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Sulfoxide

A sulfoxide is an organosulfur compound featuring a sulfinyl functional group (–S(=O)–) that connects two carbon atoms, with the general formula R–S(=O)–R', where R and R' represent organic substituents such as alkyl or aryl groups.^[1] The sulfur atom in a sulfoxide adopts a tetrahedral geometry, including a lone pair of electrons, which imparts polarity to the S=O bond and enables chirality at the sulfur center when the two substituents are different.^[2] This structural feature contributes to the stability and reactivity of sulfoxides, making them bench-stable under mild conditions while susceptible to specific transformations.^[2] Sulfoxides are commonly synthesized by the controlled oxidation of corresponding sulfides (R–S–R') using mild reagents like hydrogen peroxide or m-chloroperoxybenzoic acid (mCPBA), which selectively introduce one oxygen atom to the sulfur.^[3] Further oxidation can yield sulfones (R–SO₂–R'), but sulfoxides themselves are key intermediates in organic synthesis.^[2] Notable for their polar aprotic nature, sulfoxides like dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO, (CH₃)₂SO) are widely employed as solvents in chemical reactions due to their ability to dissolve a broad range of polar and nonpolar substances without donating protons.^[3] In synthetic applications, sulfoxides participate in versatile reactions such as the Pummerer rearrangement for C–C and C–heteroatom bond formation, sigmatropic rearrangements, and as precursors in cross-coupling processes, underscoring their importance in pharmaceuticals, agrochemicals, and chiral auxiliary design.^[2]

Structure and properties

General structure and bonding

Sulfoxides are organosulfur compounds characterized by the general formula \ce{R-S(=O)-R'}, where R and R′ represent organic groups such as alkyl, aryl, or other carbon-based substituents, and the central sulfur atom adopts a +4 oxidation state.<grok:render type="render_inline_citation"> 7 </grok:render> This structural motif features a sulfinyl functional group (>S=O) bonded to two carbon atoms, distinguishing sulfoxides from related sulfur-oxygen compounds like sulfones (>S(=O)<sub>2</sub>).<grok:render type="render_inline_citation"> 9 </grok:render> The bonding in sulfoxides centers on the highly polar S=O linkage, which exhibits double-bond character with significant partial ionic character arising from the electronegativity difference between sulfur (2.58) and oxygen (3.44).<grok:render type="render_inline_citation"> 38 </grok:render> This polarity is evident in atoms-in-molecules (AIM) analyses, where the S–O bond critical point shows substantial electron density (≈0.28 au) and a bond order of about 1.45, reflecting covalent sharing with charge transfer toward oxygen.<grok:render type="render_inline_citation"> 38 </grok:render> Sulfur achieves an expanded octet (10 electrons in its valence shell) through hypervalent bonding, but contemporary theoretical models, including density functional theory and AIM topology, describe this without requiring d-orbital participation; instead, the structure relies on highly polarized σ-bonds and electrostatic interactions between sulfur's lone pair and oxygen's electronegative pull.<grok:render type="render_inline_citation"> 35 </grok:render><grok:render type="render_inline_citation"> 37 </grok:render> The resulting geometry is pyramidal at sulfur, with the lone pair occupying an apical position in a distorted trigonal bipyramidal arrangement. Nomenclature for sulfoxides follows IUPAC recommendations, where the compound is named by alphabetizing the substituent groups followed by "sulfoxide," as in dimethyl sulfoxide for \ce{(CH3)2SO}.<grok:render type="render_inline_citation"> 9 </grok:render> Alternatively, substitutive nomenclature employs the "sulfinyl" prefix for the >S=O group, yielding names like methanesulfinylmethane for the same compound.<grok:render type="render_inline_citation"> 11 </grok:render> This systematic approach supplanted earlier, less standardized conventions from the late 19th century, when sulfoxides were often denoted as "sulfine oxides" following their initial isolation.<grok:render type="render_inline_citation"> 40 </grok:render> Structural data from X-ray crystallography confirm the bonding characteristics, with representative bond lengths in dimethyl sulfoxide at 100 K showing S=O ≈ 1.504 Å, S–C ≈ 1.78–1.79 Å, a C–S–C angle of 97.7°, and O–S–C angles of ≈106.6°.<grok:render type="render_inline_citation"> 36 </grok:render> Broader surveys of sulfoxide crystals report S=O distances ranging from 1.49 to 1.50 Å on average and S–C bonds near 1.80 Å, consistent with partial double-bond order in the S=O linkage.<grok:render type="render_inline_citation"> 22 </grok:render> When R ≠ R′, this asymmetric substitution at sulfur imparts chirality to the molecule.

