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Tectosages

The Tectosages, also known as the Volcae Tectosages, were an ancient Celtic tribe originating in southern Gaul, centered around the city of Tolosa (modern Toulouse), where they were renowned for their wealth in gold and their role in significant historical events such as the sack of Delphi.^[1] They were part of the larger Volcae confederation and inhabited territories extending from the Cévennes Mountains toward the Pyrenees, maintaining a reputation for martial prowess and once possessing a large population of strong warriors.^[1] Internal sedition led a portion of the Tectosages to migrate eastward, crossing the Rhine and seizing fertile lands near the Hercynian Forest in what is now Germany, where they adopted a hardy lifestyle akin to that of the local Germanic tribes while upholding high standards of justice and military success.^[2] A further group joined broader Celtic migrations into the eastern Mediterranean, participating in invasions of Greece and Asia Minor during the 3rd century BCE under leaders like Brennus and Leonnorius.^[1] By the late 3rd century BCE, the Tectosages had settled in central Anatolia, forming one of the three primary tribes of the Galatians—alongside the Tolistobogii and Trocmi—with their territory encompassing Greater Phrygia and their fortress at Ancyra (modern Ankara).^[3] Organized into four tetrarchies governed by a council of 300 at Drynemetum, they shared Celtic language and customs with their Galatian kin, eventually coming under Hellenistic influence before integration into the Roman province of Galatia in 25 BCE under rulers like Deiotarus and Amyntas.^[3]

Etymology and Identity

Name and Meaning

The Tectosages, known in Latin sources as Tectosages or Tectosagii and in Greek as Τεκτόσαγες (Tektósages), derive their ethnonym from the Gaulish form reconstructed as Textosagii or Textosagioi. This compound name reflects their Celtic linguistic heritage, combining the Proto-Celtic root texto-—related to "possessions," stemming from Proto-Indo-European *tek- ("to take by the hand")—with sag-, from the verb sagyeti ("to seek," "to claim," or "to pursue").^[4]^[5] Linguistic interpretations of the name include "Dwelling-Seekers" or "Possessions-Seekers," suggesting a tribal identity tied to migration or territorial acquisition, supported by parallels in Old Irish such as techt ("possession" or "property") and techtaigidir ("to claim land legally" or "to possess"). These derivations align with broader Celtic naming patterns emphasizing action or status, as analyzed in Gaulish onomastics.^[5]^[6] The earliest attestations appear in classical texts, with Strabo referencing the Tectosages in Geographica Book 4 as a tribe in southern Gaul, noting their presence as evidence of Celtic migrations. Livy similarly mentions them in Ab Urbe Condita Book 38 among the Galatian tribes defeated by Roman forces. Detailed etymological breakdowns, including root connections to Proto-Celtic morphology, are provided by scholars such as Pierre-Yves Lambert in La langue gauloise (1994) and Xavier Delamarre in Dictionnaire de la langue gauloise (2003), who emphasize the name's role in confirming the tribe's Continental Celtic origins.^[7]^[8]^[9]

Relation to Volcae Confederation

The Volcae constituted a prominent Celtic tribal confederation in southern Gaul during the late Iron Age, encompassing multiple subgroups that maintained loose alliances for mutual defense and resource sharing.^[10] Among these, the Tectosages emerged as a key branch, often designated as the Volcae Tectosages to reflect their integral position within the broader group.^[1] The Tectosages held a distinguished role in the confederation's military and migratory activities, frequently leading or participating in collective expeditions that underscored the Volcae's reputation as formidable warriors.^[10] Ancient geographer Strabo describes them in his Geographica (4.1.12–13) as a people of the Volcae, noting their proximity to Tolosa and their involvement in significant ventures, such as the raid on Delphi, which highlighted the confederation's coordinated martial prowess.^[1] Shared cultural traits among the Volcae subgroups, including the Tectosages, encompassed a common Celtic language and standardized warfare practices, such as the use of long swords and chariots in battle formations, fostering tribal cohesion.^[10] These elements reinforced the confederation's identity as a unified Celtic entity amid interactions with neighboring tribes. In contrast to other Volcae branches, the Tectosages emphasized inland domains, distinguishing them from the Volcae Arecomici, who maintained closer ties to coastal trade routes and Mediterranean influences.^[1] This inland orientation positioned the Tectosages as stewards of the confederation's core territories, contributing to its strategic depth.^[10]

