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Thick disk

The thick disk is a prominent structural component of the Milky Way galaxy, comprising an extended population of older stars distributed in a thicker layer perpendicular to the galactic plane than the thin disk, with a characteristic scale height of approximately 1 kpc.^[1] This component surrounds the central bulge and thin disk, extending radially to a scale length of approximately 2–3 kpc, and is primarily composed of metal-poor stars formed billions of years ago.^[2] Its stellar density decreases with distance from the midplane, and it contributes significantly to the galaxy's overall mass and dynamics in the solar neighborhood.^[3] In contrast to the thin disk, which has a smaller scale height of around 300 pc and hosts younger, more metal-rich stars, the thick disk exhibits lower metallicity ([Fe/H] ≈ -0.6 dex) and higher alpha-element abundances ([α/Fe] ≈ 0.15–0.3 dex), reflecting its ancient origins.^[4] The thick disk's stars often display higher velocity dispersions and orbital eccentricities, indicating a more dynamically heated population, though analyses as of 2025 suggest many originated in situ rather than through external accretion.^[2] Observations from surveys like LAMOST and SDSS have revealed potential substructures, including a younger thick disk component aged around 6.6 billion years, which flares more strongly than the older segment (aged ~9.3 billion years).^[4] Thick disks are not unique to the Milky Way but appear ubiquitous in nearby edge-on spiral galaxies, suggesting a common formation mechanism tied to early galactic evolution, as confirmed by JWST observations in 2024–2025.^[3] ^[5] Leading theories propose formation through turbulent, gas-rich conditions in the young Milky Way, possibly triggered by mergers such as with the Sagittarius dwarf galaxy, leading to rapid star formation at redshifts z ≈ 1.5–3.^[4] Alternative models include dynamical heating of an ancient thin disk or radial migration of stars, but evidence from chemical uniformity and kinematics favors in situ birth in a clumpy, unstable disk.^[2] ^[6] These processes highlight the thick disk's role in tracing the Milky Way's assembly history, with ongoing studies using Gaia data as of 2025 refining its mass contribution (estimated at 10–20% of the disk's total stellar mass).^[7]

Overview and Characteristics

Definition and Galactic Context

The thick disk is an extended stellar component of disk galaxies, distinguished by its greater vertical thickness relative to the primary disk layer. It represents a structural element typically present in about two-thirds of observed spiral galaxies, including the Milky Way, where it forms a distinct population of stars with an intermediate spatial distribution.^[8] Within the overall architecture of spiral galaxies, the thick disk occupies a position between the thin disk—a flatter, younger counterpart—and the stellar halo, a more spherical and ancient envelope surrounding the galaxy. This placement allows the thick disk to contribute substantially to the vertical stellar density profile beyond 1 kpc from the galactic plane, bridging the inner disk dynamics with the outer halo influence.^[9]^[10] In edge-on views of spiral galaxies, the thick disk often dominates the stellar light distribution at heights of 1–5 kpc, underscoring its prevalence across various galaxy types and its integral role in the vertical structure of these systems. The naming convention "thick disk" derives from its diffused, vertically extended appearance compared to the more compact thin disk, a terminology established through early analyses of stellar distributions.^[9]

Physical Properties

The thick disk of the Milky Way exhibits a distinct vertical structure, characterized by a scale height ranging from 0.6 to 1.1 kpc, which is approximately 3–4 times greater than that of the thin disk at around 0.3 kpc.^[11] This enhanced thickness arises from the older, dynamically heated stellar population that defines the component, leading to a broader distribution perpendicular to the galactic plane.^[12] In the radial direction, the thick disk is more compact, with a scale length of 1.9–2.3 kpc, contrasting with the thin disk's more extended profile of about 3–4 kpc and indicating a concentration toward the galaxy's inner regions.^[11]^[13] The density profile of the thick disk follows an exponential fall-off with height from the midplane, often modeled as \rho(z) \approx \rho_0 \exp(-|z|/h_z), where h_z is the vertical scale height, or alternatively using a sech² form \rho(z) \approx \rho_0 \sech^2(z/z_0) for a more realistic isothermal sheet approximation.^[13] These profiles imply that the thick disk dominates the stellar density at vertical distances of 1–5 kpc from the plane, particularly in the solar neighborhood where its local density normalization is about 10% of the thin disk's. Overall, the thick disk contributes a significant portion to the total stellar mass of the Milky Way's disk, with the high-α component estimated at around 2 × 10^{10} M_\odot (as of 2024), based on a total disk mass of approximately 5 × 10^{10} M_\odot.^[14]^[15] Spatially, the thick disk is more prominent in the inner galaxy, extending robustly to galactocentric radii of 4–7 kpc, while its signature diminishes beyond the solar radius of about 8 kpc.^[16] In outer regions, evidence of flaring or warping is observed, where the scale height increases with galactocentric distance, contributing to an uneven vertical extent.^[17] This distribution underscores the thick disk's role as an embedded, centrally concentrated layer within the overall galactic structure.