Physical and spectroscopic properties

Sulfoxides exhibit high boiling points owing to the strong dipole-dipole interactions arising from the polar S=O bond. For example, dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO, (CH₃)₂SO) boils at 189 °C at atmospheric pressure, diethyl sulfoxide ((CH₃CH₂)₂SO) at 212 °C, and di-n-propyl sulfoxide ((CH₃CH₂CH₂)₂SO) at approximately 244 °C.^[4]^[5]^[6] These compounds are generally miscible with water and a broad array of organic solvents, such as alcohols, ethers, and hydrocarbons, due to the amphiphilic character imparted by the polar S=O group and hydrophobic alkyl substituents.^[7] Sulfoxides also demonstrate notable thermal stability; DMSO, for instance, experiences only 0.1–1.0% decomposition after 24 hours at 150 °C and remains largely intact near its boiling point for short periods.^[4] The polarity of sulfoxides is quantified by their dipole moments, with DMSO possessing a value of 4.1 D, which underscores the significant charge separation in the S=O bond.^[8] Solubility trends in homologous series reveal that increasing alkyl chain length enhances boiling points but diminishes overall polarity, leading to reduced miscibility with water. While DMSO is fully miscible with water in all proportions, diethyl sulfoxide shows high solubility in aqueous mixtures across the full composition range, though longer-chain analogs exhibit progressively lower water solubility.^[4]^[9] In infrared (IR) spectroscopy, the S=O stretching vibration serves as a diagnostic feature, typically appearing as a strong band in the 1030–1060 cm⁻¹ region for dialkyl sulfoxides.^[10] For DMSO, this absorption is observed at 1042 cm⁻¹ in the pure liquid, shifting slightly in solution depending on hydrogen bonding interactions.^[11] Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy provides further characterization: in ¹H NMR, alpha protons to the sulfoxide are deshielded by the electron-withdrawing S=O group, resonating at 2.5–3.5 ppm; the methyl protons of DMSO, for example, appear at 2.5 ppm in CDCl₃.^[12] In ¹³C NMR, alpha carbons exhibit shifts around 40–50 ppm, with the methyl carbon of DMSO at approximately 40 ppm.^[13] Additionally, ¹⁷O NMR reveals the oxygen in the S=O group at chemical shifts of about 150–170 ppm relative to water, sensitive to substituent effects in dialkyl series.^[14]

Chirality

Sulfoxides exhibit chirality when the two substituents on the sulfur atom differ (R ≠ R′), producing a pair of enantiomers that are nonsuperimposable mirror images. This stereogenic center at sulfur adopts a tetrahedral electron-pair geometry, with the lone pair occupying one position to form a pyramidal structure, akin to amines but with greater configurational stability.^[2] The enantiomers remain stable under ambient conditions due to the high barrier to pyramidal inversion, which ranges from 38.7 to 47.1 kcal/mol depending on the substituents, far exceeding typical thermal energies at room temperature and thus preventing racemization. Enantiopure sulfoxides are accessed via resolution of racemates. Classical approaches rely on diastereomeric salt formation with chiral acids, such as camphorsulfonic acid, exploiting differences in solubility or crystallinity for separation.^[15] Modern methods include enzymatic kinetic resolution, where enzymes like methionine sulfoxide reductase selectively reduce one enantiomer to the corresponding sulfide, and chiral chromatography using polysaccharide-based stationary phases for direct enantiomer separation.^[16]^[17] Racemization proceeds through pyramidal inversion, either thermally or under base catalysis. The thermal process follows the Arrhenius equation,

k = A e^{-E_a / RT}

where k is the inversion rate constant, A is the pre-exponential factor, E_a is the activation energy (typically 35–42 kcal/mol for various dialkyl and aryl sulfoxides), R is the gas constant, and T is the absolute temperature; significant racemization requires heating above 150–200°C.^[18] Base-catalyzed inversion lowers the barrier via coordination or deprotonation at sulfur, enabling dynamic kinetic resolutions at milder conditions. Chiral sulfoxides play a key role in asymmetric synthesis as removable auxiliaries, leveraging their stable stereochemistry to induce selectivity in proximal reactions. Notably, in Andersen's approach, they direct stereocontrol in aldol additions by coordinating to Lewis acids or through chelation, enabling diastereoselective formation of β-hydroxy carbonyl compounds with high enantiomeric excess.^[19]^[20]