Origins in Gaul

Territory in Southern Gaul

The Tectosages occupied a territory in central-southern Gaul, primarily centered on the region around Tolosa (modern Toulouse, France) and extending along the Garonne River valley toward the Pyrenees. This area, described by ancient geographers as bordering the northern slopes of the Cévennes mountains for a limited extent, placed their homeland strategically between the Mediterranean influences to the east and the Atlantic to the west. As a subgroup of the Volcae confederation, their domain encompassed fertile lowlands conducive to settlement and resource extraction.^[1] Tolosa served as the principal oppidum and cult center for the Tectosages, functioning as a fortified settlement and hub for regional activities during the La Tène period (c. 450–50 BC). Archaeological investigations have revealed evidence of extensive fortifications, including defensive walls and enclosures, alongside artifacts indicating its role as a trade nexus along riverine routes. The site's location on the Garonne facilitated connectivity, with finds of metalwork and imported goods underscoring its prominence in pre-Roman Gaul.^[11] Approximate boundaries of the Tectosages' territory are outlined in Ptolemy's Geography (2nd century AD), positioning them in the extreme west of Gallia Narbonensis, with inland settlements such as Tolosa (coordinates 20°10', 44°15'), Cessero, and Carcaso marking their core. To the east, they adjoined the Ruteni, centered around Segodunum (modern Rodez), while to the south, the Aquitani lay beyond the Garonne River, forming a natural divide. These delineations reflect the tribal mosaic of southern Gaul prior to Roman expansion.^[12]^[13] The environmental setting of the Tectosages' territory featured fertile alluvial plains along the Garonne, supporting agricultural productivity, while the river system enabled the transport of metals like gold, for which the region was renowned. Strabo notes the gold-rich soils near the Pyrenees, contributing to the area's economic vitality through mining and fluvial trade networks.^[1]

Pre-Migration Society and Economy

The Tectosages, as a branch of the Volcae Celtic tribal confederation in southern Gaul, maintained a hierarchical social structure typical of La Tène-period Celtic societies, characterized by tribal divisions led by chieftains known as vergobrets or similar elected leaders who wielded authority over military and judicial matters.^[11] Warrior elites formed a prominent class, often commemorated through rich burials containing weapons and status symbols, reflecting their role in raids and defense, while druidic figures exerted spiritual and intellectual influence, advising on rituals and law as seen in broader Gaulish practices.^[14]^[15] Coinage minted by the Volcae Tectosages, featuring stylized human heads likely representing chieftains or deities, provides evidence of this elite-driven society, with silver drachms circulating in the 2nd–1st centuries BC around Tolosa (modern Toulouse).^[14] The economy of the pre-migration Tectosages was predominantly agrarian and pastoral, centered on cattle herding as a measure of wealth and status, supplemented by crop cultivation in the fertile Garonne River valley.^[15] Ironworking flourished, producing tools, weapons, and ornaments characteristic of La Tène craftsmanship, which supported local self-sufficiency and exchange networks. Trade played a vital role, with the Tectosages facilitating the flow of amber from northern Europe, salt from regional deposits, and iron products southward via overland routes connecting to the Greek colony of Massalia (Marseille), in exchange for Mediterranean imports like wine, olive oil, and luxury ceramics.^[16]^[15] Archaeological evidence from sites near Tolosa underscores this societal and economic framework, with La Tène artifacts including torcs, fibulae, and iron implements recovered from settlements and burials, indicating a warrior-oriented culture with emerging urbanization. Fortified oppida, such as the proto-urban complex at Tolosa itself, served as economic hubs with evidence of craft workshops and storage facilities dating to the 2nd century BC, though much of the site lies beneath the modern city, limiting extensive excavations. These finds, including silver deposits linked to local mines, highlight the Tectosages' integration into broader Celtic trade systems before their 3rd-century BC migration.^[11]^[17] Family and gender dynamics among the Tectosages reflected broader Celtic patterns, where women often held significant property rights and social influence, as described in accounts of Gaulish customs. Communal feasting, involving elite gatherings with meat, mead, and ritual deposits, reinforced social bonds and hierarchy, as evidenced by animal bone assemblages and metal feasting gear in regional La Tène contexts.^[18]