Observational Evidence

Discovery History

The concept of a thick disk component in galaxies was first proposed theoretically in the late 1970s, with Vera Tsikoudi suggesting that an extended stellar component, composed of old disk stars, could explain the observed light distribution in edge-on spiral galaxies such as NGC 891. This idea built on earlier photometric observations using photographic plates, which revealed extended halos beyond the thin disk in edge-on systems like NGC 891, indicating a vertically thicker stellar layer. David Burstein independently highlighted the existence of such thick disks in both spirals and ellipticals through surface photometry, marking the initial recognition of this structural feature in external galaxies during the late 1970s. In the Milky Way, early hints of a thick disk emerged in the early 1980s through star count analyses of faint main-sequence stars, which revealed an overdensity of stars at larger distances from the galactic plane compared to expectations from a thin disk alone.^[18] Gilmore and Reid's 1983 study provided the seminal evidence by identifying a distinct thick disk component with a scale height of approximately 1 kpc, distinguishing it from the thinner disk and halo populations via vertical density profiles derived from photometric data.^[18] This work was soon confirmed by subsequent star counts, solidifying the thick disk as a structural element in our galaxy. By the 1990s, the thick disk gained formal distinction in the Milky Way through kinematic separations, where differences in velocity dispersions allowed researchers to isolate thick disk stars from thin disk and halo populations in surveys of nearby stars. This period saw the integration of kinematic data with chemical abundances, establishing the thick disk as an old, metal-poor population separate from the younger thin disk. By the early 2000s, thick disks had been incorporated into standard models of galactic structure, with observations confirming their presence as a common feature in the majority of disk galaxies.^[19]

Key Surveys and Data

The Gaia mission, launched in 2013 and ongoing, has provided high-precision astrometric data, including proper motions and parallaxes, essential for identifying thick disk stars through their kinematic signatures such as higher velocity dispersions compared to the thin disk.^[20] In its Data Release 3 (DR3) from 2022, Gaia cataloged approximately 1.812 billion stellar sources, enabling selections of thick disk populations based on distances up to about 5 kpc from the Sun by combining astrometry with photometric distances.^[21]^[22] Recent analyses (as of 2025) combining Gaia DR3 with LAMOST and APOGEE data have identified substructures, including a younger thick disk component aged ~6.6 billion years with a scale height of 0.64 kpc.^[4] The Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS), operational since 2000, has delivered extensive photometric and spectroscopic observations targeting metal-poor stars, which are prominent in the thick disk, across large sky areas in the optical bands. Its Apache Point Observatory Galactic Evolution Experiment (APOGEE) subsystem, using near-infrared spectroscopy, has measured radial velocities and chemical abundances for hundreds of thousands of stars, facilitating the isolation of thick disk samples through alpha-element enhancements.^[23] Additional surveys complement these efforts: the Two Micron All Sky Survey (2MASS), completed in 2001, mapped the Galactic plane in the near-infrared to penetrate dust-obscured regions and trace the thick disk's stellar density via star counts. Similarly, the Large Sky Area Multi-Object Fiber Spectroscopic Telescope (LAMOST), operational since 2011, has obtained low-resolution optical spectra for millions of stars, confirming vertical density and kinematic gradients in the thick disk through spectroscopic parameter estimates.^[24] Key findings from combined datasets include a negative vertical metallicity gradient in the thick disk, with iron abundance [Fe/H] decreasing at higher distances from the Galactic plane, as derived from Gaia DR3 astrometry and APOGEE DR17 spectroscopy. Additionally, thick disks have been detected in external galaxies using deep imaging from the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) and Very Large Telescope (VLT), revealing similar structural components through resolved star counts and surface brightness profiles.

