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Tributyrin

Tributyrin, also known as glyceryl tributyrate or butyrin, is a naturally occurring triglyceride composed of one glycerol molecule esterified with three molecules of butyric acid, with the chemical formula C₁₅H₂₆O₆ and a molecular weight of 302.36 g/mol.^[1] It appears as a clear, colorless to yellow liquid at room temperature, with a melting point of -75 °C, a boiling point of 305 °C, and a density of 1.0335 g/cm³, and it is insoluble in water but soluble in alcohol and ether.^[1] Found in dairy products such as butter, where it contributes to the characteristic flavor, tributyrin serves as a stable prodrug for butyric acid, a short-chain fatty acid that is released through enzymatic hydrolysis in the gastrointestinal tract.^[2]^[3] As a prodrug, tributyrin offers improved bioavailability and pharmacokinetics compared to free butyric acid, enabling systemic delivery of butyrate, which acts as a histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitor with potential anti-inflammatory, antiproliferative, and gut health-promoting effects.^[4] In medical research, it has been investigated in clinical trials for conditions including solid tumors, prostate cancer, Parkinson's disease, optic neuropathies, and hematopoietic cell transplantation, where it activates caspase-3 to induce apoptosis in cancer cells and supports mitochondrial function.^[5] Beyond therapeutics, tributyrin functions as a flavoring agent in foods like baked goods, beverages, and dairy products, approved by regulatory bodies for safe use in limited concentrations.^[1]^[6] In nutrition and aquaculture, tributyrin supplementation enhances growth performance, feed efficiency, intestinal barrier integrity, antioxidant capacity, and immune responses in fish and crustaceans, particularly when counteracting the inflammatory effects of plant-based diets.^[7] Hydrolyzed by pancreatic lipases, it provides butyrate directly to intestinal cells, modulating gut microbiota and reducing inflammation without the volatility or odor associated with free butyric acid.^[7] While generally of low toxicity via ingestion, tributyrin is combustible and incompatible with strong oxidizers, requiring careful handling in industrial applications.^[1]

Chemistry

Molecular structure

Tributyrin is a triglyceride composed of glycerol esterified with three molecules of butanoic acid, a short-chain saturated fatty acid denoted as C4:0.^[8] Its chemical formula is C15H26O6, and its systematic IUPAC name is 1,3-bis(butanoyloxy)propan-2-yl butanoate, also known as glyceryl tributyrate or 1,2,3-propanetriyl tributanoate.^[8]^[5] The molecular structure features a central glycerol backbone, where the three hydroxyl groups of propane-1,2,3-triol are linked via ester bonds to the carboxyl groups of three butanoic acid molecules (CH3CH2CH2COOH). This results in a triacylglycerol with the general form:

  CH&lt;sub>3&lt;/sub>CH&lt;sub>2&lt;/sub>CH&lt;sub>2&lt;/sub>COO-CH&lt;sub>2&lt;/sub>
                   |
  CH&lt;sub>3&lt;/sub>CH&lt;sub>2&lt;/sub>CH&lt;sub>2&lt;/sub>COO-CH
                   |
  CH&lt;sub>3&lt;/sub>CH&lt;sub>2&lt;/sub>CH&lt;sub>2&lt;/sub>COO-CH&lt;sub>2&lt;/sub>
  CH&lt;sub>3&lt;/sub>CH&lt;sub>2&lt;/sub>CH&lt;sub>2&lt;/sub>COO-CH&lt;sub>2&lt;/sub>
                   |
  CH&lt;sub>3&lt;/sub>CH&lt;sub>2&lt;/sub>CH&lt;sub>2&lt;/sub>COO-CH
                   |
  CH&lt;sub>3&lt;/sub>CH&lt;sub>2&lt;/sub>CH&lt;sub>2&lt;/sub>COO-CH&lt;sub>2&lt;/sub>

This symmetric arrangement distinguishes tributyrin as the fully esterified form, unlike monobutyrin (one ester bond) or dibutyrin (two ester bonds), which retain free hydroxyl groups on the glycerol moiety and thus exhibit partial esterification.^[8]^[9] The molecular weight of tributyrin is 302.37 g/mol.^[8]

