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Specific risk

Specific risk, also known as unsystematic risk, idiosyncratic risk, or diversifiable risk, refers to the uncertainty or potential for loss arising from factors unique to a particular company, industry, or asset, rather than broader market influences. This type of risk encompasses events or conditions that do not affect the entire economy, such as operational failures, management decisions, or sector-specific regulatory changes, and it forms a key component of total investment risk in modern portfolio theory. Unlike market-wide fluctuations, specific risk can be substantially reduced or eliminated through diversification, where combining multiple uncorrelated assets in a portfolio offsets individual vulnerabilities.^[1] In contrast, systematic risk—often measured by beta in the Capital Asset Pricing Model (CAPM)—stems from macroeconomic forces like interest rate shifts, inflation, or geopolitical events that impact all securities to varying degrees and cannot be diversified away. Specific risk, therefore, represents the portion of an asset's total volatility that is independent of these systemic factors, allowing investors to focus compensation primarily on undiversifiable exposures. Empirical studies, including foundational work on stock return variability, have demonstrated that holding a diversified portfolio of approximately 20-30 securities across sectors can mitigate most specific risk, leaving primarily systematic risk intact.^[2] Key examples of specific risk include a product recall damaging a manufacturer's reputation and revenue, a natural disaster disrupting a single company's supply chain, or adverse legal outcomes unique to one firm, such as patent disputes in the technology sector. Investors manage this risk not only through diversification but also via strategies like hedging with derivatives or thorough due diligence on company fundamentals. In efficient markets, as posited by CAPM, expected returns are determined by systematic risk alone, underscoring the importance of minimizing specific risk to optimize portfolio efficiency without sacrificing overall performance.^[3]

Definition and Fundamentals

Core Definition

Specific risk, also known as unsystematic risk or idiosyncratic risk, refers to the portion of an asset's total risk that arises from factors unique to the individual security, company, or industry, such as operational issues, management decisions, or sector-specific events, rather than economy-wide influences.^[4] This type of risk contributes to the variability in an investment's returns that is not explained by general market movements.^[4] A defining feature of specific risk is its diversifiable nature, allowing investors to reduce or eliminate it by constructing a portfolio with a variety of uncorrelated assets, thereby spreading exposure across multiple entities.^[4] Examples include company-specific events like product recalls (e.g., a fitness equipment malfunction affecting one manufacturer's stock) or regulatory changes targeting a single firm, which do not impact the broader market but can significantly alter the affected asset's performance.^[4] The concept gained prominence in the mid-20th century through foundational work in portfolio theory, particularly Harry Markowitz's 1952 paper "Portfolio Selection," which highlighted the role of individual asset variances in overall portfolio risk and the benefits of diversification to mitigate such variances.^[5] Building on this, the term was further popularized in the 1960s with the development of the Capital Asset Pricing Model (CAPM) by William Sharpe and others, who explicitly distinguished diversifiable risks unique to individual securities from non-diversifiable market risks.^[6] In quantitative terms, an asset's total risk, measured as variance, decomposes into systematic risk (tied to market factors) and specific risk (the residual component):

\sigma^2 = \beta^2 \sigma_m^2 + \sigma_e^2

where \sigma^2 is total variance, \beta^2 \sigma_m^2 represents systematic variance, and \sigma_e^2 is the specific risk variance unexplained by the market.^[4] This residual variance captures the asset-specific fluctuations after adjusting for broader influences.^[6]

Distinction from Systematic Risk

Systematic risk, also known as market risk, refers to the uncertainty inherent in the entire market or economy that affects the overall performance of investments, stemming from broad factors such as economic recessions, fluctuations in interest rates, or geopolitical events.^[7] This type of risk is measured by beta, which quantifies an asset's sensitivity to market movements, and it is inherently non-diversifiable because it impacts nearly all securities in proportion to their exposure. In contrast, specific risk—often termed unsystematic or idiosyncratic risk—arises from factors unique to an individual asset or company, such as management decisions, product failures, or legal issues, and it can be substantially reduced or eliminated through portfolio diversification by spreading investments across unrelated assets.^[8] Unlike systematic risk, which requires mitigation strategies like asset allocation or hedging against market-wide exposures, specific risk does not affect the broader market and thus demands no additional return premium from investors in efficient markets.^[9] A notable example of specific risk is the Enron scandal in 2001, where fraudulent accounting practices led to the company's sudden bankruptcy, causing massive losses for Enron shareholders while leaving the overall market largely unaffected.^[10] Conversely, the 2008 global financial crisis exemplifies systematic risk, as the collapse of the U.S. subprime mortgage market triggered widespread economic downturn, interest rate volatility, and declines across global asset classes due to interconnected financial exposures.^[11] Within the Capital Asset Pricing Model (CAPM), the distinction is formalized such that only systematic risk is priced into expected returns, as specific risk can be diversified away without cost. The model posits that the expected return on an asset i is given by:

