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State diagram

A state diagram, also known as a state transition diagram, is a graphical representation of a finite state machine (FSM), a mathematical model that describes the behavior of a system capable of existing in one of a finite number of states at any given time, with transitions between states triggered by specific inputs, events, or conditions.^[1] These diagrams consist of nodes representing states—such as initial, final, or intermediate conditions—and directed edges labeled with the triggering events, guard conditions, or actions that cause state changes, providing a visual abstraction of the system's dynamic behavior without detailing internal computations.^[2] Originating in the mid-20th century as part of automata theory, state diagrams evolved from early FSM models proposed by George Mealy in 1955 and Edward Moore in 1956, which formalized how sequential circuits and computational processes respond to inputs based on current state.^[3]^[4] They became essential tools in computer science for modeling regular languages, designing lexical analyzers in compilers, network protocols, and digital hardware like counters and controllers, where the system's "memory" is encapsulated solely in its current state.^[2] In the 1980s, David Harel's statecharts extended traditional state diagrams to handle hierarchical, concurrent, and history-dependent behaviors, addressing limitations in representing complex reactive systems like user interfaces and embedded software.^[5] In modern software engineering, state diagrams are prominently featured as state machine diagrams in the Unified Modeling Language (UML), a standardized notation maintained by the Object Management Group (OMG), where they specify the event-driven sequences of states for objects, classifiers, or interactions, including responses like entry/exit actions and transition effects.^[6] UML state machine diagrams support composite states, orthogonal regions for parallelism, and pseudostates like choice or junction points, enabling precise documentation of behavioral requirements in object-oriented design and real-time systems.^[6] This formalism ensures unambiguous communication of system dynamics, facilitating verification, simulation, and implementation across domains from embedded devices to enterprise applications.^[6]

Fundamentals

Definition and Purpose

A state diagram is a graphical model that depicts the states of a system, the transitions between those states triggered by events or inputs, and any associated outputs or actions.^[6] It represents the dynamic behavior of discrete event-driven systems, where the system resides in one state at a time and changes state in response to stimuli such as signals, time events, or conditions.^[7] This visualization is rooted in the formalism of finite state machines, providing an abstract yet precise description of how a system evolves over time. The primary purpose of a state diagram is to model and specify the behavior of reactive systems in fields such as computer science, engineering, and mathematics, enabling the design, analysis, and verification of components like protocols, controllers, and embedded systems.^[6] By illustrating legal sequences of state changes and event responses, it facilitates the understanding of complex, state-dependent logic without relying solely on textual descriptions.^[7] State diagrams are particularly valuable for capturing the lifecycle of objects or classifiers, including concurrent behaviors through partitioned regions, and for defining protocols that constrain interactions.^[6] Key benefits include simplifying the comprehension of intricate system dynamics, aiding in debugging by highlighting potential deadlocks or invalid transitions, and supporting formal verification techniques to ensure system reliability.^[8] The visual nature of state diagrams reduces cognitive load compared to procedural code, making them effective for communication among developers, engineers, and stakeholders.^[7] In basic notation, states are typically represented as circles or rounded rectangles, while transitions are shown as directed arrows connecting states, labeled with triggers (e.g., input events), guards (Boolean conditions), and effects (outputs or actions).^[9] State diagrams can be viewed as a specialized form of directed graph, where vertices correspond to states and edges to transitions.^[6]