Preparation

Oxidation of sulfides

The oxidation of sulfides represents the most common laboratory and industrial route to sulfoxides, involving the controlled addition of an oxygen atom to the sulfur center. The general reaction proceeds as \ce{R2S + [O] -> R2S=O}, where dialkyl or aryl alkyl sulfides are transformed using stoichiometric oxidants such as hydrogen peroxide (\ce{H2O2}), meta-chloroperbenzoic acid (mCPBA), or sodium periodate (\ce{NaIO4}).^[21]^[22] Hydrogen peroxide is particularly versatile, often employed in aqueous or acetic acid media at room temperature to achieve high yields (90–99%) of sulfoxides from various substrates including diaryl, dialkyl, and cyclic sulfides.^[23] mCPBA serves as a mild, organic-soluble reagent suitable for sensitive substrates, while sodium periodate enables clean conversions in aqueous methanol, typically requiring 1–2 equivalents for complete reaction.^[21]^[22] Selectivity for sulfoxide formation over sulfones is critical, as over-oxidation can occur with excess oxidant or harsh conditions. This is achieved by using approximately one equivalent of oxidant at low temperatures (e.g., 0–25°C) or in protic solvents that moderate reactivity, minimizing further oxidation of the sulfoxide product.^[21]^[23] Catalytic protocols enhance efficiency and control, particularly with molybdenum(VI) or vanadium complexes that activate \ce{H2O2} under mild conditions (e.g., room temperature, aqueous media), while suppressing sulfone formation to <5%.^[21]^[24] For instance, cis-dioxo Mo(VI) catalysts selectively oxidize substituted thioanisoles and allyl sulfides to sulfoxides in minutes, with no detectable over-oxidation.^[24] The mechanism involves electrophilic oxygen transfer from the oxidant to the sulfur lone pair, forming a transient sulfurane intermediate that collapses to the sulfoxide.^[21]^[23] This process follows second-order kinetics, with the rate-determining step being the attack on sulfur.^[23] Substituent effects significantly influence reactivity; electron-donating groups on the aryl ring (e.g., p-methyl) accelerate the rate by stabilizing the developing positive charge on sulfur, as evidenced by a Hammett correlation with \rho^+ = -0.56 for peroxydisulfate oxidations of phenyl alkyl sulfides.^[21]^[25] Conversely, electron-withdrawing substituents retard the reaction, and steric bulk around sulfur (e.g., tert-butyl groups) further slows the rate due to hindered approach of the oxidant.^[25] A representative example is the preparation of dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) from dimethyl sulfide using \ce{H2O2} in aqueous media, which proceeds quantitatively at room temperature with one equivalent of oxidant, serving as a model for scalable synthesis.^[21]^[23]

Other synthetic methods

Sulfoxides can be synthesized through nucleophilic substitution reactions involving sulfinyl chlorides (R-S(=O)Cl) and organometallic reagents such as organolithium or Grignard compounds, yielding unsymmetrical sulfoxides R-S(=O)-R' with inversion of configuration at sulfur.^[15] This method is particularly useful for preparing chiral sulfoxides when starting from enantiopure sulfinyl chlorides, as demonstrated in early work by Andersen using menthyl p-toluenesulfinate derivatives.^[15] For aryl sulfoxides, specialized approaches include Friedel-Crafts-type sulfinylation, where arenes react with methanesulfinyl chloride in the presence of AlCl3 to form phenyl methyl sulfoxide in moderate yields. Palladium-catalyzed couplings of arylboronic acids or alkenylborons with sulfinate esters provide a versatile route to aryl and alkenyl sulfoxides, achieving high yields (up to 95%) under mild conditions with broad substrate tolerance.^[26] Directed ortho-metalation strategies enable regioselective synthesis by lithiating an arene, followed by reaction with a sulfinyl electrophile to install the sulfinyl group ortho to a directing substituent.^[27] Asymmetric synthesis of enantioenriched sulfoxides often utilizes chiral sulfinate esters, such as those derived from Ellman's tert-butanesulfinyl auxiliary, which undergo nucleophilic substitution followed by hydrolysis to deliver sulfoxides with high enantiomeric excess (up to 99% ee).^[15] This approach, scalable to multigram quantities, leverages the auxiliary's steric bulk for diastereoselective addition of Grignard or organolithium reagents, making it a cornerstone for preparing optically active sulfoxides in natural product synthesis.^[15]

