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Sutter's Mill meteorite

The Sutter's Mill meteorite is a that fell to on April 22, 2012, producing a bright over the Mountains in , , at approximately 07:51 Pacific Time. This event, equivalent to a 4-kiloton explosion and involving an entering at 28.6 km/s, originated from an orbit near that of Jupiter-family comets, as indicated by a Tisserand parameter of 2.8 ± 0.3. The meteorite, named after the historic site near Coloma where the began in 1848, scattered fragments across a encompassing the towns of and Coloma. Ninety fragments totaling 992.5 grams (as of late 2012) were rapidly recovered starting April 24, 2012, thanks to imaging combined with photographic and video evidence of the and . The first piece, weighing 5.5 grams, was found by Robert Ward in Henningsen-Lotus Park, with additional recoveries by Peter Jenniskens and others following rains that aided visibility. Classified as a , it consists primarily of (Mighei)-type material alongside reduced xenolithic components, featuring an unusually hard texture possibly due to incomplete aqueous alteration or mild thermal metamorphism. Its includes chondrules, calcium-aluminum-rich inclusions (CAIs), and refractory carbon phases, with compositions averaging Fa4 (ranging from Fa1 to Fa29) and low-Ca averaging Fs4Wo2. Scientifically, the Sutter's Mill meteorite represents a rare and diverse primitive body, offering insights into the early solar system's formation through its varied , isotope ratios, and . As a new subtype of , it highlights the complex regolith on C-class asteroids, and has aided interpretations of samples returned by missions such as (2020) and (2023). The Sutter's Mill Meteorite Consortium has coordinated ongoing analyses, underscoring its value in understanding asteroid surfaces and solar system origins.

Fall and Discovery

The Fall Event

The Sutter's Mill meteorite entered Earth's atmosphere on April 22, 2012, at approximately 07:51 Pacific Daylight Time (14:51 UTC), over the foothills of the Sierra Nevada in northern California. The event occurred near the towns of Coloma and Lotus in El Dorado County, close to the historic site of Sutter's Mill where the California Gold Rush began in 1848. This daytime fall was one of the most well-documented meteorite events in recent history due to its visibility and the proximity to populated areas. The produced a brilliant that was observed by numerous eyewitnesses across and , traveling along a from east to west with an entry of 272.5° ± 0.4°. The 's path began at an altitude of about 90 km, reached peak brightness at around 56 km, and underwent a major detonation at 47.6 ± 0.7 km altitude, with surviving fragments detected as low as 30 km. Videos from locations such as , and Brush Creek, , along with photographs from Rancho Haven, , captured the event, allowing for precise of its . Eyewitnesses reported a loud and a deep rumble following the passage. The entered at a high speed of 28.6 ± 0.6 km/s. Global detection networks recorded the event through infrasound signals at stations approximately 770 km and 1,080 km away, with wave periods of 7.6 seconds, and seismic from eight stations indicating a explosion at an altitude of 54.8 ± 10.9 km. The total energy release was estimated at 4.0 (−2.2/+3.4) kilotons of , based on analysis. Preliminary orbital calculations revealed a low-inclination, high-eccentricity path with a perihelion of 0.456 ± 0.022 AU and aphelion near 's , consistent with an asteroidal origin from the inner main , likely the (495) Eulalia family near the 3:1 mean-motion ; with a Tisserand of 2.81 ± 0.32, indicating an close to that of Jupiter-family comets. Doppler from the event facilitated subsequent recovery efforts.

Recovery of Fragments

Following the observed on April 22, 2012, Doppler data from stations KBBX, KDAX, and KRGX were used to map the of the Sutter's Mill meteorite, identifying a narrow corridor approximately 4 km wide and 12 km long in , with predicted landing zones concentrated in Henningsen-Lotus Park and surrounding rural areas. This assistance allowed search teams to target specific locations efficiently, distinguishing fragments from atmospheric debris through analysis of downward trajectories, patterns, and spectral signatures in the echoes. The first fragment, weighing 5.5 g, was recovered on April 24, 2012, by Robert Ward in Henningsen-Lotus Park, guided by the predictions, just before heavy rains arrived. Subsequent searches by coordinated teams, including astronomers and enthusiasts, yielded additional pieces that day and in the following weeks, with 90 fragments totaling 992.5 g recovered as of November 2012, including an initial fragments (943 g) found within two months and a largest specimen of 205 g. Recovery efforts faced significant challenges, including dense vegetation that obscured fragments, restricted access to private lands, and rapid terrestrial that altered samples exposed to post-fall rainfall, such as oxidation and in one documented case. To manage these efforts and ensure systematic collection, the was established in 2012 by Dr. Peter Jenniskens of the and , coordinating global recovery operations, sample allocation for research, and ongoing tracking of new finds through a centralized numbering system. The consortium continues to collections, with totals exceeding the initial pieces as additional fragments are documented and preserved.