Historical Development

State diagrams originated in the mid-20th century as graphical representations within the emerging field of finite automata theory, which sought to model computation using discrete states and transitions. This development was heavily influenced by early work on neural networks and digital switching circuits during the 1940s. In 1943, Warren McCulloch and Walter Pitts published their seminal paper introducing a logical calculus for neural activity, modeling the brain as a network of binary-state units capable of simple computations, which provided a conceptual precursor to state-based automata. Complementing this, Claude Shannon's 1938 master's thesis applied Boolean algebra to the analysis of relay and switching circuits, establishing a mathematical framework for designing systems with finite configurations that directly informed the structure of early automata diagrams.^[10] The formalization of state diagrams accelerated in the 1950s amid growing interest in theoretical computer science. Stephen Kleene's 1956 paper on the representation of events in nerve nets and finite automata introduced regular expressions and proved their equivalence to finite state machines, thereby embedding state diagrams as a standard visual tool for depicting recognizable languages and sequential processes.^[11] These diagrams evolved from rudimentary pencil-and-paper sketches used by early computer scientists to describe machine behaviors, reflecting the era's focus on theoretical foundations rather than practical implementation. By the 1980s, state diagrams transitioned into practical software engineering tools, with David Harel's statecharts extending the formalism to support hierarchy, concurrency, and modularity in complex systems.^[5] This advancement popularized their use beyond pure theory, influencing design methodologies for reactive software. In the 1990s, the adoption of state diagrams within the Unified Modeling Language (UML)—developed by Grady Booch, James Rumbaugh, and Ivar Jacobson starting in 1994—standardized them for object-oriented analysis and design, enabling precise specification of behavioral dynamics in software architectures.^[12] Concurrently, probabilistic extensions appeared, as seen in Lawrence Rabiner's 1989 tutorial on hidden Markov models, which adapted state diagram principles to model uncertainty in sequences like speech signals.^[13]

Core Components

States and Transitions

States in a state diagram represent discrete conditions or modes of a system, capturing snapshots of its configuration at particular points in time. These states encapsulate the system's behavior during periods of stability, where no changes occur until triggered by an external or internal event. In standard notations such as UML, states are classified into initial states, which mark the entry point of the system's lifecycle and are depicted as a solid black circle; final states, indicating termination or acceptance and shown as a circle surrounding a smaller black circle; and intermediate states, which represent ongoing operational modes and are illustrated as rounded rectangles containing the state name.^[14] Key properties of states include stability, wherein a state persists until a qualifying transition is fired, ensuring predictable behavior during its active phase. In advanced formulations, such as those extending to hierarchical or concurrent models, states may exhibit orthogonality, allowing independent sub-behaviors to execute concurrently within separate regions of a composite state without mutual interference.^[15] Transitions in a state diagram are directed connections between states that specify how the system evolves in response to stimuli, depicted as solid arrows originating from the boundary of the source state and terminating at the target state. These transitions are triggered by events, such as inputs or timeouts, and may include guards—boolean expressions that must evaluate to true for the transition to occur—and actions, which denote outputs, variable assignments, or other side effects executed upon firing.^[16] Standard notation for transitions follows UML conventions, employing solid arrows with optional labels in the format event [guard] / action to detail the triggering event, precondition, and effect. Self-transitions, which loop back to the originating state, are handled by arrows curving from and returning to the same state boundary, often used to model responses that do not alter the current mode but perform internal processing. Multiple outgoing transitions from a single state are permitted, with resolution determined by event matching, guard evaluation, or implicit priority rules to avoid ambiguity.^[14] For error handling in state diagrams, undefined transitions—those without a matching event or guard—may lead to an implicit trap state, a sink condition where the system remains indefinitely, preventing further valid progress and signaling anomalous behavior. This trap state is commonly introduced in implementations to ensure completeness, though it is not always explicitly diagrammed.^[17] State diagrams model these elements as an underlying directed graph structure, with states as vertices and transitions as directed edges.

Directed Graph Formalism

A state diagram is formally represented as a directed graph G = (V, E), where V is the finite set of states serving as vertices, and E \subseteq V \times V is the set of directed edges corresponding to transitions between states. In this structure, each edge e \in E from state q_i to q_j may be labeled with a tuple consisting of an input symbol, an optional guard condition, an action to perform, and an output, enabling the modeling of reactive behaviors in systems like those in UML state machines.^[18] This graph-theoretic foundation allows for systematic analysis of state-based systems, distinguishing state diagrams from mere intuitive sketches by providing a precise mathematical framework.^[19] Key formal properties of such graphs include finiteness, where |V| < \infty for finite-state systems, ensuring computational tractability. Determinism requires that, for any state q \in V and input symbol \sigma, there is at most one outgoing edge labeled with \sigma, preventing ambiguity in state evolution. Completeness extends this by mandating exactly one such transition for every state-input pair, making the transition function total and exhaustive.^[19] These properties underpin the reliability of state diagrams in verifying system behaviors, such as ensuring no undefined responses to inputs. From an algebraic perspective, the transition relation can be encoded in an adjacency matrix A, where rows and columns index states in V, and entries A_{ij} indicate the presence of a transition from state i to j, possibly annotated with label details for extended analysis.^[20] Reachability between states is then determined by the existence of paths in G, computable via matrix powers A^k where non-zero entries signal reachable states after k steps.^[19] For deterministic cases, the core semantics are captured by the transition function defined as

