus capping or institutional controls.^[84] As of 2025, progress includes the completion of interim cleanup at the SSFL Shooting Range in January, involving soil excavation and off-site disposal, alongside ongoing groundwater monitoring and treatability studies.^[85] NASA reports structural demolitions and soil investigations advancing in Areas I and II, emphasizing public health protection through vapor intrusion assessments.^[86] However, DOE's March 2025 announcement to withdraw from its 2010 soil removal agreement for Area IV has stalled radiological remediation there, citing revised risk assessments that favor monitored natural attenuation over excavation.^[87] Advocacy groups, including Parents Against Santa Susana Field Lab, contend this and a 2023 DTSC-approved Environmental Impact Report permit retention of over 90% of chemical and radiological hotspots, potentially prolonging exposure risks despite official assertions of protectiveness.^[88] DTSC continues monthly oversight, with no Superfund designation, relying on state enforcement amid legal challenges.^[89]

Regional Context

Adjacent Mountain Ranges

The Simi Hills flank the southern and eastern margins of Simi Valley, placing them in direct proximity to the Santa Susana Mountains, which form the northern boundary of the same valley.^[2]^[11] The Santa Susana Mountains, part of the Transverse Ranges, rise higher than the Simi Hills, with elevations reaching over 5,000 feet (1,500 m) along their crests, and separate Simi Valley from the Santa Clara River Valley to the north.^[2] This configuration positions the two ranges as key topographic features enclosing the Simi Valley groundwater basin, bounded by the Simi Fault to the northeast.^[11] To the south and southeast, the Simi Hills transition into or abut the Santa Monica Mountains, facilitating wildlife corridors and hydrologic connections such as Malibu Canyon, which drains southward from the Simi Hills into the Pacific Ocean.^[90] The Santa Monica Mountains extend westward along the coast and eastward toward the San Fernando Valley, forming a continuous low-elevation barrier (typically 1,000–3,000 feet or 300–900 m) that links the Simi Hills to broader Transverse Ranges features.^[82] This southern adjacency underscores the Simi Hills' role as a transitional zone within the regional orogenic belt, influenced by shared sedimentary rock formations from Cretaceous to Pleistocene epochs.^[31] Eastward, the Simi Hills approach the San Fernando Valley, indirectly bordering extensions of the San Gabriel Mountains via the Santa Monica system, though separated by urban development and valleys.^[82]^[31] These connections highlight the Simi Hills' integration into the Ventura Basin's structural framework, where faulting along the San Gabriel and Simi faults defines range boundaries.^[31]

Proximity to Urban Centers

The Simi Hills form a transitional zone between the densely urbanized San Fernando Valley to the east and the suburban communities of Ventura County to the north and west, positioning them within the expansive Greater Los Angeles metropolitan area. This location places the hills in close proximity to several mid-sized urban centers, including Simi Valley immediately to the north, with the city center approximately 5-10 miles from the northern slopes, and Thousand Oaks to the southwest, about 10-12 miles distant via local roads.^[91]^[92] Further east, the hills abut neighborhoods in the San Fernando Valley such as Chatsworth and West Hills, which are integrated into Los Angeles city's urban fabric, enabling short commutes of under 10 miles to these residential and commercial districts. The overall range lies roughly 35-42 miles northwest of downtown Los Angeles, supporting daily access to the region's core economic and cultural hubs through interconnected highway systems like Interstate 101 and State Route 118, with typical drive times of 45-60 minutes under normal traffic conditions.^[93]^[94]^[95] To the west, proximity extends to Ventura County's coastal urban areas, with Ventura city center approximately 40 miles from the western extremities of the Simi Hills, though direct connectivity favors inland routes over coastal travel. This strategic positioning underscores the hills' role as a semi-rural buffer amid suburban expansion, balancing accessibility to urban amenities with separation from high-density development.^[96]

References

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Type: Mountain with an elevation of 2,139 feet ; Description: mountain range in Southern California, United States ; Location: Ventura County, Central Coast, ...Missing: size | Show results with:size
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[11]
[PDF] Simi Valley Groundwater Basin
The basin is bounded on the north and northeast by the Santa. Susana Mountains and the Simi fault and on the south and southwest by the. Simi Hills. Ground ...Missing: extent length
[12]
seismic hazard zone report for the thousand oaks 7.5 ... - CA.gov
terrain of the Simi Hills and Mountclef Ridge. Within and surrounding the Simi Hills are areas where erosion has produced gently sloping mountain valleys ...