Physical Properties

Fragment Characteristics

The fragments of the Sutter's Mill meteorite exhibit black, fusion-crusted exteriors formed during , with irregular surfaces showing evidence of . Interiors reveal a brecciated characterized by light-colored clasts in a dark, fine-grained matrix, reflecting the meteorite's nature. Recovered fragments range in size from 0.1 g to over 200 g, with the majority weighing less than 50 g based on the distribution among the initial 77 specimens totaling approximately 943 g. The texture is friable, with a comminuted containing embedded chondrules and calcium-aluminum-rich inclusions (CAIs), alongside abundant fractures and shock-induced melting features observable at the . This structure highlights the heterogeneous, brecciated composition derived from the parent body's . Fusion crust thickness varies but is typically thin, measuring less than 100 µm, overlying a up to 2 thick affected by contraction cracks from heating. Early terrestrial effects are evident as oxidation of metal grains on exposed surfaces, particularly in fragments recovered after rainfall, leading to rapid alteration of reactive components.

Total Mass and Distribution

The total recovered mass of the Sutter's Mill meteorite stands at 992.5 grams, consisting of 90 fragments as of November , with 79 publicly documented and numbered by the . Initial recoveries in and May yielded 77 fragments totaling 943 grams, with subsequent finds adding to this tally through coordinated searches. No significant additional fragments have been reported since as of November 2025, despite ongoing encouragement for public submissions via channels. The strewn field forms an elongated pattern approximately 5–10 kilometers in length, aligned along an east-to-west trajectory centered on the historic site in (coordinates spanning roughly 38.78–38.83°N, 120.85–120.98°W). Recoveries were concentrated in accessible areas such as Henningsen-Lotus Park and the Gold Discovery State Historic Park, with key initial finds including SM-1 at 38.8033°N, 120.9075°W and SM-2 nearby in Coloma. Radar data indicated a linear distribution influenced by the meteoroid's 28.6 km/s entry, with fragments predominantly under 5 grams scattered over several square kilometers. Fragments are officially numbered SM-1 and up by the Sutter's Mill Meteorite Consortium, led by researchers at the , to maintain a standardized tally of verified specimens. This system facilitates tracking, with examples like SM-53 (205.2 g, the largest) and SM-35 (0.1 g, the smallest) highlighting the range in sizes. Most recovered samples are preserved in institutional archives to prevent contamination and enable ongoing research, including major holdings at the (); the largest fragment (205 g) was divided among several institutions, including the , , , , and . Storage protocols emphasize low-temperature, low-humidity conditions using inert materials like aluminum foil to maintain the meteorite's pristine weathering grade of W0.

Classification and Composition

Meteorite Type

The Sutter's Mill meteorite is classified as a , specifically a . This designation reflects its petrologic type, which indicates moderate aqueous alteration typical of CM chondrites, with anomalous features due to and diverse clast compositions. The Meteoritical Bulletin officially recognizes it as Sutter's Mill (), where S2-3 denotes a moderate stage characterized by undulatory extinction in , and W1-2 indicates minor terrestrial weathering. As a polymict breccia, it consists of diverse lithologies derived from unequilibrated material, including angular to rounded clasts up to 1 cm in size embedded in a fine-grained matrix. These clasts exhibit varying degrees of aqueous alteration and thermal processing, with some showing evidence of mixing from highly reduced xenolithic components, suggesting gardening on its parent body. Chondrule abundance is low at 5-10 vol.%, distributed heterogeneously across the clasts, with smaller chondrules (<0.4 mm) predominant and some larger examples (>1 mm) in less altered lithologies. This sparse and variable presence aligns with the brecciated , where materials dominate. In comparison to standard falls like Murchison, Sutter's Mill matches the overall group in terms of aqueous alteration products but displays greater petrographic diversity and a higher shock stage, indicative of more intense parent-body processing.