\delta: Q \times \Sigma \to Q,

where Q denotes the set of states and \Sigma the input alphabet, mapping each state-input pair to a unique next state without further derivation.

Applications in Automata

Deterministic and Nondeterministic Finite Automata

State diagrams provide a graphical representation for modeling deterministic finite automata (DFAs), which are computational models that process input strings over a finite alphabet and recognize regular languages. A DFA is formally defined as a 5-tuple (Q, \Sigma, \delta, q_0, F), where Q is a finite set of states, \Sigma is the input alphabet, \delta: Q \times \Sigma \to Q is the transition function ensuring a unique next state for each state and input symbol, q_0 \in Q is the start state, and F \subseteq Q is the set of accepting states.^[21]^[22] In a state diagram for a DFA, states are depicted as circles, with the start state indicated by an incoming arrow, accepting states marked by double circles, and directed edges labeled with input symbols showing the unique transitions, ensuring a single path for any input string from the start state.^[23]^[21] This structure guarantees deterministic behavior, where the automaton ends in an accepting state if and only if the input belongs to the recognized regular language.^[24] A representative example is a DFA that accepts binary strings with an even number of 0s. The state set Q = \{q_0, q_1\} tracks parity, where q_0 (even parity, accepting, double circle) is the start state and q_1 (odd parity) transitions on 0 to q_0 (self-loop on 1 to q_1) and from q_0 on 0 to q_1 (self-loop on 1 back to q_0). Processing a string like "1010" follows the path q_0 \xrightarrow{1} q_0 \xrightarrow{0} q_1 \xrightarrow{1} q_1 \xrightarrow{0} q_0, ending in the accepting state.^[25]^[26] In contrast, state diagrams for nondeterministic finite automata (NFAs) allow greater flexibility, enabling multiple possible transitions for the same input symbol from a given state or transitions without consuming input via epsilon (ε) moves. An NFA is defined as a 5-tuple (Q, \Sigma, \delta, q_0, F), where \delta: Q \times (\Sigma \cup \{\varepsilon\}) \to 2^Q maps to subsets of states, permitting nondeterminism and ε-transitions.^[27]^[28] In the state diagram, nondeterminism appears as branching arrows labeled with the same input symbol leading to multiple states, while ε-transitions are shown as unlabeled directed edges, allowing the automaton to "guess" paths and accept if at least one leads to an accepting state (double circle) after processing the input.^[29]^[30] NFAs recognize the same class of regular languages as DFAs, with equivalence established by the subset construction algorithm, which converts any NFA to an equivalent DFA. This algorithm begins with the ε-closure of the NFA's start state as the DFA's initial state, then iteratively computes DFA transitions by taking the union of ε-closures of NFA moves on each symbol from the current subset of states, potentially generating up to $2^{|Q|} DFA states in the worst case.^[24]^[31] Although this conversion can result in an exponential increase in states, it confirms the computational equivalence between the models.^[32]