[13]
Simi Peak, California - Peakbagger.com
Elevation: 2405 feet, 733 meters ; Name Info, Official Name ; Elevation Info, Summit: 2404.7 feet (NAVD88 Vertical Datum) Source/Method: Lidar Lidar Data Set Info.
[14]
China Flat and Simi Peak in the Simi Hills - Hikespeak.com
Simi Peak is 2,403 feet tall and boast 360-degree views over the Simi Hills toward several surrounding mountain ranges and valleys. This hike up China Flat ...Missing: topography | Show results with:topography
[15]
CALLEGUAS CREEK WATERSHED
Calleguas Creek and its major tributaries, Revolon Slough, Conejo Creek, Arroyo Conejo, Arroyo Santa Rosa, and Arroyo Simi drain an area of 343 square miles in ...
[16]
[PDF] Section 3.3 | Hydrology/Water Quality - LA County Public Works
The Los Angeles River Watershed covers a land area of 834 square miles. The eastern portion extends from the Santa Monica Mountains to the Simi Hills, and the ...
[17]
[PDF] calleguas creek watershed hydrology study
Canyons draining the Simi Hills from the south are. Sycamore Canyon, Bus Canyon, Erringer Road Drain, Runkle Canyon, Meier Canyon and finally Black Canyon in ...
[18]
[PDF] Simulation of Ground-Water/Surface-Water Flow in the Santa Clara ...
A U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) study of the hydrogeology of the Santa Clara–Calleguas Basin was completed as part of the Southern California Regional. Aquifer- ...
[19]
[PDF] SANTA SUSANA - Boeing
Mapped Simi Hills geology. • Identified and sampled 65 locations where groundwater comes up to the surface in seeps and springs.
[20]
Weather Simi Valley & temperature by month - Climate Data
Data and graphs for weather & climate in Simi Valley ... The climatic conditions prevailing in Simi Valley are characterized by a warm and moderate temperature.Missing: patterns | Show results with:patterns
[21]
Simi Valley Climate, Weather By Month, Average Temperature ...
Over the course of the year, the temperature typically varies from 46°F to 87°F and is rarely below 39°F or above 95°F. Climate in Simi Valley. Link. Download.
[22]
Simi Valley, CA Climate - BestPlaces
Simi Valley, California gets 17 inches of rain, on average, per year. The US average is 38 inches of rain per year. Simi Valley averages 0 inches of snow per ...<|separator|>
[23]
Santa Ana winds: facts and fiction - AccuWeather
Santa Ana winds occur when winds blow and pick up speed as they travel from the inland deserts toward the coast. These wind events usually kick off in the fall ...Missing: Simi Hills
[24]
[PDF] Geologic Setting
The park is in the Simi Hills, formed by tectonic activity. It has Miocene deposits (5-24 million years ago) and Cretaceous deposits (up to 145 million years ...
[25]
[PDF] Late Pleistocene structural evolution of the Camarillo fold belt
Geologic maps of the Simi Hills show the Simi fault and anticline abruptly ... Aspects of the Geological History of the California Con- tinental ...
[26]
Structural and statistical characterization of joints and multi-scale ...
The northern margin of the Simi Hills is marked by a steep topographic front defined by the Simi Valley and the Santa Susana thrusts. These faults are parts of ...
[27]
[PDF] Tectonic Setting of the 1971 Sylmar and 1994 Northridge ...
The Chatsworth Formation is at least 1400-m thick in the Simi Hills (Sage, 1971); its base is not exposed or reached by wells (Shields, 1977; Seedorf, 1983; ...