Stellar Populations

Age and Metallicity Distributions

The stellar population of the Milky Way's thick disk is characterized by predominantly old stars with ages ranging from 8 to 12 Gyr, peaking around 10 Gyr, as determined from isochrone fitting to spectroscopic and photometric data.^[25] This age profile reflects an early formation phase, with the disk's stars showing a relatively narrow age dispersion of about 1.5 Gyr, indicating a bursty but short-lived star formation history.^[26] Recent analyses using Gaia data further confirm uniform old ages across vertical heights in the disk, with little evidence for significant ongoing star formation in this component.^[25] The metallicity distribution of thick disk stars exhibits an average [Fe/H] between -1.0 and -0.5 dex, rendering it more metal-poor than the thin disk, which has typical values from -0.2 to 0 dex.^[25] Recent studies show varying radial metallicity gradients, with some reporting a positive gradient where metal-poor stars ([Fe/H] ≈ -1.0 dex) dominate the inner disk and metal-richer populations ([Fe/H] up to -0.5 dex) appear toward the outer regions, as traced by APOGEE and Gaia surveys, while others indicate a negative gradient with higher metallicities inner.^[27]^[25] The age-metallicity relation in the thick disk displays little evolution over its formation period, with metallicities increasing modestly from [Fe/H] ≈ -1.0 dex at ages >12 Gyr to around +0.5 dex by 7 Gyr, consistent with rapid enrichment during early, turbulent star formation.^[26] Isochrone-based age determinations from Gaia parallaxes and photometry reveal a tight correlation, with intrinsic dispersions of <0.8 Gyr in age and <0.2 dex in [Fe/H], underscoring a swift buildup of the disk's stellar mass.^[25] Emerging evidence from 2025 studies supports a dual-component hypothesis for the thick disk, comprising an "old thick disk" with ages exceeding 10 Gyr and a "young thick disk" component aged 6–8 Gyr, particularly prominent in outer regions (R > 12 kpc) and linked to episodic bursty star formation.^[4] This younger subpopulation, identified via kinematic separation in Gaia and APOGEE data, has a mean age of ~6.6 Gyr and [Fe/H] from -0.7 to -0.5 dex, suggesting multiple phases of disk thickening possibly triggered by dynamical events.^[4]

Chemical Abundances

The chemical abundances of stars in the Milky Way's thick disk reveal distinct patterns that differentiate this component from the thin disk and halo, particularly through enhancements in alpha-elements relative to iron at subsolar metallicities. These enhancements arise primarily from the rapid enrichment by massive stars exploding as Type II supernovae, which produce alpha-elements like magnesium, silicon, calcium, and titanium more efficiently than iron-peak elements. Observations indicate that for stars with [Fe/H] < -0.5, the [α/Fe] ratio reaches values of approximately +0.2 to +0.4 dex, reflecting an early star formation phase dominated by such supernovae before significant contributions from Type Ia supernovae, which favor iron production.^[28] The abundance ratio [α/Fe] is formally defined as

[\alpha/\mathrm{Fe}] = \log_{10} \left( \frac{N_{\alpha}/N_{\mathrm{Fe}}}{(N_{\alpha}/N_{\mathrm{Fe}})_{\odot}} \right),