Generalized Nondeterministic Finite Automata

A generalized nondeterministic finite automaton (GNFA) extends the nondeterministic finite automaton (NFA) by allowing transitions to be labeled with regular expressions over the input alphabet rather than individual symbols, enabling the representation of more complex language patterns in a single diagram. This structure is central to proving the equivalence between regular languages recognized by finite automata and those generated by regular expressions. In a GNFA state diagram, states are connected by directed edges labeled with regular expressions, such as (a|b)* for alternation and repetition, facilitating nondeterministic choices over sets of strings. The diagram features exactly one start state and one final (accept) state, with no epsilon transitions to ensure that every path consumes input via the labeled expressions.^[33] The process of converting a GNFA to an equivalent regular expression proceeds by iteratively eliminating states other than the start and final states. For each eliminated state, the incoming and outgoing transition labels are combined using regular expression operations—union for parallel paths, concatenation for sequences, and Kleene star for loops—updating the diagram until only a single labeled edge remains between the start and final states, yielding the regular expression. As a generalization of the NFA, this approach leverages nondeterminism while bridging automata to expression-based formalisms. For instance, consider the regular language consisting of all strings of the form (ab). The corresponding GNFA has a single state serving as both start and final, with a self-loop edge labeled ab; eliminating this state (or recognizing the loop) produces the regular expression (ab) via the Kleene star operation on the loop label. This construction reverses Thompson's method for building NFAs from regular expressions, underscoring the GNFA's role in bidirectional conversions within formal language theory.

Applications in State Machines

Moore Machines

A Moore machine is a type of finite state transducer in which the output depends exclusively on the current state, rather than on the current state and input as in other models.^[34] Formally, a Moore machine is defined as a 7-tuple (Q, \Sigma, \Gamma, \delta, q_0, F, \lambda), where Q is a finite set of states, \Sigma is the finite input alphabet, \Gamma is the finite output alphabet, \delta: Q \times \Sigma \to Q is the transition function, q_0 \in Q is the initial state, F \subseteq Q is the set of accepting states (if applicable for recognition tasks), and \lambda: Q \to \Gamma is the output function that associates an output symbol with each state.^[2] Outputs are produced synchronously upon entry into a state, ensuring stable signaling based on the machine's configuration at that moment.^[34] In state diagrams representing Moore machines, outputs are labeled directly inside the state circles, while transition arrows are annotated solely with input symbols, emphasizing the separation between state-determined outputs and input-driven state changes.^[35] This notation highlights the machine's behavior, where the diagram's directed graph structure (with states as nodes and transitions as edges) focuses on how inputs navigate the state space without influencing outputs mid-transition. For instance, consider a Moore machine designed as a sequence detector for the binary pattern "101" in an input stream over \Sigma = \{0, 1\} with \Gamma = \{0, 1\}, where output 1 indicates detection. The states might include S_0 (initial/idle, partial match none, output 0), S_1 (seen "1", output 0), S_{10} (seen "10", output 0), and S_{101} (seen "101", output 1). Transitions could be: from S_0 on 0 to S_0, on 1 to S_1; from S_1 on 0 to S_{10}, on 1 to S_1; from S_{10} on 0 to S_0, on 1 to S_{101}; from S_{101} on 0 to S_0, on 1 to S_1. This setup detects the sequence upon entering S_{101}, producing output 1 only while in that state, and supports overlapping detections if the input continues appropriately.^[35] Moore machines possess properties that make them suitable for applications requiring predictable, state-based responses, such as stable output generation in digital circuits. They are computationally equivalent to Mealy machines in terms of the functions they can realize, but differ in output timing: Moore outputs occur upon state entry and remain constant until the next change, providing a one-clock-cycle delay relative to input compared to transition-based outputs in other models.^[2] Minimization of Moore machines involves identifying and merging equivalent states—states that produce the same output and transition to equivalent states under identical inputs—using algorithms like the implication table or partition refinement to reduce the number of states while preserving behavior.^[2] This process ensures the machine is minimal, optimizing implementation in hardware or software without altering its input-output mapping.