Mineral and Chemical Makeup

The Sutter's Mill meteorite, classified as a carbonaceous chondrite, exhibits a diverse assemblage indicative of its nature, comprising multiple lithologies altered by aqueous processes and minor . Major include with variable iron content (0-63, peaking at 2 in unaltered regions and averaging 4 in thermally affected areas) and low-calcium (3-47, corresponding to components En53-97). Opaque phases consist of (2.0-3.3 wt%), sulfides such as and , and accessory oldhamite (). Carbonates like and are present, reflecting secondary alteration products. The fine-grained , comprising up to 70% of the , is dominated by phyllosilicates formed through aqueous alteration, primarily serpentine-group minerals including cronstedtite and tochilinite intergrowths, with submicrometer pseudomorphs. In thermally metamorphosed clasts, the matrix recrystallizes to fine-grained (Fo58). Bulk composition is enriched in volatiles, with carbon at approximately 2.5 wt% and water content estimated at 3.2 wt% from phyllosilicate dehydration, lower than typical CM chondrites due to partial dehydration. Refractory elements such as aluminum and calcium are elevated, particularly in inclusion-rich regions, alongside major elements including Fe (22.2 wt%), Mg (13.8 wt%), and Si (13.5 wt%). Sulfur stands at 3.1 wt%, primarily in sulfides. Presolar inclusions feature calcium-aluminum-rich inclusions (CAIs) with cores rimmed by , alongside rare , and amoeboid aggregates (AOAs). Chondrules, typically <0.4 mm in diameter, are predominantly barred and types, with some radiating varieties, often pseudomorphed by alteration. Xenolithic clasts include and Fe-Cr phosphides from impact mixing. Mineral identification and compositions were determined using scanning electron microscopy with energy-dispersive spectroscopy (SEM-EDS) and analysis (e.g., Cameca SX100 and JEOL JXA-8900L at 15 kV, 15 nA). Bulk elemental abundances were quantified via (XRF) and (ICP-MS) following acid dissolution of powdered samples calibrated against standards like Murchison.

Geochemistry and Organics

Isotopic Analysis

The isotopic analysis of the Sutter's Mill meteorite, a , has provided key insights into its formation history, parent body processes, and connections to early solar system reservoirs. Oxygen isotope measurements on various mineral phases reveal compositions consistent with aqueous alteration on an parent body. grains exhibit δ¹⁸O values around +25‰ and Δ¹⁷O of -3.2 ± 0.7‰, while calcites show a broader range in δ¹⁸O from +13‰ to +39‰ with Δ¹⁷O of -1.9 ± 1.5‰; these values plot near the field defined by chondrites, indicating interaction with ¹⁶O-depleted fluids during low-temperature alteration. Bulk rock analyses further confirm Δ¹⁷O ≈ -1.8‰, reinforcing the meteorite's affinity to the group and its history of water-rock interactions on a volatile-rich parent body. Chromium isotope studies highlight significant heterogeneity within the , reflecting nucleosynthetic variations inherited from the early solar system. Whole-rock samples display ε⁵⁴Cr values of +0.95 ± 0.09‰ for SM 43 and +0.88 ± 0.07‰ for SM 51, comparable to other CM chondrites like Murchison. However, acid-leachate and phases show pronounced excesses up to +29.4‰ in ε⁵⁴Cr, indicating isotopic disequilibrium and mobilization during parent body processing; these anomalies link materials to inner solar system reservoirs through distinct nucleosynthetic carriers, distinct from outer signatures. Noble gas analyses reveal a complex history, with cosmogenic and trapped components providing constraints on exposure and implantation. Cosmogenic ²¹Ne concentrations average 1.02 × 10⁻¹⁰ cm³ /g, yielding a cosmic-ray exposure age of approximately 0.05 million years—one of the shortest recorded for CM chondrites—based on production rates typical for small meteoroids with minimal shielding. Trapped , including solar-type neon (e.g., ²⁰Ne/²²Ne ≈ 13.8 in low-temperature extracts), suggest implantation by on the surface of the parent prior to ejection. Nitrogen isotopes in the meteorite's components exhibit enrichments attributable to parent body alteration and inheritance. Nitrogen isotopes show variability by clast, with bulk δ¹⁵N around +16 ± 10‰ in but extreme ¹⁵N excesses (δ¹⁵N up to +630‰) in sub-micrometer nanoglobules, indicating heterogeneous distribution of presolar or nebular materials preserved amid alteration.