Migration and Settlement

The 3rd-Century BC Invasion of the Balkans

In the early 3rd century BC, the Tectosages, a subgroup of the Volcae Celtic confederation originating from southern Gaul, participated in a major wave of Celtic migrations eastward into the Balkans as part of broader incursions around 280–279 BC.^[19] These movements involved large forces of Celts seeking new territories due to population pressures and opportunities for plunder, culminating in an invasion of Macedonia and Greece led by the chieftain Brennus.^[20] Brennus's army, numbering approximately 152,000 infantry and over 20,000 cavalry, advanced through Thrace and Macedonia, defeating Ptolemy Ceraunus at Lysimachia and sacking several cities before pushing into central Greece.^[20] The campaign reached its dramatic peak with the raid on the oracle at Delphi in 279 BC, where the Celts plundered the sanctuary despite fierce resistance from local Greek forces, including Phocians and Aetolians; Brennus himself was mortally wounded in the ensuing chaos, leading to the retreat of the main force.^[20] The Tectosages, integrated into Brennus's coalition, contributed to these Balkan campaigns but diverged from the main body after the Delphi setback, seeking alternative prospects amid the fragmentation of the invading groups.^[19] Around 278 BC, a contingent of Tectosages, alongside other Celtic tribes such as the Tolistobogii and Trocmi, under leaders Leonnorios and Lutarios, accepted an invitation from Nicomedes I of Bithynia to serve as mercenaries against his rivals, including the Seleucid Empire.^[21] This alliance provided the Celts with passage across the Bosporus into Asia Minor, where they initially operated as a mobile fighting force, ravaging Thrace and coastal regions while bolstering Nicomedes's position in dynastic struggles.^[21] The Tectosages' warriors, known for their ferocity and reliance on infantry charges supported by light cavalry, proved effective in skirmishes but also drew widespread fear as "barbarians" among local populations.^[22] Upon entering Asia Minor, the Tectosages and their allies clashed with Seleucid forces under Antiochus I Soter, who mobilized to curb the Celtic incursion.^[23] According to traditional accounts, in the so-called Elephant Battle (ca. 275 BC), Antiochus I deployed war elephants against the Celts, defeating them and earning the epithet Soter ("Savior").^[23] Despite such setbacks, the Tectosages endured, leveraging their mercenary status to negotiate survival amid the Hellenistic powers, though the encounter underscored the limits of their raiding strategy in the face of organized eastern armies. Primary accounts of these events derive from Pausanias's Description of Greece (10.19–20), which details the Greek phase of the invasion, and Justinus's Epitome of Pompeius Trogus (25.1–2), chronicling the Bithynian alliance and Asian crossings.^[20]^[21]

