1710
1710 was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar, the 1710th year of the Common Era, and the tenth year of the eighteenth century, amid protracted multinational conflicts including the Great Northern War and the War of the Spanish Succession.[1] In northern Europe, Swedish forces under Magnus Stenbock decisively defeated a Danish invasion at the Battle of Helsingborg on 28 February, securing Scania and bolstering Sweden's position against the anti-Swedish coalition.[2] Further south, in the Iberian theater of the War of the Spanish Succession, French and Spanish Bourbon armies achieved critical victories at the Battles of Brihuega (8–9 December) and Villaviciosa (10 December), capturing British general James Stanhope and compelling Allied forces to retreat, which undermined British strategic aims on the peninsula.[3][4] Colonial endeavors also advanced, as British and colonial troops captured the French stronghold of Port Royal in Acadia between 5 and 13 October, renaming it Annapolis Royal and establishing firmer English control over northeastern North America amid Queen Anne's War.[5] Domestically in Britain, political realignment occurred with the resignation of Whig lord treasurer Sidney Godolphin on 7 August, paving the way for a Tory-dominated ministry under Robert Harley, reflecting electoral gains against the Marlborough-Godolphin regime.[6] [7] The year witnessed the birth of Louis XV of France on 15 February, future king whose minority would shape European diplomacy.[2] In Asia, Sikh forces under Banda Bahadur defeated Mughal imperial troops at the Battle of Sirhind on 10 May, marking a significant escalation in Sikh resistance against Mughal authority.[2]Events
January–March
A severe winter across Europe led to widespread food shortages in major cities, exacerbating hardships amid ongoing wars. In Russia, Tsar Peter the Great established the first state budget on January 27, marking a step toward centralized financial administration in the expanding empire.[8] On January 1, Parisian merchant Jean Marius secured a royal privilege for Europe's inaugural folding umbrella, an innovation in portable rain protection.[2] In Britain, the trial of clergyman Henry Sacheverell began on February 27 and concluded March 21; Sacheverell had preached against the Glorious Revolution's toleration policies, galvanizing Tory opposition and contributing to a shift in parliamentary power. Peace negotiations in the War of the Spanish Succession resumed at Geertruidenberg from March to July, involving French, British, Dutch, and other allied representatives, though they ultimately stalled over demands for Spanish territorial concessions.[3] The Great Northern War saw a decisive engagement on February 28 (Swedish calendar) at the Battle of Helsingborg, where Swedish forces under Count Magnus Stenbock routed 14,000 Danish invaders led by Jørgen Rantzau, securing Scania and halting Danish incursions into southern Sweden.[2] Elsewhere, approximately 3,000 Palatine German refugees departed England for the American colonies in early January, seeking relief from poverty and war devastation; their voyage to New York initiated significant German settlement in the Hudson Valley.[9] In the Dutch Republic, Johan Willem Friso assumed the role of viceroy of Groningen on February 20, consolidating his influence in the northern provinces amid the War of the Spanish Succession.[10] In Japan, the death of retired Emperor Higashiyama on January 16 occurred without disruption, affirming the stability of Tokugawa-era imperial transitions through established rituals.[11]April–June
On 5 April, Parliament passed the Statute of Anne, the first statute to provide statutory copyright protection for books, granting creators and publishers exclusive rights for 14 years (renewable once), shifting from perpetual guild monopolies to time-limited incentives for knowledge dissemination.[12] In mid-April, a delegation of four Native American leaders—three Mohawk chiefs (Ho Nee Yeath Taw No Row, Sa Nee Jow, and Tee Yee Ho Ga Row) and one Mahican chief (John of Canajoharie)—arrived in London from the British colonies in North America. Received by Queen Anne on 20 April, they delivered speeches seeking military aid against French encroachment and Iroquois rivals, highlighting emerging Anglo-indigenous alliances amid colonial rivalries; their portraits by John Verelst became iconic records of the encounter.[13] The Siege of Douai commenced on 22 April during the War of the Spanish Succession, as Allied forces under Prince Eugene of Savoy (26,000 troops) invested the French stronghold defended by Louis François, duc de Boufflers (32,000). Lasting until September, the operation inflicted heavy attrition—over 15,000 Allied casualties—but yielded a key Flemish fortress, underscoring the war's grinding positional warfare.