where N represents the number abundance of the elements, and the subscript \odot denotes the solar value; this metric quantifies deviations from solar proportions and is commonly derived from high-resolution spectroscopy of multiple alpha-elements weighted by their production yields.^[28] Iron-peak elements (e.g., Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni) in thick disk stars generally follow solar ratios or show mild deficiencies at low [Fe/H], consistent with delayed iron enrichment. Neutron-capture elements exhibit more varied patterns, with APOGEE data revealing lower [Eu/Fe] ratios in the outer disk (R > 10 kpc) compared to inner regions, indicating heterogeneous enrichment sources across the component. Europium, primarily an r-process product from neutron star mergers or core-collapse supernovae, shows conditional radial gradients of ≤ 0.03 dex/kpc, while s-process elements like barium and cerium, produced in asymptotic giant branch (AGB) stars, contribute to overall neutron-capture yields with increasing importance at higher metallicities.^[29]^[29] Radial abundance gradients further highlight the thick disk's uniformity in alpha-enhancement but variability in overall metallicity. Surveys such as APOGEE DR17 demonstrate a negative radial metallicity gradient, with higher [Fe/H] in the inner disk ([Fe/H] > -0.3 dex for R < 7 kpc) contrasting outer populations mainly below [Fe/H] = -0.3 dex for R > 10 kpc, possibly due to metal-poor gas inflows. In contrast, [α/Fe] maintains a flat plateau across radii, as evidenced by [Mg/Fe] versus [Fe/H] plots showing a consistent high-α sequence without significant radial dispersion, underscoring rapid, burst-like formation.^[25]^[25]^[30] Certain subpopulations within the thick disk display unique signatures attributable to later-phase s-process enrichment from low-mass AGB stars that polluted the interstellar medium after the initial alpha-dominated burst.^[31]

Kinematics

Velocity Structure

The velocity structure of the thick disk is characterized by significantly higher dispersions than those of the thin disk, indicative of a dynamically hotter stellar population. Analyses of Gaia DR3 data in the solar neighborhood yield typical velocity dispersions of σ_R ≈ 49 km s⁻¹ radially, σ_φ ≈ 35 km s⁻¹ azimuthally, and σ_z ≈ 22 km s⁻¹ vertically for thick disk stars, compared to lower values of approximately 31 km s⁻¹, 20 km s⁻¹, and 11 km s⁻¹ for the thin disk.^[32] These elevated dispersions arise from cumulative dynamical heating over time, correlating with the older ages of thick disk stars as explored in stellar population studies. A notable feature is the asymmetric drift, with thick disk stars exhibiting a rotation lag of approximately 50 km s⁻¹ relative to the thin disk and the local circular velocity, further underscoring their heated kinematics.^[33] This lag reflects reduced azimuthal velocities due to radial migration and scattering processes in an older population. The velocity ellipsoid adopts a triaxial shape, described by the dispersion tensor whose components capture the covariance of velocity deviations:

\sigma_{ij} = \left\langle (v_i - \langle v_i \rangle)(v_j - \langle v_j \rangle) \right\rangle

In the solar vicinity, the principal axes follow σ_R > σ_φ > σ_z.^[32] Additionally, Gaia DR3 observations reveal substructures such as streaming motions and velocity clumps within the thick disk, interpreted as kinematic signatures of ancient merger remnants.^[34]

Dynamical Models

Dynamical models of the thick disk utilize the Jeans equations to characterize its vertical structure and equilibrium within the Galactic potential. The vertical form of the Jeans equation,

\frac{\partial (\nu \sigma_z^2)}{\partial z} = -\nu \frac{\partial \Phi}{\partial z},