Physical properties

Tributyrin is a clear, colorless to pale yellow oily liquid at room temperature.^[1]^[10] It exhibits a mild odor described as cheesy, waxy, creamy, and fatty.^[1] The compound has a melting point of -75 °C.^[1] Its boiling point is approximately 305 °C at atmospheric pressure.^[1]^[10] Tributyrin possesses a density of about 1.03 g/cm³ at 20 °C.^[1] It is insoluble in water (with solubility around 133 mg/L at 37 °C) but readily soluble in organic solvents including ethanol, ether, and chloroform.^[1]^[11] As a short-chain triglyceride, tributyrin's oily consistency arises from its esterified glycerol structure.^[8]

Chemical properties and reactivity

Tributyrin demonstrates relative chemical stability under neutral conditions and at ambient temperatures, making it suitable for storage and handling without significant decomposition. This stability is attributed to its ester structure, which resists spontaneous breakdown in the absence of catalysts or extreme pH shifts. Unlike free butyric acid, tributyrin is non-volatile with minimal odor, avoiding issues associated with the volatility of its hydrolysis products.^[12]^[7] The compound undergoes hydrolysis in acidic or basic environments, cleaving the ester bonds to yield butyric acid and glycerol. This reaction is typical of triglycerides and can be performed chemically under laboratory conditions, such as acid-catalyzed hydrolysis using solid acid catalysts or base-catalyzed saponification. The general equation for the hydrolysis is:

(\ce{CH3CH2CH2COO})3\ce{C3H5} + 3\ce{H2O} \rightarrow 3\ce{CH3CH2CH2COOH} + \ce{C3H8O3}

Tributyrin exhibits greater susceptibility to hydrolysis in alkaline media compared to acidic conditions.^[13] In terms of reactivity, tributyrin is particularly susceptible to enzymatic hydrolysis by lipases, which preferentially target its short-chain ester linkages. This property underpins its role as a prodrug for butyrate, enabling controlled and slow release of the active butyric acid through gradual hydrolysis rather than immediate liberation.^[14]

Occurrence and production

Natural occurrence

Tributyrin occurs naturally as a minor triglyceride in dairy fats, primarily in butter where it comprises about 3-4% of the total fat content, representing the main esterified form of butyric acid in these products.^[15] This concentration makes butter the richest dietary source of tributyrin among common foods.^[15] Trace amounts of tributyrin are also present in milk, cheeses, and fermented dairy products, typically at lower levels than in butter due to processing and dilution effects.^[16] In ruminant animals, tributyrin is biosynthesized in the mammary glands through the esterification of butyric acid, which is generated via microbial fermentation of carbohydrates in the rumen of herbivores.^[17] Typical tributyrin levels in butter fat vary between 2-5% of total lipids, influenced by factors such as animal diet and lactation stage.^[15] As a natural precursor to butyrate, tributyrin contributes to the short-chain fatty acid profile in these natural sources.^[7]

Industrial synthesis

Tributyrin is primarily produced on an industrial scale through the esterification of glycerol with butyric acid in the presence of acid catalysts, such as sulfuric acid or p-toluenesulfonic acid. This process involves heating the reactants to 100-150°C under reflux conditions, often with azeotropic removal of water using toluene to drive the equilibrium toward ester formation. The reaction proceeds as follows:

\mathrm{C_3H_8O_3 + 3 CH_3(CH_2)_2COOH \rightarrow (CH_3(CH_2)_2COO)_3C_3H_5 + 3 H_2O}

Typical molar ratios of glycerol to butyric acid range from 1:3 to 1:6, with catalyst concentrations of 1-5 wt%, yielding high-purity tributyrin after neutralization, washing, and distillation.^[18]^[19] Enzymatic synthesis using immobilized lipases, like Novozyme 435, offers a milder alternative at 40-60°C and ambient pressure, achieving conversions up to 97% with reduced byproduct formation and higher selectivity for pharmaceutical-grade product. These methods are particularly valued for their environmental benefits and ability to produce tributyrin with minimal energy input.^[20]^[21] Industrial processes routinely achieve tributyrin purity exceeding 97% through vacuum distillation, enabling its use in food additives and pharmaceutical formulations. Commercial production has been scaling to meet demands in animal feed and nutraceuticals, with key manufacturers employing continuous flow reactors for efficiency.^[21]^[22]

