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1791

1791 marked a year of profound revolutionary upheaval and institutional consolidation, highlighted by the ratification of the United States Bill of Rights on December 15, which enshrined protections for individual liberties including freedom of speech, religion, and assembly against federal infringement.^[1] In parallel, the French Revolution intensified amid domestic radicalization and international backlash, as the National Guard suppressed republican petitioners in the Champ de Mars Massacre on July 17, resulting in scores of deaths, while the Declaration of Pillnitz on August 27 saw Austria and Prussia warn against attacks on Louis XVI, escalating fears of monarchical intervention.^[2] Most consequentially in the colonial sphere, a massive slave revolt erupted in the French colony of Saint-Domingue on August 22, organized by enslaved Africans who torched plantations and massacred white planters, initiating the Haitian Revolution that ultimately dismantled slavery and colonial rule through protracted warfare.^[3] In the early American republic, the First Bank of the United States was chartered on February 25 to stabilize finances and foster economic growth, though it fueled emerging partisan divides between Federalists and Anti-Federalists.^[4] Native American confederacies also delivered a severe setback to U.S. expansionism with the Battle of the Wabash on November 4, where Miami and Shawnee warriors under Blue Jacket and Little Turtle annihilated General Arthur St. Clair's forces, the worst defeat ever inflicted on the U.S. Army by indigenous fighters.^[2] These events underscored 1791's role in amplifying transatlantic struggles over liberty, sovereignty, and power structures, with causal chains linking Enlightenment ideals to violent contestations that reshaped empires and nations.

Events

January–March

On January 2, Lenape and Wyandot warriors attacked the Big Bottom blockhouse settlement in the Ohio Country, near present-day Stockport in Morgan County, Ohio, killing 12 of the approximately 38 settlers and capturing several others, including women and children.^[5] The assault, involving around 100 Native fighters, exploited the settlers' inadequate defenses and overconfidence following the American Revolutionary War, marking the onset of intensified frontier conflict in the Northwest Indian War.^[6] This event prompted federal military responses and underscored ongoing tensions over land cessions under treaties like the 1785 Treaty of Fort McIntosh, which Natives viewed as coerced.^[7] In France, Honoré Gabriel Riqueti, comte de Mirabeau, a key moderate figure in the National Constituent Assembly, was elected president on January 30, reflecting his influence in advocating constitutional monarchy amid revolutionary pressures.^[8] Mirabeau's leadership sought to balance royal authority with assembly reforms, though his secret dealings with the court later complicated his legacy.^[9] On February 25, the United States Congress chartered the First Bank of the United States for a 20-year term, establishing a national financial institution to manage federal funds, issue currency, and support economic stability as proposed by Treasury Secretary Alexander Hamilton.^[10] The legislation passed despite opposition from figures like James Madison, who argued it exceeded constitutional powers, highlighting early debates on federal authority.^[11] In early March, specifically on March 2, Claude Chappe and his brothers conducted the first public demonstration of their optical semaphore telegraph system between Brûlon and Parcé, covering 14 kilometers, laying groundwork for visual long-distance signaling later adopted by the French military.^[12] This invention preceded electrical telegraphs by decades, relying on articulated arms visible via telescopes to transmit messages.^[13]

