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Acclimatization

Acclimatization is the process by which an individual organism undergoes reversible physiological adjustments in response to gradual changes in its natural environment, such as variations in temperature, altitude, or humidity, enabling it to maintain homeostasis, performance, and survival without genetic alterations.^[1] These adaptations typically develop over days to weeks through repeated exposure to the stressor and are distinct from acclimation, which involves similar changes but in controlled or artificial settings, and from evolutionary adaptation, which occurs at the population level over generations via natural selection.^[2]^[3] In humans and other organisms, acclimatization manifests through coordinated responses tailored to specific environmental challenges; for instance, exposure to high altitudes triggers increased ventilation, elevated red blood cell production via erythropoietin, and higher hemoglobin levels to enhance oxygen delivery, with partial effects emerging in 5-7 days and full acclimatization taking about three weeks at elevations above 3,000 meters.^[4] Similarly, heat acclimatization during repeated exposure to hot conditions leads to beneficial adaptations like earlier onset and greater volume of sweating, reduced heart rate, and improved plasma volume expansion, which collectively lower core body temperature and cardiovascular strain, often stabilizing within 7-14 days.^[5] Cold acclimatization, in contrast, enhances metabolic heat production, vasoconstriction, and insulation through mechanisms like non-shivering thermogenesis, though these changes are generally less pronounced and more variable across individuals.^[4] These physiological shifts underscore acclimatization's role in short-term resilience to environmental stressors, with benefits that can diminish upon return to baseline conditions, typically within weeks to a month.^[4] Notable aspects of acclimatization include its phenotypic nature—altering traits like enzyme activity, hormone levels, or organ function without changing DNA—and its ecological significance in enabling organisms to cope with seasonal or migratory shifts in climate.^[6] For example, in plants, it involves adjustments in photosynthetic rates or stomatal conductance to drought or temperature fluctuations, while in animals, it supports activities like endurance exercise in extreme conditions.^[7] Research highlights variability influenced by factors such as age, fitness, and genetics, emphasizing the need for gradual exposure to avoid maladaptive responses like acute mountain sickness at high altitudes.^[1] Overall, acclimatization exemplifies the plasticity of living systems, bridging immediate survival strategies with long-term environmental interactions.^[3]

Definition and Overview

Core Definition

Acclimatization is the reversible, non-genetic adjustment of an organism's physiological, biochemical, or morphological traits in response to environmental changes, such as variations in temperature, altitude, or salinity, typically occurring over a timescale of hours to weeks.^[8]^[6] This process exemplifies phenotypic plasticity, involving changes in gene expression or cellular function without alterations to the underlying DNA sequence, and it is distinct from genetic adaptation due to its short-term, reversible nature upon return to the original environment.^[9]^[2] It is primarily triggered by environmental stressors that challenge homeostasis, enabling the organism to maintain performance and survival without heritable modifications.^[6] The term "acclimatization" originated in the early 19th century, derived from the French word "acclimatation," and was initially applied to the domestication and habituation of plants and animals to new climatic conditions during colonial expansions.^[10]^[11]

Biological Significance

Acclimatization plays a crucial role in enhancing organismal fitness by enabling physiological adjustments that allow tolerance to environmental variability, thereby reducing mortality risks during seasonal shifts or abrupt changes. This process supports the beneficial acclimation hypothesis, which posits that prior exposure to specific conditions improves performance and survival in those environments compared to unacclimated states. For instance, laboratory studies on intertidal oysters have demonstrated that acclimation to environmental stressors can significantly boost survival rates by mitigating pathogen loads and physiological strain. Similarly, in bacterial models like Escherichia coli, heat acclimation has been shown to enhance survival under extreme temperatures, with improvements exceeding 50% in lethal conditions, underscoring its adaptive value in fluctuating climates. Ecologically, acclimatization influences species distribution limits by broadening the range of tolerable conditions, thereby shaping biogeographic patterns and community dynamics. It fosters resilience to climate change by permitting thermal niche adjustments that buffer against rapid environmental shifts, potentially reducing the "climatic debt" where species lag behind changing habitats. This plasticity also facilitates migration and successful colonization of novel habitats, as acclimatized individuals exhibit higher establishment rates in variable ecosystems, contributing to overall biodiversity maintenance. In practical applications, acclimatization informs strategies across multiple fields. In agriculture, it guides breeding programs for crops adapted to climate variability, enhancing yield stability in stressed environments. In medicine, altitude training exploits acclimatization to elevate athletes' aerobic capacity and oxygen utilization, leading to performance gains at sea level. For conservation, pre-translocation acclimatization protocols improve survival outcomes for relocated species, such as elk, by aligning physiological states with new habitats and minimizing stress-induced mortality.