[14] Sikh forces under Banda Singh Bahadur achieved a decisive victory on 12 May at the Battle of Chappar Chiri, near Sirhind in Punjab, over Mughal troops led by Wazir Khan (governor of Sirhind). Outnumbered roughly 5,000 Sikhs against 15,000–20,000 Mughals, the battle turned on tactical envelopment and morale collapse after the death of key Mughal commanders, resulting in 2,000 Mughal dead and the flight of survivors; it avenged the 1705 martyrdom of Guru Gobind Singh's younger sons and enabled Sikh occupation of Sirhind by late June, minting coins and collecting revenue in Guru's name to assert temporal sovereignty amid Mughal decline.[15] In the Great Northern War, Russian besiegers under Admiral Fyodor Apraksin compelled the surrender of Vyborg fortress on 13 June after a three-month investment starting in March, with the Swedish garrison of 3,500 capitulating following bombardment and failed relief attempts; this Baltic gain, defended by minimal earthworks against Russian artillery superiority, eroded Swedish naval access and presaged further Russian incursions into Finland.[16]July–September
In the Great Northern War, Russian forces completed the siege of Riga on July 15, capturing the key Swedish Baltic port after eight months of blockade, exacerbated by famine and plague within the city. The Swedish garrison, numbering around 5,000 including many ill, capitulated to Field Marshal Boris Sheremetev's army, yielding significant artillery and supplies to Russia and weakening Sweden's hold on Livonia.[17][18] On July 27, Allied forces under Austrian commander Guido Starhemberg decisively defeated Bourbon Spanish troops led by François de Neufville, duc de Villeroy, at the Battle of Almenara near the Noguera River in Aragon. Comprising Austrians, British, Dutch, and Portuguese elements totaling about 24,000 men, the Allies routed the Bourbon army of similar size, inflicting heavy casualties and capturing standards, which opened the path for further advances into Spain. British cavalry, including Pepper's Dragoons, played a crucial role in breaking the Spanish horse.[19][20][21] The Allied momentum continued with victory at the Battle of Saragossa on August 20, where Starhemberg's army overwhelmed the Bourbon defenders under the Marquis de Bay outside Zaragoza. Exploiting the disarray from Almenara, the Allies pursued and shattered the Spanish forces, leading to the temporary occupation of Madrid by late September as Philip V fled to Valladolid. These successes briefly revived hopes for Archduke Charles's claim to the Spanish throne, though logistical strains and Bourbon reinforcements under Louis Joseph de Vendôme later reversed gains.[22][23][21] In Britain, political shifts occurred on August 7 when Sidney Godolphin, 1st Earl of Godolphin, resigned as Lord High Treasurer amid Tory pressures and the Marlborough-Godolphin ministry's weakening influence. This event foreshadowed Queen Anne's move toward Tory dominance, altering war policy alignments.[24]October–December
- October 12 – Jonathan Trumbull, American merchant, politician, and only person to serve as governor of both a British colony and an independent U.S. state, Connecticut (d. 1785).[25]
- November 8 – Sarah Fielding, English author known for early novels like The Adventures of David Simple (1744), which explored social observations through moral narratives (d. 1768).[26]
- November 10 – Adam Gottlob Moltke, Danish nobleman and statesman who rose to chief minister under King Frederick V, influencing administrative reforms and court patronage (d. 1792).[27]
- November 22 – Wilhelm Friedemann Bach, German composer, organist, and eldest son of Johann Sebastian Bach, whose works emphasized intricate counterpoint and fugal structures, resisting the lighter, melodic emphases of the emerging galant style (d. 1784).[28][29]
- December 2 – Carlo Antonio Bertinazzi, Italian actor and playwright prominent in commedia dell'arte, specializing in the Harlequin role and contributing to theatrical improvisations in France (d. 1783).[30]
- December 21 – Michele Giovanni Marieschi, Venetian painter and engraver noted for vedute depicting canals and architecture, producing influential etchings that captured urban realism before his early death (d. 1743).[31]
Date unknown
In 1710, Beijing under Qing rule is estimated to have surpassed other urban centers to become the world's most populous city, with its population exceeding one million residents, supported by centralized imperial administration that concentrated resources and officials in the capital alongside agricultural productivity gains from New World crop introductions and hydraulic engineering improvements.[32] This development highlighted the scale of East Asian urbanization amid Qing consolidation, challenging Eurocentric views of early modern global city growth by demonstrating sustained non-Western demographic primacy driven by state-orchestrated economic surpluses rather than industrial precursors. Along the Zambezi River, the Rozvi Empire authorized Portuguese merchants to operate a trading post at Zumbo, enabling controlled exchange of gold, ivory, and slaves for firearms and textiles without ceding territorial sovereignty or allowing military garrisons.