Biological and pharmacological aspects

Metabolism and bioavailability

Tributyrin exhibits favorable absorption characteristics owing to its lipophilic nature, enabling passive diffusion across the epithelial lining of the small intestine. Unlike free butyrate, which undergoes rapid uptake and metabolism in the proximal gut, tributyrin's esterified structure confers resistance to immediate breakdown, allowing a portion to progress distally while still permitting efficient absorption. This property positions tributyrin as an effective prodrug for sustained butyrate delivery throughout the gastrointestinal tract.^[23] In the gut lumen, tributyrin undergoes hydrolysis primarily by pancreatic and microbial lipases, which cleave its three ester bonds to release butyrate and glycerol in a controlled manner. The process can be summarized by the equation:

\text{Tributyrin (glyceryl tributyrate)} \xrightarrow{\text{lipases}} 3 \times \text{butyric acid} + \text{glycerol}

This enzymatic cleavage occurs progressively along the intestine, ensuring gradual butyrate liberation rather than a bolus release, which enhances its therapeutic potential compared to direct butyrate administration. Intracellular lipases may further contribute to hydrolysis once absorbed, providing localized butyrate production within enterocytes.^[23]^[24] The bioavailability of tributyrin surpasses that of sodium butyrate, with improved delivery to the colon due to its stability and slower hydrolysis profile; studies indicate higher colonic butyrate concentrations achievable through this mechanism. Following oral ingestion, plasma butyrate levels typically peak within 1-3 hours, reaching 0-0.45 mM in humans, with a half-life of approximately 40 minutes in animal models.^[23]^[24] Gut microbiota also contribute by further metabolizing residual tributyrin or released butyrate, augmenting the pool of short-chain fatty acids through cross-feeding interactions. A 2025 pharmacokinetic study confirmed tributyrin's short half-life and rapid systemic appearance compared to other butyrate forms, supporting thrice-daily dosing for sustained effects.^[25]

Physiological effects

Tributyrin, upon metabolism to butyrate in the gastrointestinal tract, exerts beneficial effects on gut health by promoting mucin production and enhancing tight junction integrity. Butyrate stimulates the expression and secretion of MUC2, the primary mucin glycoprotein in the colonic mucus layer, which fortifies the protective barrier against pathogens and supports epithelial homeostasis.^[26] Additionally, it upregulates tight junction proteins such as occludin and claudins (e.g., claudin-1), thereby strengthening intestinal barrier function and reducing permeability.^[27]^[28] These actions contribute to reduced gut inflammation, primarily through butyrate's role as a histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitor, which modulates inflammatory signaling pathways in intestinal epithelial cells.^[29] In terms of epigenetic modulation, butyrate serves as an HDAC inhibitor that influences gene expression in colonocytes, the primary cells of the colonic epithelium. By inhibiting HDACs, butyrate increases histone acetylation, leading to enhanced transcription of genes involved in cell differentiation, proliferation control, and anti-inflammatory responses.^[30] This epigenetic mechanism helps maintain colonic epithelial integrity and prevents aberrant cellular behaviors associated with inflammation.^[31] Systemically, increased butyrate availability from tributyrin supplementation improves insulin sensitivity by enhancing glucose uptake and mitochondrial function in peripheral tissues.^[32] It also mitigates oxidative stress through antioxidant gene upregulation and reduced reactive oxygen species production.^[33] Furthermore, butyrate can cross the blood-brain barrier, potentially influencing its permeability and supporting neuroprotection via HDAC inhibition in brain cells.^[29] Recent studies as of 2025 suggest tributyrin's potential in mental health, with 8-week oral supplementation showing feasibility and acceptability as an add-on to antidepressant therapy, possibly via gut-brain axis modulation.^[34] Evidence from rodent models demonstrates that tributyrin enhances gut microbiota diversity, as observed in antibiotic-treated mice where supplementation restored alpha-diversity indices like Chao1 and Shannon, alongside shifts toward beneficial bacterial populations.^[35] These changes correlate with improved intestinal barrier repair and reduced dysbiosis in models of gut disruption.^[36]