E(R_i) = R_f + \beta_i (E(R_m) - R_f)

where R_f is the risk-free rate, \beta_i measures systematic risk relative to the market, and E(R_m) is the expected market return; specific risk contributes to total variance but receives no compensation in equilibrium because rational investors hold diversified portfolios.^[12]

Theoretical Context

Role in Modern Portfolio Theory

Modern Portfolio Theory (MPT), developed by Harry Markowitz in 1952, provides a foundational framework for investors to construct portfolios that maximize expected returns for a given level of risk, or minimize risk for a given return, through the mean-variance optimization approach.^[1] In this theory, total portfolio risk is measured by variance, which encompasses both systematic risk—affecting the entire market—and specific risk, the portion unique to individual assets that arises from company-specific events or factors.^[13] MPT emphasizes that specific risk, also known as unsystematic or idiosyncratic risk, is the diversifiable component, meaning it can be substantially reduced by holding a broad array of uncorrelated assets, thereby allowing investors to focus primarily on non-diversifiable systematic risk for return generation.^[13] Within MPT, specific risk contributes to the overall variance of portfolio returns but diminishes as diversification increases, potentially approaching zero in sufficiently broad portfolios. This reduction occurs because the idiosyncratic fluctuations of individual securities tend to cancel each other out when combined, lowering the portfolio's total volatility without sacrificing expected returns. As a result, MPT shifts the investor's attention to optimizing exposure to systematic risk, which cannot be diversified away and is compensated through higher expected market returns.^[13] The efficient frontier, a core concept in MPT, represents the set of optimal portfolios that offer the highest expected return for each level of risk, achieved by carefully balancing specific and systematic risks through asset allocation. Portfolios lying on this frontier exemplify the risk-return trade-off, where diversification minimizes the impact of specific risk to enable superior performance relative to undiversified alternatives.^[13] However, MPT assumes that specific risk is fully diversifiable under ideal conditions, an assumption that may not hold in practice, particularly with concentrated holdings where limited asset exposure amplifies idiosyncratic volatility. Empirical evidence indicates declining diversification benefits over time due to increasing global market integration, making complete elimination of specific risk more challenging and heightening risks in non-diversified strategies.^[14]

Components of Total Risk

Total risk in finance represents the overall uncertainty or volatility associated with an asset's returns, typically quantified by the standard deviation of those returns.^[15] This measure captures the total variability that an investor faces when holding the asset, encompassing both predictable and unpredictable fluctuations in value.^[15] In standard portfolio theory, total risk decomposes into two primary components: systematic risk, which arises from market-wide factors affecting all assets, and specific risk (also known as idiosyncratic or unsystematic risk), which stems from factors unique to the individual asset or firm.^[16] Systematic risk is captured by the asset's beta, reflecting its sensitivity to market movements, while specific risk includes variances due to company-specific events such as management changes or product failures.^[16] This decomposition is formally expressed in the variance equation derived from the Capital Asset Pricing Model (CAPM):

\sigma^2_{total} = \beta^2 \sigma^2_{market} + \sigma^2_{specific}

where \sigma^2_{total} is the total variance of the asset's returns, \beta^2 \sigma^2_{market} represents the systematic variance, and \sigma^2_{specific} denotes the idiosyncratic variance not explained by market factors.^[16] In more advanced models, total risk may incorporate additional elements beyond the basic systematic-specific split, such as liquidity risk, which arises from the potential difficulty in buying or selling the asset without significant price impact, or model error, reflecting limitations in the risk model's assumptions and estimation inaccuracies.^[17] Liquidity risk, for instance, can amplify total volatility in illiquid markets by introducing transaction cost uncertainties, particularly during stress periods.^[17] The interplay between these components varies by portfolio construction: specific risk tends to dominate total risk in undiversified holdings, such as a single-stock position, where firm-unique events can drive most of the volatility, whereas systematic risk becomes predominant in well-diversified portfolios that mitigate idiosyncratic exposures through asset spreading.^[18] This dynamic underscores the importance of diversification in reducing the influence of specific risk on overall portfolio volatility.^[18]