Mealy Machines

A Mealy machine is a finite state machine in which the output is determined by the current state and the input symbol, produced directly on the transitions rather than solely from states.^[36] Formally, it is defined as a six-tuple M = ([Q](/page/Q), \Sigma, \Delta, \delta, \lambda, q_0), where [Q](/page/Q) is a finite set of states, \Sigma is the finite input alphabet, \Delta is the finite output alphabet, \delta: Q \times \Sigma \to Q is the transition function, \lambda: Q \times \Sigma \to \Delta is the output function that associates an output with each state-input pair, and q_0 \in Q is the initial state.^[37] This structure ensures that outputs occur synchronously with inputs during state changes, making the machine responsive to immediate input conditions.^[38] In state diagrams for Mealy machines, transitions are represented as directed arrows between states, labeled with both the input symbol from \Sigma and the corresponding output from \Delta, typically in the form input/output.^[39] This notation emphasizes the dynamic nature of outputs, which are tied to the edges rather than nodes, allowing for context-specific responses without additional states. For instance, consider a simple vending machine model that dispenses a product costing 25 cents, accepting nickels (5 cents) or dimes (10 cents) as inputs. The states might represent accumulated credit: S0 (0 cents), S5 (5 cents), S10 (10 cents), S15 (15 cents), S20 (20 cents), and S25 (≥25 cents, dispense). A transition from S15 on input dime (10 cents) would label as dime/release, moving to S25 and outputting the product release signal, while from S15 on nickel (5 cents) yield nickel/no-release to S20 without dispensing. Such diagrams clearly illustrate how outputs enable immediate actions, like unlocking a dispenser, based on the combined state and input.^[40] Mealy machines often require fewer states than equivalent Moore machines to achieve the same behavior, as outputs can vary across outgoing transitions from a single state, reducing redundancy.^[41] This efficiency arises because the output function \lambda allows multiple outputs per state without splitting into separate states for each.^[42] However, in hardware implementations, the dependency of outputs on both state and input necessitates hazard analysis to prevent glitches in combinational logic, where simultaneous changes in inputs and state registers could produce unintended transient outputs.^[43] Any Mealy machine can be converted to an equivalent Moore machine by splitting states to encode transition-specific outputs as state outputs, though this typically increases the state count.^[38] In contrast to Moore machines, where outputs depend only on the current state, Mealy designs prioritize timing-critical applications like synchronous controllers.^[44]

Extensions and Variants

Harel Statecharts

Harel statecharts, introduced by David Harel in 1987, represent a significant extension of traditional state diagrams designed specifically for specifying the behavior of complex reactive systems, such as real-time multi-computer setups and communication protocols. These systems often exhibit event-driven dynamics that flat state diagrams struggle to represent compactly and modularly. By adding mechanisms for hierarchy and concurrency, statecharts enable a more natural and scalable visual formalism that maintains the intuitive appeal of states and transitions while addressing limitations in expressiveness for large-scale discrete-event behaviors.^[5] Key diagram features include nested states organized into superstates, which support AND/OR decomposition: OR (exclusive or) decomposition clusters mutually exclusive substates within a single rounded rectangle, while AND decomposition divides a superstate into orthogonal regions for concurrent execution, visually separated by dashed lines. Transitions between states are depicted as arrows labeled with events, guards (conditions), and actions (e.g., event/condition/action format), and a broadcast communication model ensures that an event generated in one region propagates to all orthogonal components, facilitating synchronization without explicit wiring. Additionally, history connectors—marked as "H" for shallow history (re-entering the most recent active substate) or "H*" for deep history (re-entering the full history of nested substates)—allow systems to resume previous configurations upon re-entry to a superstate, with optional clear-history actions to reset them. This notation builds directly on basic state and transition elements but introduces depth and parallelism to manage complexity.^[5] A representative example of Harel statecharts in action is a traffic light controller managing both vehicular and pedestrian flows, which demonstrates concurrency and hierarchy effectively. Designs using statecharts for such controllers employ orthogonal regions for parallel vehicle and pedestrian signal management and hierarchical structures for different operational modes.^[45] This structure avoids an exponential explosion of states and supports features like entry/exit actions for robust control.^[5] The advantages of Harel statecharts lie in their ability to scale to intricate systems like user interfaces and avionics software, where modularity reduces specification size and enhances maintainability compared to flat diagrams. By supporting "zooming" through hierarchy and orthogonality, they prevent the combinatorial state blow-up inherent in concurrent behaviors, making them suitable for both standalone behavioral descriptions and integration into broader design methodologies, such as the STATEMATE environment. Furthermore, Harel statecharts formed the foundational basis for state machine diagrams in the Unified Modeling Language (UML), where they were adapted as an object-oriented variant to standardize behavioral modeling in software engineering.^[5]^[46]