[28]
Paleocurrent and Basin Analysis of Late Cretaceous “Chico ...
Analysis of the Upper Cretaceous “Chico” formation in the Simi Hills of Southern California reveals rock types and megascopic features typically associated ...
[29]
Geolex — Simi publications - National Geologic Map Database
Aug 28, 2025 · West of Runkle Canyon formation grades into lower unit of red to pink conglomerate, sandstone, siltstone and pisolitic sandy claystone and upper ...
[30]
Simi - AAPG Datapages/Archives:
The Simi Hills contain evidence of previously- unrecognized Paleocene low-angle thrusting on the. Burro Flats fault. Nonmarine conglomerate and red.
[31]
[PDF] GEOLOGIC PROFILE OF SIMI VALLEY - Marine Biodiversity Center
Simi Valley is in the western part of a region called the Transverse. Ranges province. This province extends for a distance of about 300.
[32]
[PDF] Santa Susana Field Laboratory-Paleontological Resources ... - DTSC
Nov 30, 2011 · Introduction. The purpose of this technical memorandum is to evaluate the potential for encountering paleontological resources.
[33]
[PDF] Appendix G. Simi Valley Double Track and Platform Project ...
This initial research provides an overview of available information regarding documented paleontological resources within the paleontological resources ...Missing: Hills | Show results with:Hills
[34]
Upper Cretaceous Formations and Faunas of Southern California1
Sep 17, 2019 · The Simi Hills Cretaceous consists of more than 6,000 feet of shales and sandstones. Only the lowermost 500 feet plus of this section has ...
[35]
Systematic paleontology of marine gastropods from the Upper ...
Jan 11, 2021 · Fossiliferous deposits of the Upper Cretaceous Chatsworth Formation are exposed in the Simi Hills of Los Angeles and Ventura counties, ...
[36]
New Late Paleocene Molluscs from the Simi Hills, Ventura County ...
The discovery of marine fossils approx- imately 30 m below the top of the conglom- erate near the mouth of Meier Canyon. (Zinsmeister, 1975) indicates that ...
[37]
Ancient aquatic fossils emerge from Simi Hills - Simi Valley Acorn
Nov 1, 2019 · MASSIVE FIND—Paleontology teacher Russell Shapiro (above), is shown in early September with a 4-foot, 600-pound fossil found in the Simi Hills.
[38]
Earthquakes Shook Loose A 15-Million-Year-Old Sea Creature In ...
Oct 16, 2019 · This story begins with a body -- in this case, the remains of a sea creature that once swam in the ocean that covered Simi Valley millions of years ago.
[39]
July earthquakes reveal 15-million-year-old fossil in Simi Valley ...
Oct 26, 2019 · A 600-pound stone block encasing a 15-million-year-old fossil was found on a private road in Simi Valley following July's Ridgrecrest earthquakes.
[40]
Wildflowers and Native Plants - Conejo Open Space Foundation
Typical coastal sage scrub plants include California sagebrush, California sunflower, California buckwheat and purple sage. The coastal sage scrub community is ...
[41]
Chaparral yucca enjoys towering presence - Simi Valley Acorn
Jun 8, 2012 · These impressive inflorescences belong to the chaparral yucca, more nobly known as “our Lord's candle,” or Hesperoyucca whipplei in the ...
[42]
Plants & Wildlife - MRCA
Deeper soiled areas in the Santa Susana Mountains, the Simi Hills and the Santa Monica Mountains support the deciduous valley oak. A widely dispersed tree in ...
[43]
It's a wild world, and we're living in it - Simi Valley Acorn
Oct 8, 2021 · Bobcats, coyotes, deer, mountain lions, and bears. These are just few of the wild animals that have been spotted in recent months in the Big ...
[44]
All-female litter of mountain lion kittens discovered in Simi Hills
May 25, 2023 · Mountain lion P-77 recently gave birth to three female kittens in the Simi Hills, a small area of habitat between the larger Santa Monica and Santa Susana ...Missing: endangered | Show results with:endangered
[45]
Den of Mountain Lion Kittens Found in Unlikely Place: California's ...