Measurement and Quantification

Beta and Residual Risk Analysis

Beta, in the context of asset pricing models, serves as a quantitative measure of an asset's systematic risk, capturing its sensitivity to overall market movements. It is defined as the covariance between the asset's returns and the market returns divided by the variance of the market returns, expressed mathematically as:

\beta_i = \frac{\Cov(R_i, R_m)}{\Var(R_m)}

where R_i represents the return on asset i and R_m the market return.^[19] This coefficient originates from the Capital Asset Pricing Model (CAPM), where it quantifies the contribution of market-wide factors to an asset's expected return.^[20] Residual risk, also known as specific or idiosyncratic risk, represents the portion of an asset's total risk not explained by market movements and is isolated through regression analysis in the single-index model. The model posits that an asset's return can be decomposed as R_i = \alpha_i + \beta_i R_m + \epsilon_i, where \epsilon_i are the residuals capturing firm-specific fluctuations. The variance of these residuals, \sigma_{\epsilon_i}^2, quantifies specific risk, calculated as the total variance of the asset's returns minus the systematic variance: \sigma_{\epsilon_i}^2 = \sigma_i^2 - \beta_i^2 \sigma_m^2.^[21] This approach derives from ordinary least squares regression of asset returns against market returns, with the residual standard deviation providing a direct estimate of unsystematic volatility.^[22] A beta value of 1 indicates that the asset's systematic risk aligns with the market's, implying its returns move in tandem with market fluctuations without amplification or dampening. Deviations from 1—such as betas greater than 1 for aggressive assets or less than 1 for defensive ones—highlight varying exposure to systematic risk, with the remaining variance in total returns attributable to specific risk. For instance, if an asset has a total return variance significantly exceeding \beta_i^2 \sigma_m^2, the excess reflects elevated specific risk from unique events like operational disruptions.^[19] In practical applications, beta and residual risk analysis underpin the single-index model for estimating specific risk in equity portfolios, enabling investors to assess undiversifiable versus diversifiable components. High-beta technology stocks, often exceeding 1.5, frequently exhibit amplified specific risk due to innovation uncertainties, such as product development failures that introduce volatility unrelated to market trends; empirical studies confirm that higher R&D intensity in such sectors correlates with increased idiosyncratic volatility, as seen in biotechnology firms where "dry holes" in innovation elevate residual variance.^[21]^[23]

Statistical Methods for Assessment

Multi-factor models provide a sophisticated framework for assessing specific risk by decomposing asset returns into systematic and idiosyncratic components beyond the single-market factor in the Capital Asset Pricing Model (CAPM). The Fama-French three-factor model, introduced in 1993, extends CAPM by incorporating size (SMB, small minus big) and value (HML, high minus low book-to-market) factors alongside the market excess return. In this regression framework, the model's equation is R_i - R_f = \alpha_i + \beta_i (R_m - R_f) + s_i SMB + h_i HML + \epsilon_i, where \epsilon_i represents the idiosyncratic or specific risk, captured as the unexplained variance in returns after accounting for the three factors. This approach isolates specific risk more accurately than single-factor models, particularly for portfolios where size and value effects explain additional systematic variance, leaving the residual as firm-unique risk.^[24] Regression analysis, particularly through the coefficient of determination R^2, offers a direct statistical measure for quantifying specific risk as the portion of total return variance not attributable to systematic factors. In a multi-factor regression, R^2 indicates the proportion of variance explained by the model, so specific risk is estimated as (1 - R^2) \times \sigma_{total}^2, where \sigma_{total}^2 is the total variance of the asset's returns. This method is widely applied in empirical finance to differentiate firm-specific volatility from market-driven components, with higher (1 - R^2) values signaling greater exposure to idiosyncratic events such as management changes or operational disruptions. For instance, in the Fama-French framework, R^2 typically exceeds 0.90 (often 90-95%) for diversified portfolios, implying that less than 10% of variance typically remains as specific risk.^[22]^[25] Adaptations of Value at Risk (VaR) using scenario-based methods enable the isolation of specific risk contributions from discrete firm events, enhancing traditional VaR's focus on overall portfolio losses. Scenario-based VaR involves constructing hypothetical stress scenarios tied to idiosyncratic shocks, such as earnings surprises or regulatory announcements, and calculating the potential loss at a given confidence level (e.g., 95%) under those conditions. This approach parses specific risk by simulating jumps in asset prices due to firm-unique events, separate from broad market movements; for example, an earnings miss might trigger a 5-10% stock drop in the scenario, contributing disproportionately to tail risk. The Jump-VaR extension incorporates such event risks into the loss distribution, providing a more nuanced assessment than parametric VaR, which assumes normality and underestimates fat tails from specific events. Monte Carlo simulations further advance specific risk assessment by generating thousands of probabilistic paths for asset returns, explicitly incorporating unique variables that capture firm-level uncertainties. These simulations model specific risk through iterative sampling from distributions tailored to idiosyncratic factors, such as simulated impacts from product recalls or litigation outcomes, while holding systematic inputs constant. For a single asset, the process involves defining probability distributions for event-specific shocks (e.g., a recall reducing cash flows by 15% with 20% probability) and aggregating simulated returns to derive risk metrics like expected shortfall or variance at the 99th percentile. This method excels in handling non-linear and path-dependent risks, offering a distribution of potential outcomes that highlights the scale of specific risk in volatile environments, often revealing tail events overlooked in closed-form models.^[26]