Terminology and Distinctions

Synonyms and Variants

The term acclimatization originates from the French verb acclimater, coined in the late 18th century, which combines the preposition à (to) with climat (climate), drawing from Latin roots ad- (toward) and clima (inclination or region). This etymology reflects the concept of inclining or adapting toward a new climatic condition.^[12]^[13] The noun form acclimatization first appeared in English in the 1820s, initially in agricultural contexts.^[14] Linguistic variants appear across languages, such as Aklimatisierung in German and aclmatación in Spanish, maintaining the core idea of climatic adjustment while adapting to phonetic and orthographic conventions.^[15] In scientific literature, primary synonyms include acclimation, which is often used interchangeably with acclimatization in American English, though some distinctions persist: acclimation typically denotes controlled, laboratory-induced adjustments, while acclimatization refers to natural environmental processes.^[16] Habituation serves as a synonym in contexts emphasizing behavioral responses to environmental stimuli.^[17] The term's usage evolved significantly in the 19th century, centered on agriculture and the introduction of non-native species, as noted in Charles Darwin's discussions of animal acclimatization for breeding and transplantation. By the mid-20th century, particularly post-1950s, its application shifted toward physiological ecology, focusing on organismal responses to environmental stressors like temperature and altitude.^[18]^[6] Acclimatization differs fundamentally from adaptation, as the former involves reversible, non-heritable physiological adjustments occurring over days to months in response to environmental changes, whereas adaptation entails heritable genetic modifications shaped by natural selection across multiple generations.^[6] Unlike adaptation, which permanently alters population-level traits through evolutionary processes, acclimatization does not involve genetic changes or natural selection and is typically lost upon return to original conditions.^[19] In comparison to acclimation, acclimatization generally refers to phenotypic responses developed under natural, field-based environmental conditions, while acclimation denotes similar physiological adjustments induced in controlled laboratory or experimental settings.^[20] Both processes are non-genetic and reversible, but acclimatization encompasses a broader scope of unpredictable stressors in wild contexts, whereas acclimation allows for precise manipulation of variables to study specific mechanisms.^[21] Acclimatization represents a targeted form of phenotypic plasticity, specifically the reversible physiological responses to environmental stressors, but it excludes broader developmental plasticity such as changes in body size or morphology during ontogeny.^[22] Phenotypic plasticity in general allows organisms to produce variable phenotypes from the same genotype in response to environmental cues, yet acclimatization is distinguished by its focus on adult-stage stress acclimation rather than lifelong or developmental shifts.^[23] Unlike tolerance, which involves passive endurance of environmental stress without active physiological modification, acclimatization entails dynamic, coordinated adjustments that enhance an organism's capacity to cope with stressors.^[24] Tolerance relies on inherent, static resistance mechanisms that do not change in response to exposure, whereas acclimatization actively reprograms physiology to improve performance under altered conditions.^[25]