Reactions

Reduction and oxidation

Sulfoxides can be reduced to the corresponding sulfides through deoxygenation, a process that removes the oxygen atom from the sulfur center. Common reagents for this transformation include phosphorus trichloride (PCl₃), which acts as a deoxygenating agent under mild conditions, affording sulfides in high yields from various dialkyl and diaryl sulfoxides. Silanes such as phenylsilane (PhSiH₃) in the presence of catalysts like indium bromide (InBr₃) enable efficient deoxygenation in solvents like 1,4-dioxane, with broad substrate compatibility including aryl alkyl sulfoxides. Another established method employs sodium iodide (NaI) in acetic acid (AcOH), providing a robust and scalable approach that proceeds at room temperature and tolerates functional groups sensitive to stronger reducing conditions.^[28] The mechanism of deoxygenation typically involves nucleophilic attack on the electrophilic sulfur atom of the sulfoxide by the reducing agent, forming an intermediate such as a chlorosulfonium species with PCl₃ or a silyl-sulfonium adduct with silanes, followed by oxygen transfer to the nucleophile and regeneration of the sulfide.^[29] In the NaI/AcOH system, iodide acts as the nucleophile, generating hypoiodous acid in situ, which facilitates oxygen abstraction via a halogen-mediated pathway.^[28] These methods highlight the versatility of sulfoxide reduction, often achieving chemoselectivity in the presence of other reducible moieties like esters or alkenes.^[30] Further oxidation of sulfoxides proceeds to sulfones by addition of another oxygen atom to the sulfur. This is commonly accomplished using excess hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂), potassium permanganate (KMnO₄), or Oxone (potassium peroxymonosulfate), with the general transformation represented as:

\mathrm{R_2S=O + [O] \rightarrow R_2SO_2}

where [O] denotes the oxygen source.^[31] For instance, 30% H₂O₂ in the presence of catalysts like titanium-containing zeolites selectively converts sulfoxides to sulfones at elevated temperatures, minimizing side reactions.^[31] KMnO₄ in aqueous or neutral conditions effects clean oxidation, particularly for aliphatic sulfoxides.^[21] Oxone serves as a mild, eco-friendly oxidant for this step, often in aqueous media, and is effective for both symmetric and unsymmetric sulfoxides.^[21] To prevent over-oxidation during initial sulfide-to-sulfoxide conversions or in sequential oxidations, strategies include using stoichiometric amounts of oxidant, low temperatures, or catalysts that favor mono-oxygenation, such as vanadium-based systems with H₂O₂.^[32] Aqueous workup and pH control further enhance selectivity by quenching excess oxidant.^[23] Electrochemical methods provide an alternative for sulfoxide reduction, with cyclic voltammetry revealing irreversible reduction waves. Isotopic labeling studies using ¹⁸O-enriched sulfoxides confirm the oxygen transfer mechanism in deoxygenation. For example, in sulfoxide transfer reactions mediated by triflic anhydride, electrospray mass spectrometry showed nearly complete transfer of the ¹⁸O label from the donor sulfoxide to the acceptor, supporting an oxodisulfonium dication intermediate where oxygen migrates without exchange with solvent.^[33] These experiments underscore the direct S-O bond cleavage and transfer fidelity in reduction pathways.^[34]

Proton transfer and elimination

Sulfoxides exhibit weakly acidic behavior at the alpha position due to the pKa values of their alpha protons, which typically range from 25 to 35 depending on substituents, such as 33 for dimethyl sulfoxide and 27.2 for methyl phenyl sulfoxide in DMSO solvent.^[35] These protons can be deprotonated using strong bases like n-butyllithium to generate sulfoxide-stabilized carbanions.^[36] The resulting anions benefit from resonance stabilization, where the negative charge on carbon delocalizes onto the sulfur-oxygen moiety, enhancing the acidity relative to analogous sulfides.^[37] A key reactivity mode involves thermal syn-elimination, a variant of the Cope elimination, where β-substituted alkyl sulfoxides decompose to form alkenes and sulfenic acids. This process occurs at temperatures of 120–180 °C via a concerted Ei mechanism through a five-membered cyclic transition state.^[38] The general reaction is represented as:

\mathrm{R-CH_2-CH_2-S(=O)R' \rightarrow R-CH=CH_2 + R'-S-OH}

This elimination is stereospecific, requiring a syn-periplanar arrangement of the β-hydrogen and the sulfoxide leaving group for efficient overlap in the transition state.^[38] Modifications to the standard thermal elimination enable reactions at lower temperatures by incorporating activating groups, such as mesyloxy or acetoxy substituents on β-hydroxy sulfoxides, which facilitate reductive elimination upon treatment with organometallic reagents.^[39] These variants maintain stereospecificity through the syn-periplanar geometry. Sulfoxide-stabilized carbanions find synthetic utility in Julia olefination variants, where deprotonated sulfoxides add to carbonyls, followed by activation and elimination to yield alkenes with controlled stereochemistry, often favoring E-isomers in high yields.^[39]

Coordination chemistry

Sulfoxides serve as ambidentate ligands in coordination chemistry, capable of binding to transition metals through either the oxygen or sulfur atom, with oxygen coordination (η¹-O) being the predominant mode due to the availability of lone pairs on the more electronegative oxygen.^[40] This binding is facilitated by the polarity of the S=O bond, where the oxygen lone pairs donate into empty metal orbitals, forming stable σ-bonds in complexes with hard Lewis acids such as platinum, palladium, and ruthenium.^[41] Early examples include the platinum(II) complex cis-[PtCl₂(DMSO)₂], first isolated in 1960, where both DMSO ligands coordinate via oxygen, establishing sulfoxides as versatile ligands in square-planar geometries.^[40] Upon O-coordination, the S=O bond undergoes elongation by approximately 0.05–0.1 Å compared to the free sulfoxide (S=O ≈ 1.48 Å), reflecting partial weakening of the S–O π-bond as electron density shifts toward the metal.^[41] This structural change is corroborated by infrared spectroscopy, where the S=O stretching frequency shifts to lower wavenumbers by about 30–50 cm⁻¹ (from ~1055 cm⁻¹ in free DMSO to ~1000–1025 cm⁻¹ in O-bound complexes), indicating reduced bond order.^[42] In contrast, S-coordination, more common with soft metals like ruthenium in certain oxidation states, shortens the S=O bond and shifts the IR band to higher frequencies (~1100 cm⁻¹), as seen in complexes like [RuCl₂(DMSO)₄].^[41] Sulfoxide ligands have found applications in catalysis, particularly in olefin metathesis, where ruthenium complexes featuring chelating sulfoxide groups act as latent catalysts that activate under thermal or photochemical conditions to enhance selectivity and stability.^[43] For instance, sulfoxide-chelated ruthenium benzylidene complexes enable controlled metathesis reactions by modulating ligand dissociation.^[43] In hydrogenation, ruthenium(II) sulfoxide complexes facilitate asymmetric reductions of ketones and imines, leveraging the ligand's ability to induce chirality when using enantiopure sulfoxides.^[44] Bidentate sulfoxide-phosphine hybrid ligands further expand these applications, coordinating to palladium(II) centers to promote enantioselective allylic alkylations with high turnover numbers and ee values up to 99%.^[45] These hybrids combine the σ-donor properties of phosphines with the tunable electronics of sulfoxides, optimizing catalytic performance in cross-coupling reactions.^[45]