where \nu denotes the stellar number density, \sigma_z the vertical velocity dispersion, and \Phi the gravitational potential, enables the inference of the potential's gradient and thus the mass distribution from kinematic data.^[35] Applications to the thick disk, incorporating parameterized potentials, yield fits consistent with a flaring geometry and provide constraints on the spherical dark matter component, such as a local density of approximately 0.013 M_\odot pc^{-3}.^[35] These models assume steady-state conditions and axisymmetric approximations, allowing decomposition of forces into vertical and radial components for equilibrium analysis.^[36] N-body simulations elucidate the dynamical heating processes that contribute to the thick disk's formation and evolution, particularly through scattering mechanisms that increase velocity dispersions over time. In these collisionless models, interactions with transient spiral structures or giant molecular clouds drive radial and vertical diffusion, transforming an initially thin disk into a thicker configuration.^[37] The epicycle approximation within such simulations describes stellar orbits as small radial oscillations superposed on circular motion, characterized by the epicycle frequency \kappa \approx 40 km s^{-1} kpc^{-1} near the solar radius, which governs the timescale of these perturbations.^[38] High-resolution runs, often with millions of particles, demonstrate that this heating is gradual and cumulative, with the thick disk emerging as a kinematically hot population after several gigayears of evolution.^[37] Resonance effects play a key role in shaping the thick disk's vertical extent, as stars near vertical resonances with spiral arms experience amplified perturbations that enhance thickness. Unlike pure resonant excitation, these interactions induce chaotic orbital diffusion, leading to increased scale heights along lines of sight toward the inner Galaxy.^[39] The disk's overall stability against gravitational collapse is evaluated using the Toomre parameter Q, defined as Q = \frac{\sigma_R \kappa}{3.36 G \Sigma} for a thin disk, where \sigma_R is the radial velocity dispersion, \kappa the epicycle frequency, G the gravitational constant, and \Sigma the surface density; values Q > 1 ensure local stability against axisymmetric disturbances, with extensions to finite-thickness models confirming the thick disk's integrity.^[40] Secular evolution frameworks predict ongoing dynamical changes in the thick disk, including future thickening driven by the Galactic bar's perturbations, which couple to vertical motions through corotation and Lindblad resonances.^[41] N-body models of barred disks show that these non-axisymmetric forces can trigger buckling instabilities, redistributing stars to larger heights and altering the disk's flaring over the next few billion years.^[42] Such predictions highlight the bar's role in maintaining the disk's long-term dynamical equilibrium while contributing to its observed thickness.^[41]

Formation Mechanisms

In-Situ Formation

One prominent theory for the in-situ formation of the thick disk posits that it originated during an early turbulent phase of the protogalaxy at high redshift (z > 2), where clumpy gas accretion fueled rapid star formation in a dynamically hot disk. In this scenario, the galaxy experiences chaotic hierarchical clustering, leading to a thick stellar component with a scale height of approximately 1 kpc before the thin disk settles in a more quiescent phase. Simulations demonstrate that stars formed from accreted gas masses of order $10^{10} M_\odot during this period, resulting in a vertically extended structure due to high velocity dispersions in the turbulent gas.^[43] Recent simulations, including those from the TNG50 project, support co-formation of thin and thick disks around z ≈ 2, with thick disks emerging first in a gas-rich, clumpy environment.^[44] Radial migration and churning contribute to thickening by scattering stars from the inner disk outward, where weaker gravitational restoring forces allow greater vertical excursions, effectively increasing the scale height. This process, driven by transient spiral arms, causes "churning" without significant net angular momentum change, with migration rates that can transport stars several kiloparsecs over gigayears. The vertical displacement rate for such stars can be approximated as dz/dt \propto \nu, where \nu represents the frequency of scattering events from density waves. Disk flaring in the initial 2–4 Gyr arises from gravitational scattering by massive clumps, such as giant molecular clouds and spiral arms, which kinematically heat the stellar population and puff up the disk while preserving its in-situ chemical signatures. These interactions increase random motions, leading to a thicker configuration without external mass input, consistent with observed kinematic heating mechanisms. Evidence for this gas-rich phase includes the uniform \alpha-enhancement in thick disk stars, indicating rapid star formation from relatively pristine, metal-poor gas with minimal dilution by low-\alpha ejecta, as seen in the high-[\alpha/{\rm Fe}] plateau at low metallicities. This chemical uniformity aligns with the observed age uniformity of the thick disk population. JWST observations of distant galaxies as of 2025 further indicate that thick disk formation precedes thin disk settling in a chaotic early phase, consistent with Milky Way models.^[5]