Mechanisms

Physiological Mechanisms

Acclimatization involves coordinated physiological adjustments at the organ and systemic levels to mitigate the impacts of environmental stressors, enabling organisms to maintain homeostasis without permanent genetic changes. These mechanisms primarily encompass modifications in cardiovascular, respiratory, and osmoregulatory functions, as well as thermal regulatory processes, which collectively enhance survival and performance under altered conditions such as hypoxia, salinity fluctuations, or temperature extremes. In hypoxic environments, like high altitudes, peripheral chemoreceptors in the carotid bodies detect reduced arterial oxygen tension and trigger an immediate increase in ventilation to improve alveolar oxygen exchange. This ventilatory acclimatization elevates resting minute ventilation from 5-7 liters per minute at sea level to approximately 15 liters per minute at 4,300 meters over about one week, thereby raising arterial oxygen saturation.^[26] Cardiovascular responses complement this by initially increasing heart rate to elevate cardiac output and oxygen delivery to tissues, with stroke volume later decreasing due to plasma volume reduction, stabilizing overall output after several days at altitude.^[26] Osmoregulatory acclimatization occurs through modifications in ion transport across epithelial barriers, particularly in aquatic organisms facing salinity shifts. For instance, in euryhaline teleost fish transferred to seawater, gill Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase activity surges to drive active sodium extrusion and chloride secretion, preventing osmotic influx. In the fourspine stickleback (Apeltes quadracus), this enzyme activity increases 2.6-fold, peaking on days 7 and 14 post-transfer to maintain plasma osmolality.^[27] Renal adjustments, such as enhanced bicarbonate reabsorption or ion excretion, further support ionic balance during these transitions.^[28] Thermal acclimatization entails vascular and hormonal shifts to regulate body temperature amid extremes. Heat exposure induces peripheral vasodilation, increasing cutaneous blood flow for sensible heat loss, alongside respiratory panting to boost evaporative cooling when ambient humidity limits sweating.^[6] In cold conditions, vasoconstriction minimizes conductive heat loss, while elevated cortisol levels signal metabolic reprogramming to prioritize energy allocation for thermogenesis.^[6] Over longer periods, insulation enhances via physiological cues promoting fat deposition or pelage thickening.^[6] These adaptations operate across distinct time scales, with acute responses—such as hyperventilation in hypoxia or vasodilation in heat—emerging within minutes to hours for rapid stabilization. Chronic changes, including increased red blood cell production via erythropoietin stimulation in hypoxia or sustained enzyme upregulation in osmoregulation, develop over days to weeks, reflecting progressive systemic integration.^[26]

Biochemical Mechanisms

Biochemical mechanisms of acclimatization involve dynamic molecular pathways that enable cells to adapt to environmental stressors without altering the DNA sequence. These processes primarily occur through enzyme induction, metabolic reprogramming, and epigenetic regulation, allowing rapid and reversible responses at the cellular level.^[29] Enzyme induction and regulation play a central role in acclimatization by upregulating protective proteins in response to specific stressors. In thermal stress, heat shock proteins (HSPs) such as HSP70 are rapidly induced to prevent protein misfolding and aggregation; for instance, in heat-shocked fish, branchial HSP70 expression increases approximately 10-fold relative to controls during recovery.^[30] Similarly, cytochrome P450 enzymes are upregulated during exposure to toxins or xenobiotics, facilitating their detoxification; in specialist herbivores adapting to plant defenses, multiple P450 isoforms show significant upregulation to metabolize these compounds.^[31] Metabolic shifts further support acclimatization by reallocating energy pathways to cope with stressors like hypoxia. The Pasteur effect exemplifies this, where anaerobic glycolysis is enhanced to compensate for reduced oxidative phosphorylation, leading to increased lactate production; in hypoxic conditions, this involves boosted activity of lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), which converts pyruvate to lactate, sustaining ATP generation.^[32] In high-altitude acclimatization, this glycolytic upregulation, coupled with decreased mitochondrial density, actively promotes lactate export to maintain cellular energy balance.^[33] Gene expression during acclimatization is modulated without DNA sequence changes, relying on epigenetic mechanisms for swift, heritable responses. Histone acetylation, for example, loosens chromatin structure to enable rapid transcription of stress-response genes; in plants exposed to abiotic stressors like heat or drought, increased histone acetylation at key loci promotes defense gene activation and establishes long-lasting epigenetic memory for enhanced tolerance.^[34]^[35] Complementing this, antioxidant enzymes such as superoxide dismutase (SOD) are activated to mitigate oxidative stress; during cold acclimatization, SOD activity rises alongside other ROS scavengers to protect against elevated reactive oxygen species from heightened metabolism.^[36] These modifications ensure cellular resilience by fine-tuning gene availability in real-time.^[29]