Mitigation and Management

Diversification Techniques

Diversification serves as a primary strategy for mitigating specific risk, also known as unsystematic or idiosyncratic risk, by distributing investments across multiple assets whose returns are not perfectly correlated, thereby averaging out the impact of company- or sector-specific events. According to Modern Portfolio Theory (MPT), as articulated by Harry Markowitz, this process reduces the portfolio's overall variance by minimizing the contribution of individual asset-specific variances while emphasizing the average covariance among assets. The effectiveness of this approach stems from the fact that specific risks, such as management failures or product recalls affecting a single firm, tend to offset each other when holdings are spread broadly, leaving primarily systematic risk, which cannot be diversified away.^[27] A key empirical insight is that significant reduction in specific risk can be achieved with a portfolio of 20 to 40 stocks, where unsystematic risk drops to low levels, often capturing around 90% of diversification benefits.^[28] This threshold arises from studies showing that portfolio variance stabilizes after incorporating a sufficient number of uncorrelated securities, beyond which additional holdings yield diminishing returns in risk reduction. Evans and Archer's seminal analysis demonstrated that even 8-10 randomly selected stocks can eliminate much of the dispersion attributable to individual securities, though modern estimates suggest 20-40 for more robust protection in diverse markets. More recent analyses, such as a 2021 CFA Institute study, indicate that peak diversification may require around 26-30 stocks depending on market segment, while exchange-traded funds (ETFs) offer a practical way to achieve broad exposure with lower transaction costs.^[29] Among practical techniques, sector rotation involves periodically shifting allocations away from over-concentrated industries toward those with lower correlations, preventing undue exposure to sector-specific shocks like regulatory changes in technology or energy. This dynamic approach complements static diversification by adapting to economic cycles, thereby further diluting idiosyncratic vulnerabilities. International diversification extends this by incorporating assets from multiple countries, which helps counter country-specific risks such as political instability or localized economic downturns that might uniformly affect domestic holdings. For instance, blending U.S. equities with emerging market securities can reduce overall specific risk due to differing growth drivers and policy influences across borders.^[30] Asset class mixing, such as combining stocks with bonds or real estate, provides another layer by leveraging assets with historically low correlations; bonds, for example, often exhibit inverse movements to equities during firm-specific turmoil, stabilizing the portfolio against isolated equity events.^[31] In MPT, the quantitative foundation for these techniques lies in the portfolio variance formula, where specific risk diminishes asymptotically toward zero as the number of assets increases, assuming low average correlations; the correlation matrix thus guides optimal asset selection to maximize this effect. Specifically, the idiosyncratic component of risk, represented as the residual variance after accounting for market beta, converges to the average idiosyncratic variance divided by the portfolio size, approaching zero in large, well-constructed portfolios. However, diversification's efficacy has limitations, particularly during market crises when asset correlations can spike, temporarily undermining the averaging-out of specific risks. The 2020 COVID-19 pandemic exemplified this, as global lockdowns triggered synchronized sell-offs across sectors and geographies, causing correlations among equities, bonds, and even alternative assets to rise sharply and amplifying residual specific risk despite diversified holdings. Such breakdowns highlight that while diversification substantially lowers specific risk under normal conditions, extreme events can lead to contagion, reducing its protective benefits.^[32]