External Accretion and Mergers

One prominent hypothesis posits that the thick disk formed primarily as debris from the accretion of a single massive satellite galaxy approximately 10 billion years ago, exemplified by the Gaia-Enceladus (also known as Gaia-Sausage) event. This merger, with an estimated progenitor mass ratio of about 4:1 relative to the Milky Way, deposited stars into the inner halo while dynamically heating the existing thin disk precursor, thereby contributing to the thick disk's vertical structure.^[45] Kinematic substructures identified in Gaia data release 2 support this scenario, revealing retrograde orbits and energy distributions consistent with accreted material from such an event.^[46] Subsequent Gaia DR3 analyses as of 2023 confirm the event's role in puffing up the disk and triggering star formation in the thick disk until about 8 billion years ago.^[20] Alternative models invoke multiple minor mergers as the cumulative source of both heating and stellar addition to the thick disk, involving streams like the Gaia-Sausage and others over several gigayears. Simulations indicate that such repeated interactions with low-mass satellites efficiently thicken the disk without fully disrupting its rotation, aligning with observed scale heights and velocity dispersions.^[47] Recent estimates suggest ex situ contributions from mergers, including Gaia-Enceladus, may account for up to 20-30% of the thick disk's stellar mass, with the remainder in situ.^[48] In the gas-rich merger framework, a progenitor dwarf galaxy possessing its own thick morphology merges with the host, directly depositing stars and inducing vertical heating through tidal interactions. Numerical simulations demonstrate that satellites with significant gas content can enhance disk flaring, producing thick components with properties matching Milky Way observations, such as elevated scale heights up to several kiloparsecs.^[47] Chemical signatures further bolster external accretion scenarios, with the thick disk exhibiting metal-poor tails ([Fe/H] < -1) that align with abundances in accreted dwarf populations, distinct from in-situ thin disk stars. These tails suggest contributions from disrupted satellites, with predicted mass ratios of m/M ≈ 1:10 for the dwarf to host galaxy enabling sufficient low-metallicity star deposition without overwhelming the disk's overall chemistry.^[49]

Theoretical Disputes and Recent Developments

Debates on Distinctiveness

One prominent viewpoint in the debate is the continuum hypothesis, which argues that the thick disk does not constitute a discrete structural or stellar population component but instead represents the extended, higher-velocity tail of the thin disk's properties, with no abrupt boundary separating the two. This perspective is bolstered by observations indicating a continuous and monotonic distribution of disk thicknesses that increase gradually with stellar age, implying a single evolving disk rather than distinct layers. Analyses of large spectroscopic samples have revealed smooth radial metallicity gradients across the disk, further supporting the absence of sharp chemical discontinuities that would delineate separate populations.^[50] In contrast, arguments for the thick disk as a distinct population draw on evidence of bimodal distributions in kinematics and chemical abundances, particularly from Gaia data, which reveal two well-separated sequences in velocity dispersions and alpha-element enhancements ([α/Fe]). These bimodalities suggest separate formation epochs or processes, with the high-[α/Fe] sequence associated with older, kinematically hotter stars interpreted as the thick disk. However, counterarguments highlight continuous age distributions spanning 8–12 Gyr for stars in both sequences, challenging the notion of cleanly separated populations and favoring a more gradual evolutionary transition.^[51]^[52] The debate extends to radial variations in thick disk properties, where some studies propose that the inner thick disk (R ≲ 6 kpc) exhibits merger-like characteristics, such as enhanced velocity dispersions and irregular chemical patterns potentially linked to early accretion events like Gaia-Enceladus, while the outer thick disk (R ≳ 10 kpc) appears more consistent with in-situ formation through dynamical heating or scattering. This dichotomy is disputed by findings of uniform radial velocity dispersion profiles and parallel chemical abundance ridges across the disk, indicating a homogeneous formation mechanism without significant radial gradients in key dynamical or abundance indicators.^[53] Complicating these interpretations are observational biases inherent to stellar surveys, including selection effects from magnitude limits, distance uncertainties, and interstellar extinction, which can artificially blur distinctions between components—for instance, through contamination of thick disk samples by halo interlopers or misclassification of intermediate-velocity stars. Such biases have historically led to overestimation of bimodality in earlier datasets, underscoring the need for careful modeling of survey completeness to resolve whether apparent discontinuities are physical or artifactual.^[50]