Morphological Mechanisms

Morphological mechanisms of acclimatization involve structural adaptations in organs, tissues, and cells that enhance organismal fitness in response to environmental stressors such as hypoxia, desiccation, or altered mechanical loads. These changes are typically reversible and occur through processes like hypertrophy, hyperplasia, or remodeling, allowing organisms to maintain homeostasis without genetic alterations. Unlike transient physiological shifts, morphological adjustments provide longer-term structural support, often triggered by biochemical signals but manifesting as physical alterations. Organ enlargement is a key morphological response in aquatic and semi-terrestrial species facing oxygen limitation. In fish exposed to prolonged hypoxia, gill remodeling increases surface area through interlamellar cell mass reduction and lamellar protrusion, enhancing oxygen uptake efficiency over periods of weeks.^[37] In tadpoles exposed to chronic hypoxia, the skin becomes thinner with increased vascularization, enhancing cutaneous gas exchange.^[38] These enlargements enable sustained survival by expanding storage or exchange capacities without requiring immediate behavioral changes. Tissue remodeling contributes to resistance against desiccation and mechanical challenges. In plants, drought stress induces cuticle thickening via enhanced wax deposition and structural modifications, reducing transpiration and improving water barrier properties in leaves.^[39] For woody plants, increased bark thickness limits water vapor conductance, thereby minimizing stem desiccation during prolonged dry conditions.^[40] In animals, insects acclimating to arid environments exhibit cuticle thickening and altered hydrocarbon composition, which lowers permeability and cuticular water loss rates.^[41] Mammals in microgravity, such as during spaceflight, undergo bone density adjustments through reduced mineralization in weight-bearing bones, adapting to diminished load-bearing demands and preventing overload in altered gravitational contexts.^[42] At the cellular level, morphological changes include organelle proliferation to bolster aerobic performance. In human skeletal muscle, high-altitude acclimatization over 28 days elevates mitochondrial volume density, particularly in intermyofibrillar regions, enhancing oxidative capacity without necessitating cell division.^[43] These proliferations are reversible and concentrated in metabolically active tissues, allowing efficient energy production under hypoxic stress. Such adaptations are often limited to plastic tissues like muscle or epithelium, where remodeling is feasible without permanent damage. Morphological mechanisms are constrained by tissue plasticity and temporal scales, typically requiring weeks to months for full development, slower than physiological responses. They are confined to responsive structures, such as gills or cuticles, where hyperplasia or hypertrophy can occur, but rigid tissues like mature bone show limited reversibility.^[44] This gradual pace ensures structural integrity but may delay full acclimatization in rapidly changing environments.

Theoretical Foundations

Core Principles

Acclimatization operates through homeostatic feedback loops that enable organisms to maintain internal stability amid environmental perturbations. These loops primarily involve negative feedback mechanisms, where specialized sensors detect deviations from optimal conditions and initiate corrective responses via effectors to restore balance. For instance, in thermoregulation, peripheral and central thermoreceptors relay signals to the hypothalamus, which acts as a control center to adjust physiological processes like sweating or vasoconstriction, thereby counteracting temperature shifts and preventing cellular damage.^[45]^[46] This reactive regulation ensures short-term survival but can be complemented by anticipatory adjustments. The principle of allostasis extends homeostasis by emphasizing predictive regulation, where organisms proactively alter their internal set points in anticipation of environmental demands, achieving stability through change rather than rigid constancy. Unlike traditional homeostasis, which focuses on returning to a fixed equilibrium, allostasis involves dynamic variability in parameters such as hormone levels or metabolic rates to optimize energy allocation during prolonged stressors, such as seasonal temperature fluctuations. This anticipatory framework underlies successful acclimatization by minimizing reactive costs and enhancing resilience to predictable changes.^[47]^[48] Acclimatization is bounded by plasticity thresholds, representing the viable environmental range within which phenotypic adjustments improve performance and fitness; exceeding these limits results in maladaptation, reduced function, or mortality. These thresholds vary by species and stressor—for example, in thermal contexts, critical thermal minima and maxima define the scope for beneficial plasticity, beyond which compensatory mechanisms fail.^[49] Quantitative models assess acclimatization efficiency. Responses during acclimatization exhibit predictability, as they are environmentally induced yet modulated by underlying genotype, leading to consistent patterns across individuals of similar genetic backgrounds. These adjustments often align with dose-response curves, where the extent of phenotypic change scales nonlinearly with stressor intensity—initial mild exposures elicit modest shifts, while escalating demands amplify responses up to saturation points, reflecting efficient resource use without overcompensation.^[50]