Other Notational Extensions

Probabilistic extensions to state diagrams incorporate transition probabilities on edges, transforming the diagram into a representation of a Markov chain, where each state denotes a system configuration and probabilities indicate the likelihood of transitioning between states. This notation is particularly valuable in reliability modeling, as it allows for the quantitative assessment of system failure rates and availability by solving for steady-state probabilities. For instance, self-loops on states may represent the probability of remaining in a operational state, while arrows to failure states carry degradation probabilities.^[47]^[48] Timed variants extend state diagrams with temporal constraints, such as time guards on transitions (e.g., "after(t)" to trigger after a duration t) and invariants on states to enforce time bounds, enabling the modeling of real-time behaviors in embedded systems. These extensions build on hierarchical structures to handle concurrency and timing, often formalized as timed automata for verification purposes. In practice, clocks are associated with states or transitions to measure elapsed time, ensuring that systems meet deadlines in safety-critical applications like avionics.^[49]^[50] Object-oriented adaptations appear in UML state machines, which augment traditional state diagrams with event triggers (specifying the stimulus for a transition), guards (Boolean conditions evaluated upon trigger firing), and effects (actions executed during the transition). This notation integrates with class diagrams by associating state machines with object lifecycles, supporting behaviors like entry/exit actions on states and do-activities for ongoing processes. UML's protocol state machines further specialize this for interfaces, focusing on valid sequences of calls without internal implementation details.^[51]^[52] Domain-specific notations tailor state diagrams to particular fields, such as networking protocols where they depict connection states and message-driven transitions. In the TCP protocol, for example, the state diagram outlines phases like LISTEN, SYN-SENT, ESTABLISHED, and FIN-WAIT, with transitions triggered by segments like SYN or ACK to model the three-way handshake for reliable connections. These diagrams emphasize protocol invariants and error handling without delving into implementation specifics.^[53]

Semantics and Comparisons

Alternative Interpretations

State diagrams can be interpreted through operational semantics, which provide step-by-step rules for execution, distinguishing between event-driven and time-driven models. In event-driven interpretations, transitions occur in response to discrete external or internal events, such as user inputs or signals, as formalized in the semantics of UML state machines where the system's behavior advances only upon event occurrence. In contrast, time-driven interpretations incorporate continuous time passage, where transitions may be triggered by timeouts or duration constraints, extending basic state diagrams to timed automata for real-time systems analysis. Denotational semantics map state diagrams to mathematical objects like functions or relations, enabling abstract reasoning about system behavior independent of execution details. For instance, state diagrams can be translated into linear temporal logic (LTL) formulas, where states correspond to propositions and transitions to temporal operators, facilitating model checking for properties like safety and liveness in verification tools.^[54] This approach, as in compositional semantics for statecharts, defines the meaning of a diagram as a function from input sequences to output behaviors, supporting equivalence proofs between models.^[55] Ambiguities in state diagram interpretations often arise from handling simultaneous events or conflicting transitions, such as multiple enabled transitions competing for execution. Frameworks like STATEMATE resolve these by defining priority rules, where deeper nested states take precedence over shallower ones, and simultaneous events are processed in a fixed order to ensure deterministic behavior.^[56] Such resolutions prevent nondeterminism that could lead to inconsistent outcomes in complex hierarchies. Interpretations of state diagrams vary significantly by context, particularly between hardware and software domains. In hardware designs, synchronous semantics assume transitions align with a global clock tick, ensuring predictable timing in digital circuits, whereas asynchronous semantics allow event-triggered changes without a clock, suitable for low-power or distributed systems.^[57] In software, reactive interpretations emphasize responses to external stimuli, while proactive ones incorporate internal scheduling, as seen in embedded controllers. For example, in safety-critical vehicular systems, differing interpretations—such as event versus time-driven—can affect fault tolerance; formal verification of SysML state machine diagrams against LTL properties has revealed inconsistencies that could compromise braking response times under concurrent sensor failures.^[58] Timed variants briefly illustrate semantic impacts by adding clock variables to resolve timing ambiguities in real-time contexts.