Organic Compounds

The Sutter's Mill meteorite, a , contains a suite of compounds indicative of aqueous alteration and processing on its parent body. These s include both soluble and insoluble fractions, with analyses revealing lower abundances compared to less altered chondrites like Murchison, likely due to heating events exceeding 150–400°C. A diverse array of has been identified, including , , , , serine, and non-proteinogenic species such as β-aminoisobutyric acid (β-AIB) and isovaline. Total concentrations vary by fragment, ranging from ~7.8 nmol/g in the pre-rainfall SM2 sample to ~85.1 nmol/g in post-rainfall SM51, approximately 20 times lower than in Murchison (~241 nmol/g). Some exhibit slight L-enantiomeric excesses, with D/L ratios for as low as 0.26–0.44 across samples, though trace levels of β-AIB (~0.02–0.04 nmol/g) suggest an origin resistant to terrestrial contamination. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are present as 1–5 ring structures, predominantly alkylated forms of , , and fluoranthene/ derivatives. Their abundances are ~3 times lower in the matrix relative to Murchison, with total extractable PAHs estimated at 10–30 based on comparative data, reflecting thermal degradation. These PAHs contribute to the aromatic component of the insoluble (IOM). Soluble organic compounds extracted via and organic solvents include monocarboxylic acids (e.g., acetic acid at ~181 nmol/g, higher homologs up to C10 at ~1 nmol/g), aldehydes (e.g., at ~4.8 nmol/g, at ~0.2 nmol/g), and trace aromatics like (~563 nmol/g). Alcohols were not detected in significant quantities. These compounds, lower in abundance than in Murchison, highlight the meteorite's processed nature. The insoluble comprises ~1.85 wt% of the bulk as a kerogen-like macromolecular carbon network rich in aromatic moieties and embedded nanoglobules. This IOM shows evidence of thermal , with CH₂/CH₃ ratios of 2.44–4.00 indicating a more primitive aliphatic content in less altered fragments like SM2 compared to SM12. Recent analyses report a low bulk δD value of ~+28‰ for IOM, consistent with thermal alteration reducing enrichment. Unique features include higher in PAHs and degraded , distinguishing it from typical chondrites. Analytical techniques employed include ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection and (LC-FD/ToF-MS) for , gas chromatography- (GC-MS) for carboxylic acids and volatiles, and micro two-step laser (μL²MS) combined with for PAHs and IOM characterization. These methods confirmed the presence of unique alkylated PAH distributions and thermally altered macromolecular structures not commonly observed in other CM meteorites.

Scientific Significance

Key Research Findings

The initial recovery and classification of the Sutter's Mill meteorite were detailed in a seminal 2012 study published in Science, where imaging facilitated the rapid collection of fragments following a 4-kiloton TNT-equivalent , and petrographic analysis classified it as a of the CM type. This work by Jenniskens et al. highlighted the meteorite's heterogeneous , including diverse chondrule and matrix components, setting the stage for subsequent interdisciplinary investigations. A 2013 study identified presolar silicon carbide (SiC) grains within Sutter's Mill fragments, revealing stardust predating the solar system by billions of years, with isotopic compositions indicating origins in stars and supernovae. These grains, analyzed via NanoSIMS and , showed abundances varying by matrix region, underscoring the meteorite's preservation of primitive materials despite aqueous alteration. Non-destructive imaging via and computed () scans at UC Davis exposed the meteorite's internal heterogeneity, including brecciated structures with embedded chondrules, metal grains, and voids indicative of shock-induced fracturing and formation on the parent body. These scans, visualized in accompanying videos, demonstrated density variations across fragments, confirming the breccia nature without sample disruption. Noble gas analyses revealed a mix of primordial components, such as the P3 phase trapped in presolar nanodiamonds, alongside cosmogenic isotopes like ²¹Ne, pointing to a complex exposure history involving multiple parent-body impacts and a short cosmic-ray exposure age of approximately 0.06 million years. The isotopic ratios, measured through stepped heating extraction, aligned with chondrite signatures while evidencing post-accretionary processing. The Sutter's Mill Meteorite Consortium, formed post-fall, has produced numerous peer-reviewed papers focusing on aqueous alteration gradients, shock metamorphism effects, and brecciation processes that shaped the meteorite's lithologic diversity. These contributions, spanning , , and , emphasize the meteorite's role as a sample from a rubble-pile , with key works detailing variable states and impact-induced mixing of clasts.