Evolutionary and Ecological Context

Acclimatization, as a manifestation of phenotypic plasticity, likely originated with the emergence of multicellular life around 1.6 billion years ago, providing early organisms with a mechanism to buffer against fluctuating environmental conditions such as temperature and salinity variations.^[51]^[52] This capacity arose as genetically uniform cells in developing multicellular structures coordinated their responses through plastic adjustments, enabling survival in unstable habitats before fixed genetic adaptations could evolve.^[53] The trait has been conserved across eukaryotic kingdoms, facilitated by shared molecular pathways like heat shock protein (HSP) responses and reactive oxygen species (ROS) signaling, which activate conserved stress mitigation mechanisms in plants, animals, and fungi.^[54] For instance, IPK2-type kinases, involved in transducing thermal cues, trace back to early land plant evolution but reflect broader ancestral conservation in stress acclimation.^[55] In ecological contexts, acclimatization expands an organism's niche breadth by allowing reversible phenotypic adjustments that enhance fitness across heterogeneous environments, thereby promoting species persistence and distribution.^[56] It interacts with evolutionary processes by alleviating immediate selection pressures, as outlined in the Baldwin effect, where initial plastic responses to novel conditions facilitate subsequent genetic assimilation of adaptive traits, accelerating long-term evolution.^[57] This dynamic reduces the intensity of directional selection, enabling populations to explore broader adaptive landscapes without immediate extinction risk.^[58] Amid rapid climate change, however, the pace of environmental shifts often exceeds acclimatization capabilities, leading to lags in thermal tolerance that heighten vulnerability for many species. For example, some coral populations, such as Hawaiian corals, have shown acclimatization rates of approximately 0.5°C per decade, but these often lag behind accelerating global warming rates of about 0.27°C per decade as of 2025, heightening vulnerability.^[59]^[60] As of 2025, corals have reportedly crossed a tipping point, with warming rates of 1.2–1.4°C above pre-industrial levels exacerbating acclimatization lags and leading to accelerated reef decline.^[61] In urban ectotherms, heat tolerance adjustments lag behind warming by about 0.84°C per 1°C increase, underscoring limits to plastic responses under accelerated change.^[62] Acclimatization entails significant trade-offs, including elevated energy costs that can increase metabolic rates by up to 20%, diverting resources from growth and reproduction.^[63] These costs vary with life-history strategies: r-selected species, adapted to unpredictable environments, may tolerate higher plasticity expenses for rapid adjustments, while K-selected species in stable niches prioritize efficiency, limiting plastic investments to minimize reproductive impacts.^[64] Such trade-offs constrain the evolution of plasticity, balancing short-term survival against long-term fitness.^[65]

Examples Across Organisms

In Plants

In plants, acclimatization to temperature fluctuations often involves adjustments in leaf orientation and photosynthetic pigment levels to optimize energy capture while minimizing thermal stress. In colder environments, such as alpine habitats, plants may enhance insulation through various mechanisms to reduce the risk of frost damage. Drought acclimatization in plants primarily manifests through rapid stomatal regulation and the synthesis of protective osmolytes to preserve cellular hydration. Under water deficit, stomata close within minutes to hours via abscisic acid signaling, limiting transpiration and conserving soil moisture, which can reduce water loss by 50-90% depending on severity, though this temporarily curbs CO₂ uptake and photosynthesis.^[66] Concurrently, compatible osmolytes such as proline accumulate in the cytoplasm to lower osmotic potential and maintain turgor pressure; these responses collectively enhance survival. Acclimatization to varying light and nutrient availability drives plasticity in root systems and flowering timing, allowing plants to exploit heterogeneous environments. In nutrient-poor soils, root architecture shifts toward longer, deeper laterals to access subsoil resources; for example, wild barley (Hordeum spontaneum) shows greater root plasticity under low phosphorus conditions. Photoperiodism further enables acclimatization to seasonal light cues, where short-day plants like chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum morifolium) initiate flowering upon detecting day lengths below 12-14 hours, synchronizing reproduction with favorable conditions and avoiding energy expenditure during suboptimal periods.^[67]