Establishment in Galatia

Following their migration through the Balkans in the early 3rd century BC, the Tectosages, alongside the Tolistobogii and Trocmi, arrived in Asia Minor around 278–270 BC. These Celtic tribes were invited by King Nicomedes I of Bithynia to support his campaign against his brother Zipoetes, and in return, they received lands in central Anatolia, previously part of Phrygia, which became known as Galatia. The territory was promptly divided among the three tribes to establish distinct spheres of control, with the Tectosages allocated the central region encompassing the highlands around Ancyra (modern Ankara), which emerged as their primary center.^[24] The Tectosages' domain extended across the Phrygian highlands, roughly from the Sangarius River (modern Sakarya) in the west to the Halys River (modern Kızılırmak) in the east, forming a compact area suited to their warrior-pastoral lifestyle. This region was organized into twelve tetrarchies in total across the three tribes, with the Tectosages controlling four of them, each governed by a tetrarch supported by subordinate judges and military leaders. The system reflected a loose confederation, where the twelve tetrarchs were summoned to a joint council of 300 members, along with a high priest of the common Zeus who served as chief judge, ensuring coordinated defense while preserving tribal autonomy.^[25] In the decades following settlement, the Tectosages faced initial instability through raids on neighboring Hellenistic kingdoms, including Pergamon and Bithynia, to secure tribute and resources amid competition for arable land. These incursions, starting shortly after their arrival, helped solidify their independence by deterring major counterattacks until the Attalid victory over combined Galatian forces in 238 BC temporarily curbed their expansion. This period of martial consolidation maintained their autonomy as a distinct Celtic enclave until the Roman annexation of Galatia in 25 BC.^[24] Archaeological findings underscore the rapid transition to sedentary life, with Celtic-style burials and coinage appearing in the Gordion area near the Tectosages' territory by the mid-3rd century BC. Excavations have uncovered La Tène-influenced grave goods, such as iron weapons and fibulae, alongside local Anatolian pottery in tumuli, indicating integration with Phrygian sites while retaining Celtic burial practices. Galatian coins minted in Ancyra, featuring Celtic motifs like horse-drawn chariots, further attest to early economic organization and cultural persistence in the central region.^[26]

Society and Culture in Galatia

The Tectosages, one of the three principal tribes comprising the Galatian confederation alongside the Tolistobogii and Trocmi, adapted a tetrarchic governance system upon their settlement in central Anatolia, reflecting influences from their Gaulish heritage while incorporating local Hellenistic elements. This structure divided each tribe into four cantons, known as tetrarchies, with the Tectosages controlling the central territory around Ancyra (modern Ankara). Each tetrarchy was led by a tetrarch, supported by a judge for civil matters and military commanders for defense, ensuring decentralized authority within the tribe. The twelve tetrarchs from all three tribes convened in a central council at Drynemetum to address intertribal affairs, maintaining a balance of power that emphasized collective decision-making over singular rule.^[3] By the late 2nd century BCE, the rigid tetrarchy began evolving toward more centralized leadership, particularly under Roman influence, leading to the election of kings who unified tribal authority. A prominent example was Deiotarus I, originally tetrarch of the Tolistobogii but elevated to king of all Galatia around 63 BCE by Pompey, reigning until approximately 40 BCE; his rule exemplified this shift, as evidenced by coinage bearing his name and symbols of authority, such as eagles and monograms, minted in Phrygian territories under his control. This monarchical adaptation allowed for more effective diplomacy and military coordination among the tribes, though the underlying tetrarchic framework persisted in local governance.^[27]^[28] Galatian society under the Tectosages maintained a hierarchical structure dominated by a warrior aristocracy, where nobles and chieftains derived status from martial prowess and land control, consistent with broader Celtic traditions. Client systems bound lower-status freemen to these elites through oaths of loyalty, providing labor, military service, and resources in exchange for protection and patronage; such relationships reinforced social cohesion and enabled the mobilization of large retinues. Slavery formed the base of this hierarchy, with captives from raids or wars serving as laborers, often traded as commodities, though manumission was possible in some cases. Women occupied prominent roles within this framework, inheriting property, leading households, and occasionally wielding political influence, as seen in Celtic customs where queens or noblewomen advised rulers or commanded respect in assemblies.^[29] Militarily, the Tectosages relied on a levy system that summoned able-bodied freemen and clients under tetrarchal command, forming tribal armies renowned for their fierce charges and adaptability in skirmishes. Each tetrarchy contributed contingents led by designated commanders, allowing rapid assembly for defense or alliance with fellow Galatian tribes against common adversaries. This organization emphasized mobility and valor, with warriors equipped in traditional Celtic style—long swords, shields, and minimal armor—fostering a culture where battlefield success elevated social standing.^[3]^[29]