April–June

In France, the National Constituent Assembly continued enacting reforms amid growing tensions between revolutionaries and royalists. On April 2, Honoré Gabriel Riqueti, comte de Mirabeau, a key figure who had secretly advised King Louis XVI while publicly supporting the Revolution, died of natural causes, depriving the moderate faction of a crucial leader.^[14] His death prompted the Assembly to transfer his remains to the Panthéon on April 4 as a symbol of revolutionary honor, though later revelations of his double-dealing led to their removal in 1794.^[15] Tensions escalated on April 18 when the royal family attempted to travel to Saint-Cloud for Easter Mass but was blocked by a hostile crowd in Paris, highlighting the increasing restrictions on the monarchy's mobility and the rising influence of radical factions like the Cordeliers Club.^[14] In May, the Assembly addressed ecclesiastical and colonial issues: on May 7, it allowed non-juring priests—those who refused the Civil Constitution of the Clergy—to perform services, a concession to Catholic sentiment that failed to quell refractory clergy resistance; on May 15, it extended citizenship rights to free-born people of color in the colonies amid unrest in Saint-Domingue (modern Haiti).^[14] These measures reflected efforts to consolidate revolutionary gains while navigating divisions over religion and empire. Legislative actions intensified in mid-May and June. On May 16, Maximilien Robespierre proposed and the Assembly adopted the self-denying ordinance, prohibiting current deputies from serving in the upcoming Legislative Assembly to prevent entrenchment of power, though it later fueled factionalism.^[14]^[16] On June 14, the Le Chapelier Law banned workers' associations, strikes, and guilds, ostensibly to promote free markets but effectively suppressing labor organization in favor of property rights.^[14] The period culminated in a constitutional crisis on June 20–21, when Louis XVI, Marie Antoinette, and their immediate family secretly fled Paris in disguise, aiming to reach loyalist troops at Montmédy near the Austrian border. The escape, organized by Count Axel von Fersen, covered over 200 kilometers before the royals were recognized and arrested at Varennes-en-Argonne due to delays and local alerts.^[17]^[18] The event shattered the king's credibility, confirming suspicions of counter-revolutionary collusion with foreign powers and accelerating demands for his deposition; the Assembly suspended him on June 21 and ordered the family's return to Paris under guard by June 25, where they faced intensified scrutiny and house arrest at the Tuileries Palace.^[14] Elsewhere, on May 3, the Great Sejm of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth adopted Europe's first codified constitution, establishing a hereditary monarchy, strengthening the executive, granting political rights to burghers while limiting noble privileges (liberum veto), and aiming to reform a weakened state amid Russian influence; it was the second written national constitution globally after the United States'.^[19]^[20] This progressive document sought to modernize governance and avert partition but provoked conservative noble opposition and Russian intervention, contributing to Poland's dismemberment the following year.

July–September

In July 1791, anti-Dissenter riots erupted in Birmingham, England, on the second anniversary of the storming of the Bastille, targeting supporters of the French Revolution. The disturbances, known as the Priestley Riots or Church-and-King Riots, began on July 14 when mobs attacked dissenting chapels and the home and laboratory of chemist and philosopher Joseph Priestley, a prominent advocate for political reform and religious tolerance. The violence lasted several days, destroying property associated with Dissenters perceived as radical, amid heightened tensions over the perceived threat of revolutionary ideas spreading from France.^[21] On July 17, 1791, the Champ de Mars Massacre occurred in Paris during the French Revolution. Following the royal family's failed Flight to Varennes in June, a petition demanding the abdication of King Louis XVI gathered over 50,000 signatures, leading to a mass assembly at the Champ de Mars. The National Guard, under orders from the Marquis de Lafayette, opened fire on the crowd after reports of hidden weapons, resulting in approximately 50 deaths and hundreds wounded, according to contemporary estimates. This event deepened divisions between moderates and radicals, eroding support for the constitutional monarchy.^[22] In late August 1791, the Haitian Revolution commenced in the French colony of Saint-Domingue. On the night of August 22–23, thousands of enslaved Africans launched a coordinated uprising in the northern plains, led by figures including Dutty Boukman, burning plantations and killing white colonists in a bid for freedom amid grievances over brutal slavery conditions and inspired partly by revolutionary rhetoric from France. The revolt rapidly spread, destroying over 1,000 plantations and causing around 2,000 white deaths within weeks, marking the beginning of a prolonged struggle that would culminate in Haitian independence.^[23] The Declaration of Pillnitz was issued on August 27, 1791, by Holy Roman Emperor Leopold II and King Frederick William II of Prussia at Pillnitz Castle near Dresden. The statement declared their concern for the safety of Louis XVI and readiness to act in concert with other European powers to restore order in France, though it explicitly conditioned intervention on collective European action. French revolutionaries interpreted it as a veiled threat of invasion, fueling war fever and contributing to the radicalization of the Legislative Assembly.^[24] In September 1791, the National Constituent Assembly finalized and passed the Constitution of 1791 on September 3, establishing a constitutional monarchy with legislative power vested in a single unicameral assembly elected by active citizens—adult males paying a minimum tax. King Louis XVI formally accepted the constitution on September 14, taking an oath to uphold it, which temporarily stabilized the regime but masked underlying tensions. The assembly dissolved itself on September 30, transitioning to the new Legislative Assembly amid ongoing economic woes and émigré threats.^[22]