Applications and uses

As a dietary supplement

Tributyrin is marketed as a dietary supplement in various over-the-counter formulations, primarily softgels or capsules containing 300 to 600 mg of tributyrin per serving.^[37]^[38] These products are frequently combined with probiotics to support overall gut health.^[39]^[40] Available under brand names such as "Tri-Butyrin Supreme," these supplements target consumer concerns like leaky gut and irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), with manufacturers like Designs for Health incorporating odor-minimizing technologies for better tolerability.^[37]^[41] They are widely sold through online retailers including Amazon and Walmart, as well as specialty health sites.^[42]^[38] For general wellness, recommended intakes typically range from 500 to 1500 mg per day, often delivered via self-emulsifying systems like those in CoreBiome formulations to enhance bioavailability and absorption in the gut.^[43]^[41] Tributyrin supplements have gained traction in functional nutrition since the 2010s, driven by growing interest in postbiotics for digestive support.^[44] This compound occurs naturally in butter, providing a dietary precursor to its supplemental applications.^[41]

Therapeutic and research applications

Tributyrin has shown promise in therapeutic applications for gut disorders, particularly in addressing microbiota dysbiosis and intestinal barrier repair. In a 2023 preclinical study using antibiotic-treated mouse models, oral administration of tributyrin restored gut microbiota composition by increasing beneficial bacteria such as Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus, while reducing pathogenic species like Proteobacteria.^[35] This modulation elevated short-chain fatty acid levels, suppressed inflammatory cytokines including TNF-α and IL-6, and repaired intestinal mucosal damage through enhanced tight junction protein expression, suggesting potential for inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) interventions where dysbiosis contributes to barrier dysfunction.^[35] In cancer research, tributyrin exhibits antiproliferative effects primarily through its hydrolysis to butyrate, which inhibits histone deacetylases (HDACs) and induces apoptosis in tumor cells. Early in vitro studies on human colon cancer cell lines, such as HT-29, demonstrated that tributyrin more effectively suppressed cell growth and promoted differentiation compared to free butyrate, with IC50 values indicating up to threefold greater potency on a molar basis due to improved cellular uptake and sustained release.^[45] These effects were linked to G2/M cell cycle arrest and increased expression of differentiation markers like alkaline phosphatase.^[45] Clinically, a completed Phase I trial (NCT00002677) evaluated oral tributyrin in patients with refractory prostate cancer and other solid tumors, establishing its safety profile with dose-limiting toxicities limited to mild gastrointestinal effects, paving the way for further oncology explorations.^[5] Emerging evidence supports tributyrin's neurological potential via butyrate's role in crossing the blood-brain barrier to exert neuroprotective effects. A 2024 study in aged mice found that tributyrin supplementation mitigated age-related declines in butyrate-producing gut bacteria, thereby preserving cognitive function and reducing neuroinflammation markers in the hippocampus.^[46] Similarly, in models of microbiota disruption, tributyrin rescued myelin sheath integrity and behavioral deficits by enhancing brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) expression along the gut-brain axis.^[47] A clinical trial (NCT06501898), terminated due to loss of funding, investigated tributyrin's efficacy for performance enhancement, measuring impacts on metabolite profiles, sleep, and cognitive biomarkers in healthy adults.^[48] As of 2025, a pilot randomized controlled trial is assessing the feasibility and acceptability of 8-week oral tributyrin supplementation in adults with mild-to-severe major depressive disorder.^[34] Additionally, a Phase 2 trial (NCT07154511) is evaluating tributyrin for improving memory, thinking, walking, and balance in people with Parkinson's disease and cognitive impairments.^[49] Tributyrin is also under investigation for metabolic syndrome, where it attenuates obesity-related inflammation and insulin resistance more effectively than butyrate in preclinical models. In high-fat diet-fed mice, tributyrin treatment reduced body weight gain, improved glucose tolerance, and lowered circulating inflammatory markers via GPR109A receptor activation, outperforming equimolar butyrate due to enhanced bioavailability.^[50] These findings from 2000s and later studies highlight tributyrin's superior in vitro potency in modulating metabolic pathways, such as fatty acid oxidation, compared to free butyrate.^[51]