Religion, Language, and Customs

The Tectosages in Galatia spoke a dialect of Gaulish, a Continental Celtic language closely related to that of their kin in western Europe, which they preserved for centuries after their migration. This linguistic continuity is attested by the 4th-century CE church father Jerome, who noted that the Galatians' speech resembled the language of the Treveri tribe in Gaul, indicating that Celtic remained in use among the elite and commoners into late antiquity.^[19] Evidence for written Gaulish appears in limited personal names and possible fragmentary inscriptions from Galatian sites, though no extensive texts survive; by the 1st century CE, Hellenization led to a shift toward Greek as the dominant written and administrative language, with bilingual usage emerging in official contexts.^[30]^[26] Religion among the Tectosages blended traditional Celtic beliefs with local Anatolian and Hellenistic influences, reflecting their adaptation to the Phrygian cultural landscape. They maintained elements of the Celtic pantheon, including druidic practices centered on sacred groves and natural sites, as seen in the council meetings at Drynemetum ("sacred oak grove"), a location symbolizing oak worship central to Celtic spirituality.^[19] Syncretism is evident at sites like Tavium, the Trocmi tribal center but shared culturally with the Tectosages, where a temple to Zeus—likely fusing the Celtic sky god with Phrygian and Greek deities—housed rituals that incorporated votive deposits and communal ceremonies.^[3] Archaeological finds, such as human skeletal remains suggesting sacrificial rites at Gordion, further indicate the persistence of Celtic ritual elements like offerings to ensure fertility or victory, gradually merged with Phrygian mother-goddess cults.^[19] Customs of the Tectosages emphasized warrior traditions and communal bonds, retaining core Celtic practices amid regional influences. Headhunting served as a rite of prowess, with warriors preserving enemy heads as trophies attached to horse bridles, a custom symbolizing status and spiritual power that persisted among Galatians as part of their ancestral identity. Tattooing marked the body with animal motifs from head to foot, denoting tribal affiliation and battle honors, a practice Strabo observed as characteristic of Gauls and preserved to some degree in Galatian society. Feasting reinforced social hierarchies through lavish communal meals and gift exchanges, while oral traditions—transmitted by druids and bards—preserved genealogies, laws, and myths, as the Galatians lacked a fully written vernacular literature.^[1] Strabo explicitly states that the Galatians "still preserve in some degree their ancient customs," linking their Anatolian life to transalpine Celtic norms.^[3] Archaeological evidence from Galatian sites underscores this cultural blending, with Gallo-Greek artifacts illustrating the Tectosages' hybrid identity. La Tène-style fibulae, torques, and iron weapons found in tombs at Boğazköy and Gordion reflect Celtic craftsmanship adapted with Hellenistic motifs, such as Greek-influenced jewelry forms.^[19] Votive offerings, including cloth and rugs deposited at sacred springs like Karalar near Ancyra, demonstrate ritual continuity, where Celtic dedication practices merged with Phrygian water cults to invoke protection and prosperity.^[26] These artifacts, spanning the 3rd century BCE to the Roman era, highlight how the Tectosages integrated imported Celtic elements with local Anatolian traditions without fully assimilating.^[19]