October–December

On October 1, the Legislative Assembly of France convened for its first session in Paris, succeeding the National Constituent Assembly and operating under the newly adopted Constitution of 1791, which established a constitutional monarchy with limited royal powers and a unicameral legislature elected by active male citizens.^[25] This body, comprising 745 deputies divided into royalist Feuillants, moderate Girondins, and radical Jacobins, immediately faced tensions over émigré nobles, refractory clergy, and foreign threats, setting the stage for escalating revolutionary conflicts.^[25] In the Northwest Territory, a U.S. expeditionary force of approximately 1,000 soldiers under Major General Arthur St. Clair suffered a catastrophic defeat on November 4 near the Wabash River in present-day Ohio, attacked at dawn by a Native American confederacy led by Miami chief Little Turtle and Shawnee leader Blue Jacket, resulting in over 600 U.S. troops killed and 240 wounded—the highest casualty rate for U.S. forces until the Battle of Little Bighorn in 1876.^[26] The rout, attributed to supply shortages, illness reducing effective strength to under 600 combatants, and inadequate scouting, exposed vulnerabilities in federal military capacity against unified Indigenous resistance to settler expansion and prompted congressional investigations and reforms, including increased funding for a professional army.^[27] The ratification of the first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution, known as the Bill of Rights, was completed on December 15 when Virginia became the tenth state to approve, rendering them effective and enshrining protections for individual liberties such as freedom of speech, religion, assembly, the press, and safeguards against unreasonable searches, excessive bail, and self-incrimination.^[28] Drafted primarily by James Madison in response to Anti-Federalist concerns during the 1787-1788 ratification debates, these amendments limited federal overreach and affirmed state sovereignty in unenumerated rights, influencing subsequent constitutional frameworks globally.

Date unknown

The Liverpool School for the Indigent Blind is established in Liverpool, England, by a group of local philanthropists including the blind reformer Edward Rushton and merchant John Christie, marking the first such charitable institution in the United Kingdom dedicated to educating and employing indigent blind individuals through trades like basket-making and weaving.^[29] ^[30] The school, initially operating from two houses on Commutation Row, aimed to provide vocational training to reduce pauperism among the blind, reflecting Enlightenment-era emphases on practical education and self-sufficiency for the disabled.^[31] It remains operational today as the Royal School for the Blind, the oldest continuously running specialist school for the blind globally.^[29]

Notable People

Births

April 23 – James Buchanan (d. 1868), fifteenth president of the United States from 1857 to 1861.^[32] April 27 – Samuel F. B. Morse (d. 1872), American inventor who developed the telegraph and Morse code.^[33] September 22 – Michael Faraday (d. 1867), English physicist and chemist known for contributions to electromagnetism and electrochemistry.^[34] December 26 – Charles Babbage (d. 1871), English mathematician and engineer regarded as the father of the computer for designing the Difference Engine.^[35]