Versus Flowcharts

Flowcharts are sequential, procedural diagrams that depict algorithms or processes using standardized symbols such as process boxes for actions, decision diamonds for branching conditions, and arrows for flow direction; they are particularly suited for modeling stateless procedures where each step follows predictably without retaining memory of prior executions.^[59] In contrast, state diagrams emphasize the behavioral states of a system and the events that trigger transitions between them, modeling "what state the system is in?" with inherent memory, whereas flowcharts focus on "what happens next?" through stateless steps.^[60] State diagrams incorporate cycles and loops to represent ongoing, reactive behavior, often resulting in non-linear structures, while flowcharts typically follow linear or branching paths that execute from start to end without persistent context.^[61] Transitions in state diagrams are analogous to flowchart arrows but are contextualized by the current state, ensuring actions depend on the system's history.^[62] Flowcharts excel in use cases like documenting simple scripts, algorithmic procedures, or business workflows without ongoing interactions, such as a basic sorting routine.^[59] State diagrams, however, are ideal for reactive systems with persistent state, such as graphical user interfaces (GUIs) or embedded controllers, where behavior varies based on prior events like user inputs.^[60] Converting between the two is asymmetric: flowcharts can often be adapted into state diagrams by identifying implicit states, but linearizing state diagrams into flowcharts is challenging due to their cyclic dependencies, potentially leading to exploded or repetitive representations.^[61] State diagrams offer advantages in revealing deadlocks, invalid transitions, or state-dependent inconsistencies in complex systems, providing a clearer view of long-term behavior.^[62] Conversely, flowcharts are more accessible for beginners, as their procedural focus aligns intuitively with step-by-step thinking, though they may obscure issues in memoryful scenarios.^[60]