Implications for Galaxy Evolution

The thick disk of the Milky Way serves as a key snapshot of the galaxy's early assembly phase, capturing the turbulent conditions prevalent at redshifts z ≈ 2–4 during hierarchical structure formation in the ΛCDM paradigm.^[26] This component preserves evidence of chaotic gas accretion and minor mergers that dominated the inner Galaxy's growth approximately 10–12 billion years ago, providing a direct link to cosmological simulations where thick disks emerge from the dynamical heating and vertical dispersion induced by such events.^[54] These simulations demonstrate that the thick disk's scale height and velocity dispersion align with predictions for early disk settling amid clumpy accretion, offering constraints on the timing and efficiency of baryonic inflow in massive galaxy formation.^[55] Recent 2025 observations have revealed a relatively young thick disk population, aged around 6.6 billion years, coexisting with the older canonical thick disk and indicating multiple episodes of bursty star formation in the Milky Way's history.^[56] This dual-phase structure revises prior minimum age estimates for thick disk stars downward to approximately 6 Gyr, suggesting that the Galaxy experienced at least two major turbulent phases separated by periods of relative quiescence.^[56] Such findings imply a feedback-regulated growth model, where supernova-driven outflows and radiative feedback intermittently disrupted the disk, promoting vertical thickening and delaying the onset of steady thin-disk accretion until later cosmic times.^[57] Comparative studies of thick disks in external galaxies, such as Andromeda (M31), reveal broadly similar merger histories to the Milky Way, with evidence of a wet major merger (mass ratio ~1:5) contributing to disk thickening around 2.5–4 Gyr ago.^[58] In M31, the thick disk's enhanced velocity dispersion and metal-poor stars mirror Milky Way patterns, supporting a shared evolutionary pathway involving violent relaxation from dwarf galaxy infall.^[59] Predictive models from N-body simulations further indicate that thick disks enhance disk survival in dense environments like galaxy clusters, by dissipating merger-induced heating and maintaining structural integrity against ram-pressure stripping.^[60] Looking ahead, integration of James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) data with thick disk studies promises to identify high-redshift analogs at z > 2, where clumpy, thick proto-disks exhibit bursty star formation akin to the early Milky Way.^[61] These observations will refine evolutionary timelines by probing dust-obscured assembly phases, while simulations forecast proportionally thicker disks in low-mass galaxies (M_* < 10^{10} M_⊙), where prolonged gas accretion sustains higher scale heights due to weaker gravitational stabilization.^[62]