Deaths

Notable deaths in 1791 included several influential figures across politics, religion, and the arts. On March 2, John Wesley, the English cleric and theologian who founded Methodism, died in London at the age of 87 after a brief illness.^[36] On April 2, Honoré Gabriel Riqueti, comte de Mirabeau, a prominent statesman and orator pivotal in the early phases of the French Revolution, died in Paris at age 42 from complications related to overexertion and health issues.^[37] Francis Hopkinson, an American judge, inventor, author, and signer of the Declaration of Independence, died on May 9 in Philadelphia at age 55.^[38] Grigory Potemkin, the Russian military leader and statesman known for his role in Catherine the Great's expansions, died on October 16 near Jassy at age 52 during military campaigns.^[39] On December 5, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, the prolific Austrian composer whose works defined the Classical era, died in Vienna at age 35 from a sudden and severe illness, possibly rheumatic fever or another acute condition.^[40]

Cultural and Intellectual Developments

Science, Exploration, and Inventions

The Vancouver Expedition, commanded by Captain George Vancouver of the Royal Navy, departed Falmouth, England, on April 1, 1791, aboard HMS Discovery and Chatham, with objectives including surveying the Pacific coast of North America from Baja California to Alaska, negotiating Spanish claims at Nootka Sound amid international tensions, and attempting to locate a viable Northwest Passage.^[41] The four-and-a-half-year voyage mapped over 1,600 miles of coastline with unprecedented accuracy using chronometers and triangulation, contributing foundational hydrographic data that informed later British territorial assertions and colonial navigation.^[42] In the same year, the French d'Entrecasteaux expedition, led by Rear Admiral Joseph-Antoine de Bougainville and Joseph-François de La Billardière, sailed from Brest on September 29, 1791, primarily to search for the missing La Pérouse expedition of 1785 while conducting scientific observations in the southern Indian and Pacific Oceans.^[43] The flotilla, comprising Recherche and Espérance, charted previously unrecorded sections of Tasmania's coast, the southwest Australian mainland, and Pacific islands, collecting botanical, zoological, and ethnographic specimens that advanced European knowledge of Australasian geography and indigenous cultures despite the mission's ultimate failure to locate La Pérouse.^[43] Spanish efforts included the expedition of Francisco de Eliza, who departed San Blas, Mexico, on April 26, 1791, with corvettes San Carlos and Argonauta to explore and assert sovereignty along the Pacific Northwest from Nootka Sound northward, continuing surveys of the Strait of Juan de Fuca initiated by earlier voyages.^[44] Eliza's command established temporary outposts and mapped inlets, yielding detailed coastal profiles that reinforced Spain's diplomatic position in the Nootka Conventions amid rivalries with Britain and Russia.^[44] Inventions advanced amid industrial and chemical pursuits. British engineer John Barber received a patent on January 14, 1791, for a proto-gas turbine engine, which compressed air mixed with combustible fuel, ignited it in a combustion chamber, and expelled gases to drive a turbine—foreshadowing modern jet propulsion principles though not practically implemented at the time due to material limitations.^[45] In the United States, the Patent Board issued key grants on August 26, 1791, including one to John Fitch for applying steam engines to boat propulsion via paddle wheels, enabling steamboat navigation trials on the Delaware River, and another to James Rumsey for an improved steam engine boiler design enhancing efficiency through multiple flues.^[46] John Stevens secured patents around May 1791 for twin-flued cylindrical boilers and a screw-propeller mechanism for steam vessels, prototypes tested on the Hudson River that influenced subsequent maritime engineering.^[47] These American innovations, granted under the 1790 Patent Act, spurred early mechanized transport amid competition between Fitch, Rumsey, and Stevens for viable commercial steamboats.^[46]