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[PDF] Equivalence of DFA and NFA
How do you convert an NFA to C/C++ code? Page 9. Exponential Blow-Up. There is an NFA N with n + 1 states that has no equivalent DFA with fewer than 2 n states.
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[PDF] Equivalence of DFAs and NFAs - Gustavus Adolphus College
Feb 20, 2014 · The number of states in the final DFA D can be an exponential function on the number of states of the given NFA Nε. In practice, we only ...
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[PDF] 3 Regular expressions
Reading: Sipser 1.3 (pp. 69-76). A generalized NFA (GNFA) is an NFA with regular expressions (not symbols) on its transition arcs. Assume ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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Gedanken-Experiments on Sequential Machines | Semantic Scholar
Gedanken-Experiments on Sequential Machines · E. F. Moore · Published 31 January 1956 · Computer Science, Mathematics.
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FSM Designs | SpringerLink
Oct 3, 2022 · To detect the sequence 101 use the understanding of the Moore machine. Output is function of the present state only and output is 1 when the ...
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[PDF] Finite-State Controllers Based on Mealy Machines for Centralized ...
Moore machines associate output symbols with nodes and Mealy machines associate output symbols with transitions. Formally, a Moore machine is a tuple hQ, Σ, Ω, ...
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[PDF] Sequential Machines
A Mealy machine is a six-tuple M = (Q,Σ,∆, δ, λ, q0), where Q is a finite non-empty set of states, Σ is the input alphabet, ∆ is the output alphabet, δ : Q×Σ → ...Missing: formal | Show results with:formal
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[PDF] 5. Finite Automata and Temporal Logic
Machines in which the outputs depend on the transitions are called. Mealy machines. If outputs can be associated only with states (i.e., all transitions.
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[PDF] Test Generation from Finite State Models - Purdue Computer Science
Aug 7, 2006 · A formal definition of a Mealy machine follows. Finite State Machine: A finite state machine is a six tuple (X, Y , Q, q0, δ, O) where.
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[PDF] Finite Automata − Vending Machine Example
Finite State Transducer: a finite state machine with outputs. Mealy Machine: a finite state trasnducer with an output on each edge. /b. /b. /b. /b. /b. /b. /b.
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[PDF] Example Finite State Machine Diagram - People @EECS
Example: Vending Machine (cont'd). ❚ Suitable Abstract Representation. ❙ Tabulate typical input sequences: ❘ 3 nickels. ❘ nickel, dime. ❘ dime, nickel.
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[PDF] Chapter 8: Sequential Circuits - Digital Commons @ NJIT
The Mealy machine has fewer states than the Moore machine. This is not uncommon. It occurs whenever a Mealy machine has a state with two or more arcs going ...
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STAGES OF FINITE STATE MACHINE DESIGN.
The analysis includes simulation of the machine and testability analysis, as well as analysis of hazards in output functions of machines' realization. In some ...
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[PDF] Finite State Machines Abstraction of state elements - Washington
▫ Mealy machines tend to have less states. ❑ outputs depend on arc taken ... Equivalent Mealy and Moore state diagrams. ▫. Moore machine. ❑ outputs ...Missing: fewer | Show results with:fewer
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Design of Traffic Light Control System Using Statecharts
Aug 6, 2025 · This paper focuses on the use of statecharts to model an urban traffic lights control system. The applications of statecharts to eight-phase, six-phase and two ...
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UML Statecharts - Embedded
Jan 1, 1999 · A traffic light system is a common example of a state machine. It might have states such as “Green,” “Yellow,” “Red,” “Flashing Yellow,” and “ ...
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[PDF] An Introduction to Markov Modeling: Concepts and Uses
Markov models are useful for modeling the complex behavior associated with fault tolerant systems. This tutorial will adopt.
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[PDF] Automated Markov-chain Based Analysis for Large State Spaces
A common method for representing a Markov chain is the use of a directed graph, sometimes referred to as a state diagram, where the vertices represent a system ...<|separator|>
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Formal Verification of UML Statecharts with Real-Time Extensions
For clarity, we restrict ourselves to a reasonable subset of the rich UML statechart model and extend this with real-time constructs (clocks, timed guards, and ...
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Semantics and Execution Time of New Timed Statecharts
Nov 17, 2016 · One of the most often used techniques of designing real-time systems is the timed statecharts (TSCs) technique. ... guards and the AND state with ...
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About the Precise Semantics of UML State Machines Specification ...
The Precise Semantics of UML State Machines (PSSM) specification is an extension of the Semantics of a Foundational Subset for Executable UML Models ...
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About the Unified Modeling Language Specification Version 2.5.1
A specification defining a graphical language for visualizing, specifying, constructing, and documenting the artifacts of distributed object systems.
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RFC 9293 - Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) - IETF Datatracker
State Machine Overview. A connection progresses through a series of states during its lifetime. ... Figure 5: TCP Connection State Diagram. The following notes ...
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[PDF] Formalizing UML State Machines for Automated Verification - arXiv
Jul 24, 2024 · In 2004, [BCR04] provides some further discussions about the ambiguities in the official semantics of UML state machines and their solutions.
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[PDF] A Compositional Semantics for Statecharts
A denotational semantics has been given for the graphical, state-based, specification lan- guage Statecharts. This semantics serves as a basis for a ...
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[PDF] The STATEMATE Semantics of Statecharts - DAVID HAREL
The precise way in which statecharts describe behavior and thus control the behavior of the entire setup of activities and data over time is at the heart of the ...Missing: ambiguities | Show results with:ambiguities
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Synchronous-State-Machine - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
A synchronous state machine is a type of finite state machine (FSM) in which state transitions occur exclusively at precise moments defined by a global clock ...
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Automatic Formal Verification of SysML State Machine Diagrams for ...
Aug 25, 2021 · A generic model transformation strategy is developed to integrate SysML with one of the state-of-the-art Model Checking tools, NuSMV. Cameo ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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State Machine Diagrams | Unified Modeling Language (UML)
Apr 8, 2025 · A State Machine Diagram is used to represent the condition of the system or part of the system at finite instances of time.Missing: authoritative | Show results with:authoritative
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A simple guide to drawing your first state diagram (with examples)
Jun 12, 2019 · A state diagram is a graphic of a state machine, showing states, transitions, and actions. To draw one, use circles for initial/final states, ...State Transition Diagrams · State Diagrams Tutorial · State Diagram Examples<|control11|><|separator|>
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State Machine v/s Flow Chart. - MATLAB Answers - MathWorks
Jun 18, 2019 · The main difference between flow chart and state machine is that flow charts represent an algorithm that will run from beginning to the end in one simulation ...
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State Machine Diagram vs Activity Diagram - Visual Paradigm
Activity diagram is flow of functions without trigger (event) mechanism, state machine is consist of triggered states. Example: State diagrams versus flowcharts.