Jun 21, 2018 · National Park Service researchers discovered a litter of four cougar kittens near California's Simi Hills, an area surrounded by highways.
[46]
Environmental Setting - SSFL | NASA
SSFL is a vital wildlife corridor in Southern California. Its rich natural setting provides and environment for a variety of plant and animals to thrive.Missing: fauna ecology
[47]
All is not lost: Rare California red-legged frogs fight for survival ...
Dec 14, 2018 · Amid an ashy creek bed in the Simi Hills, rare frogs are fighting for survival following the Woolsey Fire, which swept across Ventura and Los ...
[48]
Federal Agencies Come Together to Save Endangered Plant ...
Jan 10, 2023 · The Braunton's milk-vetch's native habitat includes the Simi Hills ... USFWS listed Braunton's milk-vetch as endangered in 1997 and designated ...Missing: ecology | Show results with:ecology
[49]
SIMI HILLS : Couple Gives 2 Endangered Plants a Home
Aug 11, 1995 · Their landscape includes the Santa Susana tarweed, a plant listed by the state as endangered, and the Catalina Island mountain mahogany, which ...Missing: ecology | Show results with:ecology
[50]
Rising non-native cover in the Santa Monica Mountains threatens ...
Aug 8, 2023 · ... Simi Hills region where biodiversity is significantly low and the native species are at risk of further reduction. These results indicate ...
[51]
Native and non‐native plant regrowth in the Santa Monica ...
Jun 19, 2023 · A hotspot of non-native cover was identified in the Northern Simi Hills region, and rapid regrowth was seen after the Woolsey Fire. The hotspot ...<|separator|>
[52]
Mountain lions avoid burned areas and increase risky behavior after ...
Nov 7, 2022 · After the wildfire, mountain lions avoided burned areas and increased behaviors associated with anthropogenic risk, including more frequent road and freeway ...
[53]
Wildfires drive L.A.'s mountain lions to take deadly risks | UCLA
Oct 20, 2022 · Scientists from UCLA and the National Park Service found that the animals, no longer able to utilize burned areas, engaged in risky behaviors.
[54]
Simi Hills success as corporates fight the biodiversity crisis
Once a place where fuels were tested and nuclear power was developed, SSFL is now home to an incredible array of both plant and animal species, including local ...Missing: flora fauna
[55]
The Ronald Reagan Presidential Library and Museum, Simi Valley ...
Aug 25, 2021 · The Chumash People lived in Simi Valley as long as 10,000-13,000 years ago up until the early 1800s. Simi Valley's name derived from the Chumash ...
[56]
At A Glance | City of Simi Valley, CA
Simi Valley's rich history begins with the Chumash people, who lived in Simi Valley up to 13,000 years ago until the 1800s. The two Chumash villages in the ...
[57]
[PDF] Santa Susana Field Laboratory Archaeological Resources Surv e y
The Burro Flats Painted Cave is a prehistoric archaeological site located in Area II, and is most notable for the many pictographs. (rock art paintings) and.
[58]
Chumash Era - Strathearn Historical Park
Sep 30, 2022 · The Chumash were a stone-age people with a complex culture and a wide trade network. They were hunter-gatherers and skilled at fishing at the time of the ...
[59]
[PDF] santa susana field laboratory cultural history - California Prehistory
A number of prehistoric sites, including rock shelters, pictograph sites, occupation sites, and isolated artifacts, have been documented on Santa Susana ...
[60]
El Rancho Simi - The Historical Marker Database
In 1795 El Rancho Simi became the first Spanish colonial land grant in Ventura and Santa Barbara counties. The original grantee of the 113,000 acres was ...
[61]
The Water Witch of Simi - Museum of Ventura County
Moroni Stones, known as "Grandpa Stones," was a local legend in Simi as a "water witch" who found water for a well using a peach branch.Missing: Indigenous | Show results with:Indigenous<|separator|>
[62]
Simi Adobe - Strathearn Historical Park
It was built around 1810 by the Pico Family after they received the Rancho Simi Land Grant in 1795. When the Strathearn Family bought the property and built ...