In Animals

Acclimatization in animals often integrates physiological adjustments with behavioral strategies, leveraging their mobility to exploit microhabitats or migrate through varying environmental gradients. Unlike sessile organisms, mobile animals like birds and reptiles can actively seek optimal conditions while undergoing internal changes to cope with stressors such as hypoxia, thermal extremes, and osmotic challenges. These responses enhance survival and performance without genetic alterations, typically occurring over days to weeks. In high-altitude species, hypoxia acclimatization involves enhanced oxygen transport mechanisms, particularly in migratory birds. For instance, bar-headed geese (Anser indicus) during high-altitude flights over the Himalayas complement genetic traits like elevated hemoglobin-oxygen affinity with physiological responses such as hyperventilation to support sustained aerobic activity in severe hypoxia. Behavioral migration patterns expose them to progressive altitude gains, aiding acclimatization. Desert lizards exemplify thermal acclimatization by combining physiological shifts with burrow-seeking behavior to manage extreme heat. Horned lizards (Phrynosoma spp.), such as the Texas horned lizard (P. cornutum), use behaviors like burrowing for refuge, allowing physiological recovery and extension of activity windows beyond surface heat limits.^[68] Post-heat exposure, they increase evaporative cooling efficiency through enhanced panting rates, which acclimates critical thermal maxima and minimizes dehydration risks in arid environments.^[69] Marine invertebrates like barnacles demonstrate salinity acclimatization as osmoconformers, adjusting intracellular solute pools to match fluctuating external osmolarities. In species such as Balanus balanoides, free amino acid (FAA) pools in muscle tissue regulate over weeks to maintain cellular volume and osmotic balance during tidal salinity shifts from near-freshwater lows to full seawater.^[70] Total FAA levels peak in autumn and decline in spring, correlating with environmental salinity variations and supporting survival in estuarine habitats without active mobility.^[71] This biochemical adjustment prevents osmotic stress, enabling reproduction and growth across broad salinity gradients.^[72] A notable case study involves fish such as tilapia (Oreochromis spp.), which remodel gill ionocytes to acclimatize to pH fluctuations, enhancing survival in acidic waters. In Mozambique tilapia (O. mossambicus), exposure to low pH (e.g., 4.0) triggers transcriptomic changes in gill mitochondria-rich cells (ionocytes), upregulating genes for acid-base regulation and ion transport.^[73] This remodeling increases the density and functional specialization of ionocytes, improving proton excretion and sodium uptake to counteract acidosis over days to weeks.^[74] Such plasticity allows tilapia to thrive in fluctuating freshwater habitats, like acidic rivers, by integrating gill adjustments with schooling behavior for microhabitat selection.^[75]

In Humans

Acclimatization to high altitude in humans primarily involves the release of erythropoietin (EPO) from the kidneys in response to hypoxemia, which stimulates bone marrow to produce more red blood cells, resulting in polycythemia. This adaptive response enhances oxygen-carrying capacity in the blood and typically unfolds over 2-3 weeks at altitudes above 4,000 meters, during which red blood cell mass can increase by 20-30%, thereby improving tissue oxygenation and reducing the incidence and severity of acute mountain sickness.^[76]^[77] In hot environments, human acclimatization improves thermoregulatory efficiency, particularly through enhanced sweating responses that begin earlier and at lower core temperatures, leading to better heat dissipation. Studies on military personnel undergoing heat acclimatization training demonstrate that after about 10 days of exposure, sweat rate can increase by up to 50% while electrolyte loss decreases, resulting in approximately 20% greater evaporative cooling efficiency during exercise.^[78]^[79] In cold conditions, acclimatization lowers the shivering threshold, allowing individuals to tolerate lower skin and core temperatures before shivering onset, which reduces metabolic demand and enhances overall cold tolerance without compromising heat production.^[80]^[81] The human dive response, an innate reflex enhanced by apnea training, promotes bradycardia and peripheral vasoconstriction to conserve oxygen during breath-holding, while splenic contraction releases additional red blood cells into circulation to boost oxygen stores. In trained pearl divers, such as the Japanese ama or Korean haenyeo, repeated practice strengthens these responses, enabling breath-hold durations of 2-3 minutes per dive for repetitive immersions, with elite practitioners achieving over 10 minutes in competitive settings through optimized splenic contraction and cardiovascular adjustments.^[82]^[83] Despite these benefits, acclimatization has physiological limits and risks, particularly when prolonged or excessive, as overproduction of red blood cells can lead to chronic mountain sickness characterized by extreme polycythemia, increased blood viscosity, and cardiorespiratory strain. High-altitude pulmonary edema (HAPE) remains a severe risk if ascent outpaces acclimatization, often exacerbated by rapid exposure without adequate rest days. Individual variability in acclimatization success is influenced by factors such as age, physical fitness, and genetics, with older individuals and those with lower aerobic capacity experiencing slower adaptations and higher susceptibility to altitude-related illnesses.^[84]^[85]^[86]^[87]