Interactions and Legacy

Conflicts with Hellenistic and Roman Powers

Following their settlement in central Anatolia, the Tectosages, as one of the principal Galatian tribes, engaged in frequent raids against neighboring Hellenistic kingdoms, particularly Pergamon, around 230 BC. These incursions targeted prosperous Greek cities and territories, prompting a defensive response from Attalus I of Pergamon, who achieved decisive victories over the Galatians, including the Tectosages, in a series of campaigns that culminated in battles such as the one at the Caicus River. Attalus's successes not only curtailed Galatian expansion but also elevated Pergamon's status, with the victories commemorated in monumental sculptures and dedications that portrayed the defeated barbarians as akin to ancient foes like the Giants and Amazons.^[31] The Tectosages' military autonomy faced its greatest challenge during the Roman Galatian War of 189 BC, when Consul Gnaeus Manlius Vulso invaded central Anatolia to punish the Galatians for aiding Seleucid king Antiochus III against Rome at the Battle of Magnesia in 190 BC. Positioned in the heart of Galatia around Ancyra (modern Ankara), the Tectosages mobilized significant forces under leaders like Gaulotus to defend their territory, forming a central bulwark alongside the Tolistobogii and Trocmi tribes. Despite initial resistance, including ambushes in mountainous terrain, Vulso's legions overwhelmed them in engagements near Ancyra, as detailed in Livy's account, resulting in heavy casualties—over 40,000 Galatians reportedly killed or captured—and the imposition of a 500-talent indemnity. This defeat marked a pivotal shift, transforming the Tectosages from independent raiders to Roman foederati, bound by treaties that required tribute and military support while preserving nominal tribal autonomy under their tetrarchic system.^[32]^[33] Tensions persisted into the late 2nd and 1st centuries BC, with the Tectosages allying with Mithridates VI of Pontus during the First Mithridatic War (89–85 BC) in opposition to Roman expansion in Asia Minor. This partnership provided Mithridates with Galatian cavalry and infantry for campaigns against Roman allies like Bithynia and Cappadocia, though relations soured when Mithridates executed several Galatian chieftains, prompting a backlash that weakened his position. Under tetrarch Deiotarus Philoromaeus of the Tolistobogii, who ruled from ca. 80 BC and earned the epithet "friend of Rome" for his loyalty, Galatia transitioned to full client status; Deiotarus supplied troops against Mithridates in subsequent wars and supported Pompey, receiving territorial expansions in return. Upon the death of Amyntas, the last Galatian king who had unified the realm under Roman oversight, Augustus annexed Galatia—including Tectosagian lands—as a province in 25 BC, ending tribal independence.^[34]^[35]

Romanization and Historical Impact

Following the Roman annexation of Galatia in 25 BC after the death of King Amyntas, the Tectosages, centered around Ancyra, underwent gradual Romanization as the region was organized into a province under imperial administration. Ancyra, the traditional seat of the Tectosages, was transformed into the provincial capital and a Roman-style urban center, featuring an orthogonal street grid with insulae measuring 140-160 meters square, an agora, a theater (56 meters in diameter, constructed in the 1st century AD), and public bath complexes such as the Askeri Cezaevi baths (30x30 meters) and the larger Caracalla baths (approximately 80x130 meters). This development reflected the imposition of Roman urban planning on the earlier Celtic tribal settlement, integrating it into the empire's administrative and cultural framework. Latin elements appeared in official contexts, notably through bilingual inscriptions, though Greek remained dominant alongside the fading Celtic tongue.^[36]^[37] The process of assimilation included the adoption of the imperial cult, exemplified by the Temple of Augustus and Roma, constructed around 25-20 BC in Ancyra as one of the earliest such monuments in Asia Minor. This peripteral temple (originally Ionic tetrastyle, later expanded to Corinthian octostyle at 42x55 meters) housed the Res Gestae Divi Augusti, Augustus's autobiographical inscription in Latin on the pronaos walls and Greek on the cella, symbolizing Roman hegemony and the Tectosages' incorporation into provincial loyalty structures. The Celtic language of the Galatians, including the Tectosages, persisted into the late Roman Imperial period, with bilingualism in Greek and Celtic evident in 2nd-century AD sources, but it declined under Hellenistic and Roman influences, with no substantial evidence surviving beyond the 4th century AD when Jerome noted its similarity to the speech of the Treveri in Gaul. By this time, Latin and Greek had largely supplanted it in urban and administrative settings.^[38]^[37]^[30]^[19] Economically, Roman rule shifted the Tectosages from a reliance on raiding and mercenary service—hallmarks of their pre-provincial tribal economy—to stable agriculture and taxation within the imperial system. Agriculture remained the economic foundation in Galatia, focusing on local production of grains and livestock, supplemented by husbandry, while Roman infrastructure like the trans-Anatolian highway facilitated integration into broader trade networks and tax collection. This transition stabilized the region, reducing the volatility of earlier Celtic raiding patterns and aligning it with the empire's rural-oriented economy in Asia Minor.^[39]^[19]^[36] The Tectosages' legacy endured in Byzantine Anatolia through cultural syncretism, with remnants of Celtic identity blending into the multiethnic fabric of the region, as seen in persistent rituals and diverse artifacts at sites like Çadır Höyük. Recent archaeological work, including 2023 excavations at Gordion revealing Celtic-influenced pottery in Byzantine layers, underscores this ongoing cultural persistence as of 2025. Modern place names preserve this history, notably Ankara deriving from ancient Ancyra, the Tectosages' capital. Archaeologically, Roman structures overlay Celtic and pre-Roman Phrygian sites, as evidenced by the Augustus Temple built atop possible earlier sanctuaries and incorporating Galatian epigraphy, highlighting the layered transition from tribal to imperial presence. In Celtic studies, the Tectosages are recognized for their role in debates on ethnic identity and linguistic persistence, with epigraphic evidence from Ancyra and Tavium illustrating 'soft provincialization' and cultural blending under Rome.^[19]^[40]^[36]^[37]^[41]^[42]