[33] This arrangement exemplified Rozvi rulers' strategic accommodation of European commerce to bolster internal revenue and military capacity, while limiting colonial footholds through regulated access and local intermediaries, thereby preserving African political autonomy amid expanding transcontinental trade networks. Throughout Scandinavia, persistent famine and plague outbreaks exacerbated by the Great Northern War's logistical demands afflicted Sweden and Denmark-Norway, with crop failures from conscription-disrupted harvests and troop movements compounding disease transmission via refugee flows and supply shortages.[34] In Sweden alone, the 1710 plague wave killed approximately 22,000 in Stockholm—40% of its inhabitants—and contributed to over 100,000 total deaths nationwide by 1711, reflecting the demographic toll of King Charles XII's protracted southern campaigns that prioritized frontline provisioning over domestic resilience.[34] These crises, intertwined with wartime devastation, reduced regional populations by up to 20% in affected areas, underscoring how aggressive expansionist policies strained agrarian economies beyond recoverable margins without corresponding territorial gains.Births
January–March
A severe winter across Europe led to widespread food shortages in major cities, exacerbating hardships amid ongoing wars. In Russia, Tsar Peter the Great established the first state budget on January 27, marking a step toward centralized financial administration in the expanding empire.[8] On January 1, Parisian merchant Jean Marius secured a royal privilege for Europe's inaugural folding umbrella, an innovation in portable rain protection.[2] In Britain, the trial of clergyman Henry Sacheverell began on February 27 and concluded March 21; Sacheverell had preached against the Glorious Revolution's toleration policies, galvanizing Tory opposition and contributing to a shift in parliamentary power. Peace negotiations in the War of the Spanish Succession resumed at Geertruidenberg from March to July, involving French, British, Dutch, and other allied representatives, though they ultimately stalled over demands for Spanish territorial concessions.[3] The Great Northern War saw a decisive engagement on February 28 (Swedish calendar) at the Battle of Helsingborg, where Swedish forces under Count Magnus Stenbock routed 14,000 Danish invaders led by Jørgen Rantzau, securing Scania and halting Danish incursions into southern Sweden.[2] Elsewhere, approximately 3,000 Palatine German refugees departed England for the American colonies in early January, seeking relief from poverty and war devastation; their voyage to New York initiated significant German settlement in the Hudson Valley.[9] In the Dutch Republic, Johan Willem Friso assumed the role of viceroy of Groningen on February 20, consolidating his influence in the northern provinces amid the War of the Spanish Succession.[10] In Japan, the death of retired Emperor Higashiyama on January 16 occurred without disruption, affirming the stability of Tokugawa-era imperial transitions through established rituals.[11]April–June
On 5 April, Parliament passed the Statute of Anne, the first statute to provide statutory copyright protection for books, granting creators and publishers exclusive rights for 14 years (renewable once), shifting from perpetual guild monopolies to time-limited incentives for knowledge dissemination.[12] In mid-April, a delegation of four Native American leaders—three Mohawk chiefs (Ho Nee Yeath Taw No Row, Sa Nee Jow, and Tee Yee Ho Ga Row) and one Mahican chief (John of Canajoharie)—arrived in London from the British colonies in North America. Received by Queen Anne on 20 April, they delivered speeches seeking military aid against French encroachment and Iroquois rivals, highlighting emerging Anglo-indigenous alliances amid colonial rivalries; their portraits by John Verelst became iconic records of the encounter.[13] The Siege of Douai commenced on 22 April during the War of the Spanish Succession, as Allied forces under Prince Eugene of Savoy (26,000 troops) invested the French stronghold defended by Louis François, duc de Boufflers (32,000). Lasting until September, the operation inflicted heavy attrition—over 15,000 Allied casualties—but yielded a key Flemish fortress, underscoring the war's grinding positional warfare.[14] Sikh forces under Banda Singh Bahadur achieved a decisive victory on 12 May at the Battle of Chappar Chiri, near Sirhind in Punjab, over Mughal troops led by Wazir Khan (governor of Sirhind). Outnumbered roughly 5,000 Sikhs against 15,000–20,000 Mughals, the battle turned on tactical envelopment and morale collapse after the death of key Mughal commanders, resulting in 2,000 Mughal dead and the flight of survivors; it avenged the 1705 martyrdom of Guru Gobind Singh's younger sons and enabled Sikh occupation of Sirhind by late June, minting coins and collecting revenue in Guru's name to assert temporal sovereignty amid Mughal decline.[15] In the Great Northern War, Russian besiegers under Admiral Fyodor Apraksin compelled the surrender of Vyborg fortress on 13 June after a three-month investment starting in March, with the Swedish garrison of 3,500 capitulating following bombardment and failed relief attempts; this Baltic gain, defended by minimal earthworks against Russian artillery superiority, eroded Swedish naval access and presaged further Russian incursions into Finland.[16]July–September