Hedging and Other Strategies

Investors employ hedging strategies using derivatives such as options, futures, and swaps to offset specific risks associated with individual assets or issuers, thereby protecting portfolios from adverse company-specific events without relying solely on broad diversification.^[33] For instance, buying put options on a single stock serves as a protective measure, granting the right to sell the shares at a fixed strike price if the company's value drops due to idiosyncratic factors like management scandals or product failures.^[33]^[34] This approach establishes a price floor, limiting downside exposure while preserving potential upside if the stock performs well.^[34] Such hedging incurs costs, including premiums for options or fees for swaps, which can erode returns but provide insurance-like protection against significant losses, making it particularly valuable for concentrated positions like executive stock holdings in a single firm.^[33]^[34] Beyond derivatives, active management through fundamental analysis allows portfolio managers to proactively avoid assets with high specific risk by evaluating company fundamentals and excluding those prone to unique vulnerabilities, such as regulatory threats or operational weaknesses.^[35] This nimble adjustment contrasts with passive strategies and enables targeted risk reduction without full divestment.^[35] For event-driven specific risks like litigation, specialized insurance products offer direct mitigation by covering legal costs, adverse judgments, or appeal outcomes, often customized for transactions or investments involving disputed claims.^[36] An advanced example involves credit default swaps (CDS), which hedge issuer-specific credit risk in bonds by having the buyer pay premiums in exchange for compensation upon default, effectively transferring the risk of company insolvency.^[37] Following the 2008 financial crisis, regulations like the Dodd-Frank Act standardized CDS contracts, mandated central clearing for many trades, and reduced counterparty risks, leading to greater adoption for precise hedging of specific credit exposures with notional amounts stabilizing around $9-10 trillion since 2017, remaining at about $9.0 trillion as of 2024.^[37]^[38]^[39]

Applications and Examples

Corporate Finance Examples

Specific risk in corporate finance manifests through idiosyncratic events that adversely affect a firm's value independently of broader market movements. A prominent example is the 2015 Volkswagen emissions scandal, where the company admitted to installing software in diesel vehicles to falsify emissions tests during regulatory scrutiny, leading to a regulatory violation that triggered immediate market repercussions. Volkswagen's stock price plummeted by approximately 30% in the days following the announcement, reflecting the direct financial impact of this company-specific crisis rather than systemic market downturns.^[40] Another illustrative case is the Theranos fraud from 2015 to 2018, where the biotech firm misrepresented the capabilities of its blood-testing technology to investors and partners, resulting in an idiosyncratic collapse. Theranos, once valued at $9 billion in 2014, saw its valuation slashed to $800 million by 2016 amid revelations of product inefficacy and eventual dissolution in 2018, underscoring how internal misrepresentation can erode firm value without correlation to industry-wide trends.^[41] In the biotech sector, firms encounter elevated specific risk from clinical trial outcomes, as failures can devastate pipelines dependent on a single lead candidate. For instance, numerous phase 3 trials for Alzheimer's treatments have failed in recent years due to inefficacy or safety issues, with historical data showing that approximately 90% of drugs entering clinical development do not reach approval, amplifying earnings uncertainty for specialized biotechs.^[42] The energy sector similarly faces heightened specific risk from operational disruptions like oil spills, which impose localized environmental and legal liabilities. The 2010 Deepwater Horizon spill by BP exemplifies this, causing an explosion on an offshore rig that released millions of barrels of oil into the Gulf of Mexico; BP's stock price subsequently dropped by 54% within two months, driven by cleanup costs exceeding $60 billion and litigation rather than global energy price fluctuations.^[43] Such events elevate the financial impact on affected firms by increasing the cost of capital, as investors perceive higher idiosyncratic risk and demand greater returns to compensate. Corporate scandals, including fraud and regulatory violations, have been shown to raise the implied cost of equity significantly, with misreporting firms experiencing persistent increases post-event due to eroded trust and heightened scrutiny. This manifests in earnings volatility tied to unique incidents, such as sudden write-downs or fines, decoupling firm performance from market benchmarks and complicating capital budgeting.^[44] Post-2020, supply chain vulnerabilities have emerged as a key specific risk amid globalization, particularly for automakers reliant on semiconductor chips. The global chip shortage, exacerbated by pandemic disruptions and geopolitical tensions, led to production halts at major firms like Ford and General Motors, resulting in lost vehicle output of over 11 million units worldwide in 2021 alone and revenue shortfalls specific to assembly-dependent operations.^[45] A more recent example is the July 2024 CrowdStrike software update failure, which caused widespread IT outages affecting specific industries like airlines and healthcare, leading to an estimated $5.4 billion in global damages and a 10-15% drop in CrowdStrike's stock price over the following weeks, highlighting cybersecurity-specific risks decoupled from market trends.^[46]