References

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None
No readable text found in the HTML.<|separator|>
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Ancient Celtic Society - World History Encyclopedia
Mar 26, 2021 · Slaves were the lowest class in Celtic communities and were both men and women. Slaves were used in Celtic society and as an item for trade ...
[30]
The Galatian language - Bryn Mawr Classical Review
Dec 19, 2002 · Galatian is the Celtic language spoken in Anatolia, and nothing survives except personal names. You don't need many pages to say that.
[31]
The Pergamene kingdom of the Attalids (241 to c. 185 BC)
In 278/7, the nomadic tribes, i.e. the three major tribes of the Tolistobogii, Trocmi and Tectosages, were brought to Asia Minor as allies of Nicomedes I of ...
[32]
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[33]
The Galatian Settlement in Asia Minor - jstor
called Tectosages are attested in three parts of the ancient world: in Galatia ... tures (and therefore of some elements of social structure too?). The ...
[34]
[PDF] Galatians and Seleucids: a Century of Conflict and Cooperation*
The literary evidence, then, seems to warrant no more than the following: Antiochus personally conducted a battle against (some) Galatians, in which elephants ...
[35]
The Hellenistic Galatians: Representation and Self-Presentation
This thesis explores Greek and Roman representations of the Hellenistic Galatians with a focus on how the concepts of the 'barbarian' and 'Hellenisation' ...
[36]
[PDF] 1 Ancyra, Metropolis Provinciae Galatiae - Julian Bennett
Early Roman Ancyra Lollius (Remy 1989, 127-29). He was presumably responsible for the first stages in transforming Ancyra into a fitting urban centre for the ...Missing: colony | Show results with:colony<|separator|>
[37]
[PDF] THE TEMPLE OF AUGUSTUS AND ROME IN ANKARA
The University of Trieste in 1997 began the so-called Ancyra Project for the survey and the safeguard of the monument worldwide known as Monument Ancyranum.
[38]
Ancyra, Temple of Augustus - Livius.org
Aug 6, 2020 · The temple for the emperor Augustus (r.27 BCE-14 CE) and the goddess Roma in Ancyra dates to about 25 BCE. It faces to the southwest and is about 36 meters ...
[39]
https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/cambridge-companion-to-the-ancient-greek-economy/asia-minor/2D157D57DF96C1F8A9E6B62A87E6B093
[40]
https://www.livius.org/articles/place/ancyra-ankara/
[41]
https://journal.fi/scf/article/view/149481