Applications and occurrence

In organic synthesis and industry

Sulfoxides, particularly dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), serve as versatile polar aprotic solvents in organic synthesis due to their high boiling point (189 °C) and ability to dissolve a wide range of polar and nonpolar compounds, enabling reactions under elevated temperatures without solvent evaporation. In the Swern oxidation, DMSO acts as both solvent and key reagent, reacting with oxalyl chloride at low temperature (-78 °C) to form an activated sulfonium species that selectively oxidizes primary alcohols to aldehydes and secondary alcohols to ketones in the presence of triethylamine, avoiding over-oxidation common in chromium-based methods. This process is widely adopted for its mild conditions and compatibility with acid-sensitive functional groups, as demonstrated in the synthesis of complex natural products.^[2] Chiral sulfoxides function as auxiliaries and ligands in asymmetric synthesis, facilitating enantioselective transformations through stereoelectronic effects that induce chirality transfer. For instance, enantioenriched aryl alkyl sulfoxides have been employed in [2,3]-Wittig rearrangements to generate α-arylated carbonyl compounds with up to 88% ee, providing access to chiral building blocks for pharmaceuticals.^[2] Additionally, sulfoxide-mediated asymmetric inductions appear in variants of epoxidation reactions, where chiral sulfoxide ligands coordinate to titanium catalysts, enhancing stereocontrol in allylic alcohol oxidations.^[15] The Mislow-Evans rearrangement exemplifies their utility as reagents, involving the thermal [2,3]-sigmatropic shift of allylic sulfoxides to sulfenate esters, followed by phosphite-mediated conversion to allylic alcohols with high stereospecificity; this sequence has been pivotal in constructing trans-allylic alcohol motifs in total syntheses, such as prostaglandin E2.^[46] Industrially, DMSO is produced on a large scale via oxidation of dimethyl sulfide, a byproduct of wood pulping, with global production reaching approximately 87,000 tons in 2024, primarily in China and North America.^[47] It finds extensive use in pharmaceutical manufacturing as a solubilizing excipient for poorly water-soluble drugs and in polymer processing as a solvent for acrylonitrile and cellulose derivatives, enabling efficient spinning of synthetic fibers.^[48] Beyond these, DMSO serves as a component in paint strippers for its ability to penetrate and swell coatings, and as a cryoprotectant in biological sample preservation due to its low toxicity and penetration-enhancing properties.^[49] Recent developments post-2010 highlight sulfoxides in sustainable synthesis, including flow chemistry protocols for their electrochemical oxidation from sulfides, achieving selective sulfoxide formation in continuous reactors with minimal waste and high atom economy.^[50] Photocatalytic methods using visible light and green oxidants like air have enabled one-pot synthesis of sulfoxides in flow systems, scalable to gram quantities while reducing energy consumption compared to traditional batch processes.^[51] These approaches incorporate recyclable catalysts, such as iron-based systems, for enantioselective sulfoxidations, aligning with green chemistry principles in pharmaceutical intermediate production.^[52]

Biological and natural occurrence

Sulfoxides are naturally occurring compounds found in various plants, particularly in species of the Allium genus such as garlic (Allium sativum), where S-allyl-L-cysteine sulfoxide (alliin) serves as the primary non-protein amino acid and precursor to allicin, the reactive sulfur compound released upon tissue disruption that contributes to the plant's antimicrobial defense and pungent aroma.^[53] Allyl methyl sulfoxide also appears as a downstream metabolite in garlic, formed during the breakdown of allicin-derived compounds and detectable in breath following consumption.^[54] In microbial systems, certain bacteria, including those in sulfur-oxidizing genera like Rhodococcus, metabolize reduced organic sulfur compounds, such as thioethers, to sulfoxides through enzymatic oxidation, contributing to the global sulfur cycle and biogeochemical transformations in environments like soils and sediments.^[55]^[56] Biologically, dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), a simple dialkyl sulfoxide, functions as an effective cryoprotectant for mammalian cells and tissues by penetrating cell membranes and mitigating intracellular ice formation during freezing, thereby preserving viability in cryopreservation protocols for stem cells, oocytes, and organs.^[57] Sulfoxides also play roles in detoxification processes, where cytochrome P450 monooxygenases catalyze the oxidation of xenobiotic thioethers to sulfoxides, enhancing their polarity and facilitating urinary excretion as part of phase I metabolism in the liver.^[58] Pharmacologically, chiral sulfoxides are key structural elements in drugs like esomeprazole, the (S)-enantiomer of omeprazole and a proton pump inhibitor approved in 2001 for treating gastroesophageal reflux disease by irreversibly inhibiting gastric acid secretion. Sulindac, administered as its sulfoxide prodrug form, is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug that undergoes hepatic reduction to the active sulfide metabolite, providing analgesic and anti-inflammatory effects in conditions like arthritis while potentially reducing gastrointestinal toxicity compared to direct sulfide administration.^[59] Regarding toxicity and metabolism, DMSO enhances skin penetration of co-administered substances by disrupting the stratum corneum barrier and increasing drug diffusivity, a property exploited in topical formulations but requiring caution due to potential systemic exposure.^[60] In the liver, DMSO is primarily metabolized via reduction to dimethyl sulfide, a volatile compound exhaled through the lungs that imparts a characteristic garlic-like odor, or oxidation to dimethyl sulfone for renal excretion.^[61] Its acute oral LD<sub>50</sub> in rats is approximately 14.5–28 g/kg, indicating low toxicity at therapeutic doses but highlighting risks of hemolysis or central nervous system effects at higher concentrations.^[61]