Implications for Solar System Origins

The Sutter's Mill meteorite's preservation of primitive materials, including calcium-aluminum-rich inclusions and amoeboid olivine aggregates, provides direct evidence of early solar nebula condensation processes, indicating minimal thermal with temperatures below 400–500°C in most clasts. These features suggest that the meteorite's parent body accreted from relatively unaltered materials, offering a window into the initial chemical and mineralogical building blocks of the solar system approximately 4.56 billion years ago. Evidence of aqueous alteration, manifested in phyllosilicates and evidence for carbonates (inferred from thermal analyses), points to the presence of liquid water on the parent body—a C-class asteroid similar to —shortly after its formation around 4.5 billion years ago. This alteration process, involving water-rock interactions under varying temperature gradients, highlights the role of hydrothermal activity in the early evolution of volatile-rich asteroids, contributing to the and geochemical processing of materials in the nascent solar system. As a , incorporates diverse clasts and xenoliths from multiple lithologies, including reduced enstatite-bearing materials likely sourced from enstatite or metal-rich via impacts. This heterogeneity reflects a dynamic history of surface and mixing on the parent body, allowing the meteorite to sample varied regions of an asteroid's and informing models of collisional evolution in the early . The meteorite's organic components, including complex macromolecular structures, represent potential precursors to prebiotic chemistry and suggest mechanisms for the delivery of volatiles and organics to inner solar system bodies like during the . Furthermore, its reflectance spectrum aligns closely with that of asteroid Ryugu, the target of the mission, enabling comparisons that enhance interpretations of sample-return data on volatile delivery and parent body processing in the solar system's formative stages.

Comparisons to Other Meteorites

Similarities with Carbonaceous Chondrites

The Sutter's Mill meteorite shares key mineralogical and organic characteristics with other carbonaceous chondrites, reflecting similar histories of aqueous alteration on their parent bodies. Like the Murchison (fallen 1969) and (fallen 1950) meteorites, it contains abundant hydrous phyllosilicates such as and , formed through low-temperature aqueous processes that converted primary anhydrous silicates into hydrated phases. Mid-infrared reveals absorption features for these phyllosilicates (Si-O stretching near 1000 cm⁻¹ and O-H bands at 3680–3650 cm⁻¹), closely matching those in Murchison and other examples. Organically, Sutter's Mill exhibits insoluble organic matter dominated by aromatic carbon structures with aliphatic chains, akin to Murchison, where both show comparable macromolecular compositions indicative of parent-body processing. Amino acid profiles, including and , display similar structural distributions and enrichments in non-proteinogenic variants, aligning with the organic inventory of unequilibrated chondrites. As a , Sutter's Mill consists of diverse clasts with varying degrees of alteration, paralleling other regolith breccias such as ALH 84033, which also features heated and reduced lithologies embedded in a fine-grained matrix. This clast diversity arises from surface processes on the parent asteroid, including impacts that mixed materials of different thermal histories, a trait common in brecciated samples. Its fall dynamics resemble those of recent events, notably the 2009 fall, with both originating from orbits linked to the Eulalia (semimajor axis ~2.59 AU, eccentricity ~0.82, perihelion ~0.46 AU), suggesting a shared dynamical pathway from the inner main belt. Compositionally, Sutter's Mill maintains chondrule-to-matrix ratios and alteration extents typical of moderately altered chondrites, with fragments like SM51 approaching the proportions in least-altered examples such as QUE 97990 (petrologic type 2.6). Oxygen isotopic compositions (Δ¹⁷O values clustering near -1.8‰) plot along the fractionation line, while hydrogen isotopic enrichments in bound water and organics (D/H ratios elevated due to aqueous exchange) fall within the field, confirming genetic ties to this group.

Distinctive Features

The Sutter's Mill meteorite is distinguished by its rapid recovery, marking the first instance of a carbonaceous chondrite located using Doppler weather radar data following its atmospheric entry on April 22, 2012. This enabled the collection of over 77 fragments totaling approximately 943 grams within two days, significantly reducing exposure to terrestrial weathering and contamination compared to most other falls or finds. A key feature is the meteorite's pronounced heterogeneity, particularly evident in its clast-to-clast variations in chromium isotopes, which exceed those observed in typical CM chondrites. For example, the refractory silicate phase in one clast displays an ε⁵⁴Cr excess of +29.40 ± 0.50, more than double the +15.74 ε value in the Murchison meteorite, highlighting diverse precursor materials in its regolith breccia structure. The organic inventory includes previously unidentified compounds, such as oxygen-bearing aromatic , polyethers, and esters released from the insoluble during hydrothermal processing, which are not reported in other carbonaceous chondrites. analyses further reveal unique distributions, with elevated free-form fractions of (up to 42%), β-alanine (up to 61%), and γ-amino-n-butyric acid (up to 95%) relative to bound forms, alongside trace indigenous β-aminoisobutyric acid at 0.02–0.04 nmol/g. In terms of processing history, has a notably short cosmic-ray exposure age of 0.082 ± 0.008 million years—among the lowest for CM chondrites—suggesting recent ejection from its parent body. Recent analyses in identified presolar grains at ~55 ppm and at ~12 ppm, expanding the known inventory of C-rich in beyond that of Murchison through nanoscale mapping that reveals thermal alteration effects on these ancient grains.

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