In the Great Northern War, Russian forces completed the siege of Riga on July 15, capturing the key Swedish Baltic port after eight months of blockade, exacerbated by famine and plague within the city. The Swedish garrison, numbering around 5,000 including many ill, capitulated to Field Marshal Boris Sheremetev's army, yielding significant artillery and supplies to Russia and weakening Sweden's hold on Livonia.[17][18] On July 27, Allied forces under Austrian commander Guido Starhemberg decisively defeated Bourbon Spanish troops led by François de Neufville, duc de Villeroy, at the Battle of Almenara near the Noguera River in Aragon. Comprising Austrians, British, Dutch, and Portuguese elements totaling about 24,000 men, the Allies routed the Bourbon army of similar size, inflicting heavy casualties and capturing standards, which opened the path for further advances into Spain. British cavalry, including Pepper's Dragoons, played a crucial role in breaking the Spanish horse.[19][20][21] The Allied momentum continued with victory at the Battle of Saragossa on August 20, where Starhemberg's army overwhelmed the Bourbon defenders under the Marquis de Bay outside Zaragoza. Exploiting the disarray from Almenara, the Allies pursued and shattered the Spanish forces, leading to the temporary occupation of Madrid by late September as Philip V fled to Valladolid. These successes briefly revived hopes for Archduke Charles's claim to the Spanish throne, though logistical strains and Bourbon reinforcements under Louis Joseph de Vendôme later reversed gains.[22][23][21] In Britain, political shifts occurred on August 7 when Sidney Godolphin, 1st Earl of Godolphin, resigned as Lord High Treasurer amid Tory pressures and the Marlborough-Godolphin ministry's weakening influence. This event foreshadowed Queen Anne's move toward Tory dominance, altering war policy alignments.[24]October–December
- October 12 – Jonathan Trumbull, American merchant, politician, and only person to serve as governor of both a British colony and an independent U.S. state, Connecticut (d. 1785).[25]
- November 8 – Sarah Fielding, English author known for early novels like The Adventures of David Simple (1744), which explored social observations through moral narratives (d. 1768).[26]
- November 10 – Adam Gottlob Moltke, Danish nobleman and statesman who rose to chief minister under King Frederick V, influencing administrative reforms and court patronage (d. 1792).[27]
Deaths
January–March
A severe winter across Europe led to widespread food shortages in major cities, exacerbating hardships amid ongoing wars. In Russia, Tsar Peter the Great established the first state budget on January 27, marking a step toward centralized financial administration in the expanding empire.[8] On January 1, Parisian merchant Jean Marius secured a royal privilege for Europe's inaugural folding umbrella, an innovation in portable rain protection.[2] In Britain, the trial of clergyman Henry Sacheverell began on February 27 and concluded March 21; Sacheverell had preached against the Glorious Revolution's toleration policies, galvanizing Tory opposition and contributing to a shift in parliamentary power. Peace negotiations in the War of the Spanish Succession resumed at Geertruidenberg from March to July, involving French, British, Dutch, and other allied representatives, though they ultimately stalled over demands for Spanish territorial concessions.[3] The Great Northern War saw a decisive engagement on February 28 (Swedish calendar) at the Battle of Helsingborg, where Swedish forces under Count Magnus Stenbock routed 14,000 Danish invaders led by Jørgen Rantzau, securing Scania and halting Danish incursions into southern Sweden.[2] Elsewhere, approximately 3,000 Palatine German refugees departed England for the American colonies in early January, seeking relief from poverty and war devastation; their voyage to New York initiated significant German settlement in the Hudson Valley.[9] In the Dutch Republic, Johan Willem Friso assumed the role of viceroy of Groningen on February 20, consolidating his influence in the northern provinces amid the War of the Spanish Succession.[10] In Japan, the death of retired Emperor Higashiyama on January 16 occurred without disruption, affirming the stability of Tokugawa-era imperial transitions through established rituals.[11]April–June