Safety and regulation

Toxicity profile

Tributyrin demonstrates low acute oral toxicity, with an LD50 value of 3,200 mg/kg body weight in rats, classifying it as relatively safe for ingestion compared to more toxic substances. This profile aligns with its natural occurrence in dietary sources like butter and cheese, where it is present in small amounts without reported acute adverse effects from normal consumption.^[52] In a Phase I clinical trial, side effects such as nausea, diarrhea, abdominal cramping, vomiting, and headache were observed at high doses up to 400 mg/kg/day.^[53] Such side effects are typically mild to moderate and transient, with low doses up to 2,000 mg/day generally well-tolerated and no short-term adverse reactions reported in available studies.^[43] Regarding chronic exposure, tributyrin is not classified as carcinogenic, and safety data sheets indicate no adverse effects from prolonged low-level intake in animal models.^[54] The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) has evaluated related short-chain fatty acid esters as safe for use in animal feed at concentrations up to 5 mg/kg complete feed.^[55] Butyrate, released from tributyrin, may improve insulin sensitivity in preclinical models, but specific interactions with antidiabetic medications and potential amplification of hypoglycemic effects require further clinical study.

Regulatory status

In the United States, tributyrin is affirmed as generally recognized as safe (GRAS) by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for use as a direct human food ingredient, specifically as a flavoring agent, under 21 CFR 184.1903.^[56] This status is based on its history of safe use in food products and evaluation by the Flavor and Extract Manufacturers Association (FEMA), where it is assigned FEMA number 2223 for flavoring purposes.^[57] In the European Union, tributyrin is authorized for use as a flavoring substance in food under Regulation (EC) No 1334/2008, often employed to mimic dairy flavors, though it does not carry a specific E-number as it falls under the broader category of flavorings rather than listed additives.^[52] As a dietary supplement ingredient, tributyrin is regulated under the Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act (DSHEA) of 1994, which classifies it as a dietary ingredient permissible for marketing without pre-market approval by the FDA, provided it meets current good manufacturing practices and labeling requirements; no prescription is required for its sale or use.^[58] This framework allows tributyrin to be incorporated into supplements targeting gut health, leveraging its low toxicity profile to support such applications.^[59] In the pharmaceutical context, tributyrin is classified as an investigational drug with DrugBank ID DB12709 and has been evaluated in clinical trials, including Phase 1 studies for prostate cancer and unspecified adult solid tumors. As of November 2025, it remains investigational, with ongoing Phase I/II trials for conditions like Alzheimer's disease and solid tumors, but is not approved for routine therapeutic use.^[5]^[60] Internationally, the World Health Organization (WHO), in collaboration with the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), recognizes tributyrin through the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA), which has evaluated it as a flavoring agent (JECFA number 922) with an acceptable daily intake not specified due to its low toxicity.^[61] Some countries impose restrictions on high-dose claims for butyrate precursors like tributyrin in supplements, requiring substantiation under general health claim regulations to prevent unsubstantiated therapeutic assertions.^[62]

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Oct 1, 2024 · FDA regulates dietary supplements under a different set of regulations than those covering conventional foods and drug products.
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tributyrin - WHO | JECFA
TRIBUTYRIN ; JECFA number. 922 ; COE number. 747 ; FEMA number. 2223 ; Functional Class. Flavouring Agent FLAVOURING_AGENT ; Tox Monograph: FAS 48-JECFA 57/333.
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Questions and Answers on Dietary Supplements - FDA
Feb 21, 2024 · Under DSHEA, FDA does not have the authority to approve dietary supplements before they are marketed. Generally, a firm does not have to provide ...Missing: tributyrin | Show results with:tributyrin