[63]
Rancho Era - Strathearn Historical Park and Museum
May 5, 2020 · On April 25th, 1843 the giving of possession was ordered. The proper officials were to appear “On the lands of Simí, on the 28th day of the ...
[64]
The Changing Agricultural Landscape Of The Simi Valley From ...
Initially, Simi Valley had pastoral ranching and dry grain farming. Later, it shifted to intensive farming of subtropical fruit and nut crops.
[65]
Pioneer Era - Simi Valley - Strathearn Historical Park
Oct 3, 2017 · In the late 1880's the real settlement began. Simi Land and Water Company was formed to dispose of the land in the first real estate promotion.Missing: Hills European
[66]
Santa Susana's Extraordinary Past - Boeing
The site of the former Santa Susana Field Laboratory in the Simi Hills occupies a unique place in U.S. and California history. The land, water, plants and ...Missing: notable | Show results with:notable<|control11|><|separator|>
[67]
SSFL History
The Santa Susana Field Laboratory (SSFL) is located on approximately 2,850 acres in the Simi Hills in Ventura County, California, roughly 30 miles northwest ...
[68]
Santa Susana Field Laboratory - Boeing
The former Simi Hills field lab was a key proving ground for the U.S. space program rocket engines that propelled Mercury, Gemini, Apollo and Space Shuttle ...<|separator|>
[69]
Santa Susana Field Laboratory Site Activity Overview
Site Operations and History. The Santa Susana Field Laboratory (SSFL) site consists of four administrative areas used for research, development, and test ...
[70]
About SSFL
The SSFL first opened in 1948, and it became a center for the development and testing of rocket engines for defense and exploration purposes. It was also a test ...
[71]
[PDF] STRUCTURE AND OIL RESOURCES OF THE SIMI VALLEY ...
Other terrace gravels are present south of the Simi Valley, at the foot of the Simi Hills, but they lie at a lower altitude and are less deeply dissected ...Missing: ecology | Show results with:ecology
[72]
The History of Simi Valley, California: From Ranches to Rockets
Nov 10, 2023 · Simi Valley's history is deeply rooted in its geophysical features and the presence of the Chumash Native Americans.Missing: notable | Show results with:notable
[73]
Simi Valley Parks and Recreation
Since that time, the Park District has established 50 parks and preserved over 5,600 acres of open space that is now used for hiking, biking, horseback riding ...
[74]
Parks - MRCA - Mountains Recreation and Conservation Authority
The zone encompasses the whole of the Santa Monica Mountains, the Simi Hills, the Verdugo Mountains and significant portions of the Santa Susana and San Gabriel ...MRCA River Parks & Projects · Interactive Map · Park Listing · Regional Trails
[75]
Sage Ranch Park - MRCA
625-acre Sage Ranch Park provides some of the most beautiful trails in the area. Park features include massive sandstone rock formations, expansive views, ...
[76]
[PDF] sage ranch | mrca
Park features include massive sandstone rock formations, expansive views, ample parking, an outdoor amphitheater with views of the spectacular outcroppings, ...
[77]
Cave of Munits in Upper Las Virgenes Canyon Open Space ...
El Escorpion Park, at the end of Vanowen Street in West Hills, CA, is very popular with hikers, walkers and mountain bikers, and used as another entrance into ...
[78]
El Escorpión Park - West Hills Parks and Recreation
Jun 23, 2021 · This park is open sunrise to sunset and features many hiking and running trails, rock climbing, mountain biking, and equestrian use.
[79]
Simi Hills Neighborhood Park
Located at the entrance of the Simi Hills Golf Course, this park is a great place to just relax. It has lots of shade and stays nice & cool in the summer.
[80]
Rocky Peak Park - MRCA
Encompassing 4,800 acres in the Santa Susana Mountains between Chatsworth and Simi Valley, this extraordinary Rim of the Valley Trail Corridor property ...