On 5 April, Parliament passed the Statute of Anne, the first statute to provide statutory copyright protection for books, granting creators and publishers exclusive rights for 14 years (renewable once), shifting from perpetual guild monopolies to time-limited incentives for knowledge dissemination.[12] In mid-April, a delegation of four Native American leaders—three Mohawk chiefs (Ho Nee Yeath Taw No Row, Sa Nee Jow, and Tee Yee Ho Ga Row) and one Mahican chief (John of Canajoharie)—arrived in London from the British colonies in North America. Received by Queen Anne on 20 April, they delivered speeches seeking military aid against French encroachment and Iroquois rivals, highlighting emerging Anglo-indigenous alliances amid colonial rivalries; their portraits by John Verelst became iconic records of the encounter.[13] The Siege of Douai commenced on 22 April during the War of the Spanish Succession, as Allied forces under Prince Eugene of Savoy (26,000 troops) invested the French stronghold defended by Louis François, duc de Boufflers (32,000). Lasting until September, the operation inflicted heavy attrition—over 15,000 Allied casualties—but yielded a key Flemish fortress, underscoring the war's grinding positional warfare.[14] Sikh forces under Banda Singh Bahadur achieved a decisive victory on 12 May at the Battle of Chappar Chiri, near Sirhind in Punjab, over Mughal troops led by Wazir Khan (governor of Sirhind). Outnumbered roughly 5,000 Sikhs against 15,000–20,000 Mughals, the battle turned on tactical envelopment and morale collapse after the death of key Mughal commanders, resulting in 2,000 Mughal dead and the flight of survivors; it avenged the 1705 martyrdom of Guru Gobind Singh's younger sons and enabled Sikh occupation of Sirhind by late June, minting coins and collecting revenue in Guru's name to assert temporal sovereignty amid Mughal decline.[15] In the Great Northern War, Russian besiegers under Admiral Fyodor Apraksin compelled the surrender of Vyborg fortress on 13 June after a three-month investment starting in March, with the Swedish garrison of 3,500 capitulating following bombardment and failed relief attempts; this Baltic gain, defended by minimal earthworks against Russian artillery superiority, eroded Swedish naval access and presaged further Russian incursions into Finland.[16]July–September
In the Great Northern War, Russian forces completed the siege of Riga on July 15, capturing the key Swedish Baltic port after eight months of blockade, exacerbated by famine and plague within the city. The Swedish garrison, numbering around 5,000 including many ill, capitulated to Field Marshal Boris Sheremetev's army, yielding significant artillery and supplies to Russia and weakening Sweden's hold on Livonia.[17][18] On July 27, Allied forces under Austrian commander Guido Starhemberg decisively defeated Bourbon Spanish troops led by François de Neufville, duc de Villeroy, at the Battle of Almenara near the Noguera River in Aragon. Comprising Austrians, British, Dutch, and Portuguese elements totaling about 24,000 men, the Allies routed the Bourbon army of similar size, inflicting heavy casualties and capturing standards, which opened the path for further advances into Spain. British cavalry, including Pepper's Dragoons, played a crucial role in breaking the Spanish horse.[19][20][21] The Allied momentum continued with victory at the Battle of Saragossa on August 20, where Starhemberg's army overwhelmed the Bourbon defenders under the Marquis de Bay outside Zaragoza. Exploiting the disarray from Almenara, the Allies pursued and shattered the Spanish forces, leading to the temporary occupation of Madrid by late September as Philip V fled to Valladolid. These successes briefly revived hopes for Archduke Charles's claim to the Spanish throne, though logistical strains and Bourbon reinforcements under Louis Joseph de Vendôme later reversed gains.[22][23][21] In Britain, political shifts occurred on August 7 when Sidney Godolphin, 1st Earl of Godolphin, resigned as Lord High Treasurer amid Tory pressures and the Marlborough-Godolphin ministry's weakening influence. This event foreshadowed Queen Anne's move toward Tory dominance, altering war policy alignments.[24]October–December
- October 12 – Jonathan Trumbull, American merchant, politician, and only person to serve as governor of both a British colony and an independent U.S. state, Connecticut (d. 1785).[25]
- November 8 – Sarah Fielding, English author known for early novels like The Adventures of David Simple (1744), which explored social observations through moral narratives (d. 1768).[26]
- November 10 – Adam Gottlob Moltke, Danish nobleman and statesman who rose to chief minister under King Frederick V, influencing administrative reforms and court patronage (d. 1792).[27]