Investment Portfolio Implications

Investors adopting aggressive strategies often tolerate higher levels of specific risk to pursue elevated returns, particularly in approaches like value investing focused on turnaround stocks, where firm-specific factors such as management changes or operational improvements can drive outsized gains; however, this necessitates ongoing monitoring to mitigate potential losses from adverse events.^[47] In contrast, conservative investors prioritize low-specific-risk assets, such as broad index funds or blue-chip stocks with stable fundamentals, to minimize volatility and protect principal, aligning with portfolios emphasizing capital preservation over growth.^[33] Specific risk influences portfolio performance by enabling alpha generation through stock picking in bull markets, where active selection of high-idiosyncratic-volatility securities can exploit unique opportunities not captured by market-wide trends, potentially leading to superior risk-adjusted returns.^[48] Within diversified funds, residual specific risk accounts for a significant portion of tracking error—the deviation of portfolio returns from benchmark performance—highlighting the challenges of active management in maintaining close alignment while seeking excess returns.^[49] In the regulatory landscape, Basel III's updates in the 2010s, particularly the Fundamental Review of the Trading Book, mandate banks to explicitly model specific risk within internal approaches for trading book exposures, using expected shortfall metrics to capture non-modellable risk factors and thereby increasing capital reserves to cover potential firm-specific losses in portfolios.^[50] This framework enhances risk sensitivity but raises operational costs, prompting institutions to adjust trading strategies and allocate more capital against specific risk to comply with minimum requirements, originally effective from 2022 but delayed to January 1, 2027, in the EU and 2028 in the UK as of 2025.^[51]^[52] Empirical evidence from 2020s studies underscores the persistence of specific risk in emerging markets, attributed to structural factors like lower liquidity, fewer investable securities, and limited diversification opportunities, which amplify firm-specific volatility relative to developed markets.^[53] For instance, analyses of Chinese equities reveal that while governance improvements can attenuate idiosyncratic risk, its baseline elevation endures due to market inefficiencies, influencing portfolio construction by necessitating higher risk premia or selective exposure.^[54]

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What Was the BP Stock Price Before the Deepwater Horizon Spill?
Jan 13, 2021 · The company's share price lost 54 percent on the NYSE between April 20, 2010, and June 25, 2010, bouncing back slightly before the wellhead was ...
[41]
Evidence from Firms' Responses to the Enron Shock | NBER
Apr 16, 2009 · The increase in disclosure is particularly pronounced for firms that have positive cost of capital shocks and larger financing needs.
[42]
Supply chain issues and autos: When will the chip shortage end?
Apr 18, 2023 · Some chip shortages could remain through 2023 and into 2024, though supply of semiconductors and raw materials will generally improve in the ...
[43]
[PDF] Idiosyncratic Risk and Risk Taking Behavior of Mutual Fund Managers
Since aggressive growth funds are more likely to take active investment strategies, and in average they charge higher expense ratio for their management. The ...Missing: turnaround | Show results with:turnaround
[44]
[PDF] Endowment Management: The Benefits of Active Investing - TIAA
The question of active versus passive investing is once again challenging fiduciaries of investment capital. During the recent equity bull market, many active.
[45]
[PDF] It's Time to Talk About Tracking Error - Lazard Asset Management
Aug 15, 2019 · Tracking error, or active risk, measures the fluctuation of a portfolio's returns relative to a reference index, indicating how closely it ...
[46]
Minimum capital requirements for market risk
Jan 14, 2019 · The Minimum capital requirements for market risk replaces an earlier version of the standard as published in January 2016.
[47]
Does good board governance reduce idiosyncratic risk in emerging ...
Contrary to previous evidence from developed markets, we show that good board governance significantly reduces idiosyncratic risk in China.
[48]
[PDF] The Risky Capital of Emerging Markets – A Long-Run Risk ...
Apr 23, 2024 · Two novel facts emerge from our study of 37 equity markets that account for 86% of world stock market capitalization and two thirds of world GDP ...