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The oxidation reaction of dibutylsulfoxide to the corresponding sulfone by dilute hydrogen peroxide is investigated over Ti-containing zeolites as catalysts ...Missing: reagents | Show results with:reagents
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The oxidation of sulfides to sulfoxides by hydrogen peroxide has been reviewed. The report contains 120 references, 14 tables and 16 schemes and 6 figures.Missing: H2O2 KMnO4 Oxone prevention
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The effect of solvent on the electrode process of methylcobalamine ...
In a later study of this reaction in DMSO solvent [5], we found only one wave with a reduction potential of −1.54 V vs. SCE which appears to be for the α-axial ...
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Mechanistic Studies on a Sulfoxide Transfer Reaction Mediated by ...
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Mechanistic Studies on a Sulfoxide Transfer Reaction Mediated by ...
Electrospray mass spectrometry confirmed that the 18O-label from the diphenyl sulfoxide had been transferred to oxathiane S-oxide 2-R (18O/16O=48:52).
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[PDF] pKa Values in DMSO Compilation (by Reich and Bordwell)
Equilibrium pKa Table (DMSO Solvent and Reference). 22.433. Ph3P +-CH2-X ... Carbon Acids. CF3SO3H. -12.4. C6H5-N. OH. O. +. -7.8. C6H5-C. OH. OH+. -6.5. C6H5.
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Acid-base behavior of sulfoxides. Measurement of pKa values by ...
Acid-base behavior of sulfoxides. Measurement of pKa values by ultraviolet and nuclear magnetic resonance techniques.
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Influence of resonance on the acidity of sulfides, sulfoxides, sulfones ...
Whereas the DMX- anions are more strongly resonance stabilized than their parent molecules DMX, the DMXO2(-) anions and DMXO2 molecules are nearly equally ...
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The thermal .beta.-cis-elimination reaction of cyclic sulfoxides and ...
The thermal .beta.-cis-elimination reaction of cyclic sulfoxides and subsequent ring expansion reactions.Missing: temperature | Show results with:temperature
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A Sulfoxide Version of the Julia–Lythgoe Olefination: A New Method ...
The Julia–Lythgoe olefination is a method for the formation of olefins 3 from sulfones 1 and carbonyl compounds via β-hydroxy sulfones and their derivatives 2 ...Missing: carbanions | Show results with:carbanions
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Batch and flow synthesis of sulfides and sulfoxides using green ...
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Gram-Scale Synthesis of Sulfoxides via Oxygen Enabled by Fe(NO3 ...
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Chemical Constituents and Pharmacological Activities of Garlic ...
Mar 24, 2020 · Alliin (S-allyl-L-cysteine sulfoxide) is the main precursor of allicin, which represents about 70% of total thiosulfinates existing in the ...
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Quantification of Allyl Methyl Sulfide, Allyl Methyl Sulfoxide, and Allyl ...
Sep 18, 2020 · Allicin and allicin-derived garlic compounds increase breath acetone through allyl methyl sulfide: use in measuring allicin bioavailability.
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Chemistry and Biochemistry of Sulfur Natural Compounds
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Mechanisms and Evolution of Oxidative Sulfur Metabolism in Green ...
Green sulfur bacteria (GSB; order Chlorobiales) are strictly anaerobic, photosynthetic bacteria that predominantly oxidize reduced sulfur compounds for ...
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Cryopreservation: An Overview of Principles and Cell-Specific ... - NIH
Mar 24, 2021 · A commonly used cryoprotective agent currently employed is dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), which is added to cell media prior to the freezing process ...
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P450-BM3-Catalyzed Sulfoxidation versus Hydroxylation - NIH
Cytochrome P450 monooxygenases catalyze a remarkable range of oxidative reaction types, including CH-activating hydroxylation, olefin epoxidation, sulfoxidation ...Missing: detoxification | Show results with:detoxification
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Feb 15, 2024 · Sulindac is classified as a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID), exhibiting anti-inflammatory and analgesic properties.
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an effective penetration enhancer for topical administration of NSAIDs
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Dimethyl sulfoxide is metabolized to either dimethyl sulfone or dimethyl sulfide. Dimethyl sulfide is a volatile metabolite responsible for the garlic odor of ...Missing: hepatic | Show results with:hepatic