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We examine the efficacy of a Jeans equation analysis in reconstructing the total disk surface density, including the dark matter, at the 'Solar' radius.
[34]
Disc heating: comparing the Milky Way with cosmological simulations
We aim to provide further insight into the causes of the age–velocity dispersion relation of all disc stars (thick and thin) by using a suite of HPC simulations ...
[35]
Measurement of the epicycle frequency in the Galactic disc and ...
In the present case, the fitted value of κ is 43 ± 5 km s−1kpc−1; this is the epicycle frequency at the solar radius, one of the main results reported here. The ...Missing: neighborhood Milky
[36]
[1501.07649] The Contribution of Spiral Arms to the Thick Disk along ...
Jan 30, 2015 · Abstract:The first mechanism invoked to explain the existence of the thick disk in the Milky Way Galaxy, were the spiral arms.
[37]
https://academic.oup.com/mnras/article/415/3/2652/1051297
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Secular evolution in disk galaxies | Rev. Mod. Phys.
Jan 8, 2014 · Bars in disks are believed to be major drivers of secular evolution through interactions with the outer disk and with the halo. Once the ...
[39]
Secular evolution and structural properties of stellar bars in galaxies
In detail, however, simulated bars can become abruptly shorter and thicker a few Gyr after their formation, due to the onset of dynamical vertical instabilities ...Missing: future thickening perturbations disk
[40]
The Emergence of the Thick Disk in a Cold Dark Matter Universe
These thick-disk stars are formed from gas that is accreted to the galaxy during a chaotic period of hierarchical clustering at high redshift.
[41]
The merger that led to the formation of the Milky Way's inner stellar ...
Jun 15, 2018 · With an estimated 4:1 mass-ratio, the merger with Gaia-Enceladus must have led to the dynamical heating of the precursor of the Galactic thick ...
[42]
Galactic ghosts: Gaia uncovers major event in the formation of ... - ESA
Oct 31, 2018 · Similarly, the stars of Gaia-Enceladus were deeply buried in the Gaia data, and they have shaken the Milky Way, leading to the formation of its ...
[43]
The contributions of mergers, disc instabilities, and star formation
Major mergers contribute roughly half of the ex situ mass, with minor mergers and smooth accretion of satellites both accounting for ≈25 per cent, almost ...
[44]
Simulations of minor mergers – I. General properties of thick discs
We present simulations of the formation of thick discs via the accretion of two-component satellites onto a pre-existing thin disc.
[45]
Chemical signatures of formation processes in the stellar ...
This suggests that accreted stars should contribute primarily to the metal-poor end of a thick disc component (Abadi et al. 2003; Wyse 2010). Our central ...Missing: disk | Show results with:disk
[46]
THE MILKY WAY HAS NO DISTINCT THICK DISK - IOPscience
This implies that the thicker disk component in the Milky Way is simply the tail of a continuous and monotonic scale-height distribution.
[47]
Gaia Data Release 3 - Chemical cartography of the Milky Way
Instead, the thick disc can be observed and a positive rotation–metallicity gradient for the thick disc is present in the inner annulus, 4 < R < 6 kpc, as ...
[48]
The distribution of [α/Fe] in the Milky Way disc - Oxford Academic
Near the Solar circle, this distribution is bimodal at sub-solar [Fe/H], with the low-α and high-α peaks clearly separated by a minimum at intermediate [α/Fe].
[49]
Radial structure and formation of the Milky Way disc
In the external disc, the low-α sequence is the result from the gas left over from the thick disk formation (which gave rise to the high-α sequence) combined ...
[50]
[PDF] arXiv:astro-ph/0503273v1 11 Mar 2005
Mar 11, 2005 · By examining and comparing these simulations with observations, we proposed that thick disks form from gas which is accreted during a chaotic ...
[51]
THE FORMATION OF A REALISTIC DISK GALAXY IN Λ ...
ABSTRACT. We simulate the formation of a realistic disk galaxy within the hierarchical scenario of structure formation and study its internal properties to ...
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Unveiling a Young Thick Disk in the Milky Way - IOPscience
May 6, 2025 · In this work, we identify a relatively young (∼6.6 billion yr old), geometric thick disk in the Milky Way, with a scale height of 0.64 kpc at the solar circle.Missing: multiple | Show results with:multiple
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bursty origin of the Milky Way thick disc - Oxford Academic
We investigate thin and thick stellar disc formation in Milky Way-mass galaxies using 12 FIRE-2 cosmological zoom-in simulations. All simulated galaxies ...
[54]
Astronomers identify thick disc of older stars in nearby Andromeda ...
Feb 15, 2011 · The discovery of a similar thick disc in Andromeda presents a much clearer view of spiral structure. Astronomers will be able to determine ...
[55]
merger and assembly histories of Milky Way- and M31-like galaxies ...
We analyse the merger and assembly histories of Milky Way (MW) and Andromeda (M31)-like galaxies to quantify how, and how often, disc galaxies of this mass can ...
[56]
and M31-like galaxies with TNG50: disk survival through mergers
Oct 31, 2022 · We analyze the merger and assembly histories of Milky Way (MW) and Andromeda (M31)-like galaxies to quantify how, and how often, disk galaxies of this mass can ...
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The thickness of galaxy disks from z=5 to 0 probed by JWST - arXiv
Dec 12, 2023 · In this work we study the vertical structure of 191 edge-on galaxies spanning redshift from 0.2 to 5 using JWST NIRCAM imaging observations.Missing: analogs | Show results with:analogs
[58]
A prediction about the age of thick discs as a function of the stellar ...
Jan 12, 2021 · The age of the youngest thick disc stars increases with the host stellar mass: as young as 4 − 6 Gyr in galaxies with a total stellar mass below M ⋆ (z = 0)∼10 ...Missing: prevalence | Show results with:prevalence<|control11|><|separator|>