Arts, Literature, and Music

In music, 1791 marked the culmination of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart's career with the premieres of two operas. La clemenza di Tito, K. 621, commissioned for the coronation of Leopold II as King of Bohemia, debuted on September 6 at the Estates Theatre in Prague.^[48] Die Zauberflöte, K. 620, a Singspiel with libretto by Emanuel Schikaneder, premiered on September 30 at the Theater auf der Wieden in Vienna, where Mozart conducted the orchestra.^[49] These works showcased Mozart's synthesis of dramatic narrative, ensemble singing, and orchestral innovation amid his financial struggles and declining health. Mozart died on December 5 in Vienna at age 35, leaving his Requiem in D minor, K. 626, incomplete; it was finished posthumously by his student Franz Xaver Süssmayr.^[40] Joseph Haydn composed Symphonies Nos. 93 to 96 during this period, including No. 94 in G major, later known as "Surprise," though its premiere occurred in 1794; these reflected his maturing style before his London visits.^[50] In literature, James Boswell published The Life of Samuel Johnson, LL.D. in London, a detailed biography drawing on personal journals and conversations, establishing it as a landmark in English letters for its vivid portrayal of 18th-century intellectual life.^[51] Thomas Paine's Rights of Man, Part I, appeared in February, defending the French Revolution against Edmund Burke's critiques and advocating republicanism, natural rights, and progressive taxation; it sold over 50,000 copies rapidly, influencing radical thought.^[52] Susanna Rowson's Charlotte Temple, a sentimental novel depicting moral perils of seduction, became a bestseller in America upon its 1791 edition.^[53] Visual arts saw Francisco Goya designing tapestry cartoons for the Spanish Royal Tapestry Factory, including The Wedding (1791–92), depicting festive rural life, and Playing at Giants (1791–92), blending satire with popular customs amid Spain's Enlightenment influences.^[54] Théodore Géricault, a future Romantic painter, was born on September 26 in Rouen, France.^[55]

Significance and Legacy

Political and Constitutional Impacts

The ratification of the first ten amendments to the United States Constitution on December 15, 1791, known as the Bill of Rights, established fundamental protections against federal overreach, including freedoms of speech, religion, assembly, and the press; rights to bear arms, due process, and protection from unreasonable searches; and safeguards in criminal proceedings such as speedy trials and prohibition of cruel punishments.^[1] These amendments addressed Anti-Federalist concerns during the original ratification debates, limiting congressional power and reserving unenumerated rights to states and individuals, thereby reinforcing federalism and individual liberty as core principles of American governance.^[1] Their enduring impact lies in serving as a model for constitutional rights protections worldwide, though implementation faced early challenges like the Alien and Sedition Acts, which tested free speech limits. In Poland-Lithuania, the Constitution of May 3, 1791, adopted by the Great Sejm, marked Europe's first codified modern constitution, introducing separation of powers, a hereditary monarchy to end elective chaos, religious tolerance, and expansion of political rights to urban burghers while curbing noble privileges like the liberum veto that had paralyzed governance.^[56] Aimed at reforming the weakened Commonwealth amid Russian influence, it emphasized national sovereignty and civic equality to avert partition, but its progressive elements provoked conservative nobles and foreign powers, contributing directly to the Second Partition of 1793 and ultimate erasure of Polish statehood by 1795.^[56] The document's legacy endures as a symbol of enlightened reform efforts, influencing later European constitutionalism despite its short lifespan. France's Constitution of September 3, 1791, transformed the absolute monarchy into a limited constitutional one, vesting sovereignty in a unicameral Legislative Assembly elected indirectly by active male citizens (those paying direct taxes), subordinating King Louis XVI to legislative veto overrides, and guaranteeing rights from the 1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, such as equality before the law and property inviolability.^[57] This framework, influenced by Montesquieu's separation of powers, aimed to stabilize the Revolution post-Bastille but excluded passive citizens and maintained property-based suffrage, fostering divisions that empowered radical factions.^[57] Its political impact accelerated instability: the king's flight attempt in June and the August 27 Declaration of Pillnitz—wherein Austria and Prussia urged European intervention to restore Louis—radicalized the Assembly, leading to war declarations in 1792 and the constitution's suspension, paving the way for republicanism and the Reign of Terror.^[24] Britain's Constitutional Act of 1791 divided the Province of Quebec into Upper Canada (predominantly English Protestant, future Ontario) and Lower Canada (French Catholic, future Quebec), each with a lieutenant-governor, appointed executive council, and elected legislative assembly, while reserving significant powers for colonial officials and the Crown.^[58] Intended to assimilate Loyalist influxes post-American Revolution and accommodate French civil law traditions, the act entrenched bicameral legislatures modeled on Westminster but without responsible government, sowing seeds for later Responsible Government demands and the 1837-38 Rebellions by highlighting executive dominance over elected bodies.^[58] This bifurcation institutionalized English-French cultural divides, influencing Canada's path to confederation in 1867 and ongoing federal tensions over language and provincial autonomy.