[81]
Santa Susana Field Laboratory (SSFL) Home
SSFL is a roughly 2,850-acre site in Simi Valley where rocket engine testing and nuclear research took place. DTSC is the lead regulatory agency overseeing the ...Missing: Hills | Show results with:Hills
[82]
SSFL - National Park Service
The Santa Susana Field Laboratory (SSFL) is a rocket test site in Simi Valley, California, used to test rocket engines from the Apollo to Space Shuttle eras.Missing: history | Show results with:history
[83]
SANTA SUSANA FIELD LABORATORY – County of Ventura
The Santa Susana Field Laboratory (SSFL) is a complex of industrial research and development facilities located on a roughly 2,668-acre portion of ...
[84]
[PDF] Office of Audits Report No. IG-19-013 - NASA OIG
Mar 19, 2019 · NASA is responsible for remediation at SSFL, but soil cleanup has not started, costs have increased, and the chosen standard is questioned.
[85]
Santa Susana Field Laboratory What's New
Shooting Range Interim Cleanup started in June 2023 and was completed in January of 2025. (See Cleanup Status above). Monthly Status Reports. DTSC posts monthly ...
[86]
News | Page 1 of 14 - SSFL | NASA
NASA remains committed to building on this progress in 2025 as we work toward a cleanup at SSFL that protects public health and the environment, incorporates ...
[87]
Dept. of Energy drops cleanup agreement for radioactive site near ...
Mar 19, 2025 · The US Department of Energy revealed at a March 6 online community meeting that it will not go through with a long-standing agreement on how best to remove ...
[88]
PARENTS AGAINST SANTA SUSANA FIELD LAB
The Santa Susana Field Lab (SSFL), formerly known as Rocketdyne, is a Cold War-era testing facility located in the hills outside of Los Angeles. The SSFL was ...
[89]
SSFL: SANTA SUSANA FIELD LABORATORY | Superfund Site Profile
NPL Status: Not on the NPL. Non-NPL Status: Other Cleanup Activity: State-Lead Cleanup. EPA ID: CAN000908498. EPA Region: 09. County: VENTURA. Latitude ...<|separator|>
[90]
Geology of Santa Monica Mountains and Simi Hills, California
May 1, 1987 · The Santa Monica Mountains form a low west-trending coastal range 72 km long, transected by Malibu Canyon draining south from the Simi Hills ...Missing: geography ecology facts
[91]
Driving Distance from Simi Valley, CA to Thousand Oaks, CA
The total driving distance from Simi Valley, CA to Thousand Oaks, CA is 12 miles or 19 kilometers. Your trip begins in Simi Valley, California. It ends in ...Missing: Hills Ventura
[92]
Cities Nearby Simi Valley, California, United States
Cities near Simi Valley ; Thousand Oaks, California · 7.55 miles, 12.15 km ; Westlake Village, California · 8.65 miles, 13.92 km ; Agoura, California · 9.08 miles ...
[93]
Driving Distance from Simi Valley, CA to Los Angeles, CA - Travelmath
The total driving distance from Simi Valley, CA to Los Angeles, CA is 42 miles or 68 kilometers. Your trip begins in Simi Valley, California. It ends in Los ...
[94]
Simi Valley California | Local Events, News, Weather & Maps
It is 37 miles (60 km) northwest of Downtown Los Angeles, making it part of the Greater Los Angeles Area. Simi Valley borders Thousand Oaks, Moorpark, and the ...
[95]
Simi Valley to Los Angeles - 5 ways to travel via train, line 10 bus ...
The distance between Simi Valley and Los Angeles is 50 miles. The road distance is 41.4 miles. ... How do I travel from Simi Valley to Los Angeles without a car?
[96]
Distance from Thousand-Oaks to ...
Distances from Thousand-Oaks. #1 Thousand-OaksThousand Oaks, Ventura ... Simi Valley (12 km), Oxnard (31 km), Valencia (37 km), Santa Clarita (37 km) ...