Long-term Consequences of Conflicts

The Champ de Mars Massacre of July 17, 1791, in which National Guard troops under Lafayette killed between 12 and 50 unarmed petitioners demanding a republic, eroded support for the constitutional monarchy and accelerated the radicalization of French politics. This event discredited moderate leaders like Lafayette, whose forces fired on the crowd after discovering hidden weapons, thereby strengthening Jacobin and republican factions that dominated the Legislative Assembly by October 1791. In the ensuing months, it contributed to the National Assembly's refusal to compromise with the crown, fostering the political instability that led to Louis XVI's deposition in August 1792 and the onset of the Reign of Terror.^[59] The Declaration of Pillnitz, issued on August 27, 1791, by Austria and Prussia, urged European powers to restore Louis XVI while disclaiming unilateral intervention, but French revolutionaries interpreted it as a prelude to invasion. This perception fueled Girondin calls for preemptive war, culminating in France's declaration against Austria on April 20, 1792, which ignited the French Revolutionary Wars. These conflicts expanded into prolonged coalitions against France, spreading revolutionary ideals across Europe, destabilizing monarchies, and laying groundwork for Napoleon's conquests by 1799, with over 1 million military deaths by 1815.^[60] The Haitian Revolution, ignited by slave uprisings on August 22–23, 1791, in Saint-Domingue, dismantled French colonial rule through 13 years of warfare involving 100,000 combatants and resulting in 200,000 deaths. It achieved Haitian independence on January 1, 1804, creating the first sovereign nation led by former slaves and prompting Napoleon's sale of Louisiana to the United States in 1803 for $15 million to finance European campaigns. The revolution inspired abolitionist movements in the Americas, heightening slaveholder fears that contributed to stricter controls in the U.S. South and Brazil, while its destruction of plantations and infrastructure—reducing sugar exports from 79,000 metric tons in 1789 to near zero by 1800—initiated Haiti's persistent economic stagnation, exacerbated by isolation from trade networks until the 19th century.^[3]^[61]^[62] The Priestley Riots in Birmingham from July 14–17, 1791, targeted dissenting intellectuals amid anti-French Revolution fervor, destroying four chapels and 27 homes, including Joseph Priestley's library of 1,500 books. These events prompted the exodus of radicals like Priestley, who emigrated to Pennsylvania in 1794, and entrenched conservative Anglican dominance in Britain, contributing to repressive measures such as the 1795 Treasonable Practices Act that curtailed dissent until the 1820s.^[63] In the American frontier, the Big Bottom Massacre on January 2, 1791, where Lenape and Wyandot warriors killed 12 settlers in a stockade near present-day Stockport, Ohio, escalated the Northwest Indian War. It spurred federal expeditions under Harmar (October 1790, repelled) and St. Clair (November 1791, defeated with 623 casualties), but ultimately Anthony Wayne's victory at Fallen Timbers on August 20, 1794, forced the Treaty of Greenville on August 3, 1795, ceding two-thirds of Ohio—approximately 25 million acres—to U.S. settlement and enabling statehood in 1803, while displacing indigenous populations westward.^[64]

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[48]
La Clemenza di Tito - Metropolitan Opera
World Premiere: National Theater, Prague, 1791. ACT I. Rome, first century AD. The Roman emperor Tito is in love with Berenice, daughter of the ...
[49]
The Magic Flute (Die Zauberflöte) - The Opera 101
A guide to Mozart's masterpiece, The Magic Flute (Die Zauberflöte) ... Date of premiere. September 30th, 1791. Number of Acts. Two. Music length. Two ...
[50]
Musical performance - Baroque, Classical, Repertoire | Britannica
Joseph Haydn, who had already spent one full career in Austria, in the service of the House of Esterházy, in 1791 began another and more lucrative one in ...
[51]
The Life of Samuel Johnson, LL.D. - Britannica
Sep 14, 2025 · The Life of Samuel Johnson, LL.D., generally regarded as the greatest of English biographies, written by James Boswell and published in two volumes in 1791.
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The Rights of Man Part I (1791 ed.) - Online Library of Liberty
Rights of Man: Being an Answer to Mr. Burke's Attack on the French Revolution. (2nd edition) by Thomas Paine (London: J.S. Jordan, 1791).
[53]
Democratic Origins and Revolutionary Writers, 1776-1820 - USInfo.org
Her publications include poetry and scholarship. She received her Bachelors ... Her seven novels included the best-selling seduction story Charlotte Temple (1791) ...
[54]
Paintings between 1791 and 1795
The Wedding 1791-92. Oil on canvas, 267 x 293 cm. Museo del Prado, Madrid ; Playing at Giants 1791-92. Oil on canvas, 137 x 104 cm. Museo del Prado, Madrid ...Missing: notable | Show results with:notable
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Theodore Gericault | Raft of the Medusa, Paintings, Art, & Facts
Sep 22, 2025 · His chief project at this time was Race of the Riderless Horse, a heroic frieze composition (never completed) depicting a dangerous race that ...
[56]
230th Anniversary of the May 3rd Constitution - Poland in US - Gov.pl
May 3, 2021 · When on May 3, 1791, the Four-Year Sejm, also called the Great Sejm, adopted The Government Act of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, ...
[57]
Constitution of 1791 | National Assembly, Legislative ... - Britannica
Sep 29, 2025 · Key Events and Timeline Major Figures and Leaders Phases of the Revolution Impact and Aftermath The Reign of Terror Legacy and Significance
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Constitutional Act, 1791 - The Canadian Encyclopedia
The Constitutional Act, 1791 was an act of the British Parliament. Also known as the Canada Act, it divided the Province of Quebec into Upper Canada and ...
[59]
The Champ de Mars massacre - Alpha History
The Champ de Mars massacre refers to the killing of 30-50 Parisian civilians by soldiers of the National Guard at a political protest on July 17th 1791.
[60]
The Declaration of Pillnitz (1791) - Alpha History
The Declaration of Pillnitz was issued by the Austrian emperor Leopold, Marie-Antoinette's brother, after the royal ... August 27th 1791. next. stay. CC ...Missing: date | Show results with:date
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The Economic Consequences of the Haitian Revolution
First, the warfare of the Haitian Revolution destroyed the capital and infrastructure of the economy. Second, Haiti lacked diplomatic and trade relations with ...
[62]
The Haitian Revolution (1791-1804): A Different Route to ... - History
On the night of 21-22 August 1791, a coordinated slave revolt broke out in the north of the island, the area of the largest plantations. Black slaves massacred ...
[63]
The Priestley Riots of 1791 - jstor
THE PRIESTLEY RIOTS OF 1791 77 renewed war of tract and counter-tract. With excusable bitterness. Priestley pointed in his memoirs to "many circumstances" which.
[64]
Big Bottom massacre | Military Wiki - Fandom
BigBottomMassacreIllustration. Wife of Isaac Meeks resisting during the massacre at Big Bottom. The Big Bottom massacre occurred on January 2, 1791, near ...