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The effects of microgravity on bone structure and function - Nature
Apr 5, 2022 · The weightlessness experienced in microgravity reduces the loading on weight-bearing bones, resulting in adaptive changes that increase bone ...Missing: acclimatization | Show results with:acclimatization
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Twenty‐eight days of exposure to 3454 m increases mitochondrial ...
Our results demonstrate that total skeletal muscle mitochondrial volume density increases in response to high altitude exposure secondary to a preferential ...
[47]
Gill remodelling during terrestrial acclimation reduces aquatic ...
Gill surface area, which varied inversely to the height of the interlamellar cell mass, was increased by acclimating fish for 1 week to air or low ion water, ...
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Physiology, Temperature Regulation - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
Jul 30, 2023 · The hypothalamus contains temperature sensors, which receive information via nerve cells called thermoreceptors. The body has peripheral and ...
[49]
A hypothalamic circuit that controls body temperature - PNAS
Jan 4, 2017 · The homeostatic control of body temperature is essential for survival in mammals and is known to be regulated in part by temperature-sensitive ...
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Clarifying the Roles of Homeostasis and Allostasis in Physiological ...
Here we provide a more focused understanding of homeostasis and allostasis by explaining how both play a role in physiological regulation.
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Threshold shifts and developmental temperature impact trade-offs ...
Feb 7, 2024 · Threshold shifts could also be influenced by rearing temperatures/thermal history, if tolerance changes, due to developmental acclimation.
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How to quantify thermal acclimation capacity? - Wiley Online Library
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A quantitative method for estimating the adaptedness in a ...
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Genetic basis and trade-offs of cold acclimation - PMC
Feb 21, 2024 · A large-effect fitness trade-off across environments is explained by a single mutation affecting cold acclimation.
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The Evolutionary Origins of Phenotypic Plasticity - MIT Press Direct
Genetically homogeneous cells in a developing multicellular organism leverage their capacity for phenotypic plasticity to coordi- nate their expression ...
[57]
Phenotypic plasticity in development and evolution: facts and concepts
Phenotypic evolution depends on phenotypic variation, and in metazoans, as in other multicellular organisms, phenotypic variation (when not explicitly ...
[58]
Conservation of heat stress acclimation by the IPK2-type kinases ...
Collectively, our study indicates that IPK2-type kinases have played a critical role in transducing environmental cues for biological processes during land ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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ROS are evolutionary conserved cell-to-cell stress signals - PNAS
This process is essential for systemic signaling and plant acclimation to stress and can spread from a small group of cells to the entire plant within minutes.
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The role of phenotypic plasticity in shaping ecological networks
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Evolutionary significance of phenotypic accommodation in novel ...
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[62]
The genetics of phenotypic plasticity. XV. Genetic assimilation, the ...
To use modern parlance, Baldwin posited that trait plasticity would allow continual improvement in organismal adaptation that would occur faster than if ...Missing: acclimatization | Show results with:acclimatization
[63]
Evidence of acclimatization or adaptation in Hawaiian corals to ...
Aug 7, 2018 · ... thermal tolerance of 0.2–1.0 °C per decade. Genomic model simulations by Bay et al. (2017) suggest that corals have sufficient genetic ...
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Physiology Evolves Convergently but Lags Behind Warming in Cities
Despite these trends, the magnitude of trait responses lagged behind environmental warming. Heat tolerance responses exhibited a deficit of 0.84°C for every 1°C ...
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Impacts of behaviour and acclimation of metabolic rate on ... - Journals
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[66]
Life-history trade-offs and limitations associated with phenotypic ...
Jan 28, 2019 · Numerous studies have now demonstrated that both adaptive phenotypic plasticity and natural selection can buffer the negative effects on life- ...
[67]
Constraints on the evolution of phenotypic plasticity: limits and costs ...
Feb 18, 2015 · Phenotypic plasticity is ubiquitous and generally regarded as a key mechanism for enabling organisms to survive in the face of environmental ...
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Local Adaptation Drives Leaf Thermoregulation in Tropical ... - NIH
Sep 4, 2025 · We define leaf thermoregulation as coordinated trait variation that alters the difference between leaf and air temperature (∆T trait) across a ...
[69]
Temperature acclimation of photosynthesis: mechanisms involved in ...
Changes in the temperature dependence of photosynthesis may be ascribed to changes in the activity and amount of photosynthetic components and/or CO2 ...
[70]
ABA-Mediated Stomatal Response in Regulating Water Use during ...
Conclusion. Stomatal regulation is an important mechanism that controls water use and maintain grain yield under terminal drought, a abiotic major stress ...
[71]
General mechanisms of drought response and their application in ...
As stress conditions increase, some osmolytes such as prolines, soluble sugars, spermines, and betaine accumulate in plant cells to maintain the cell turgor ...
[72]
Investigation on the relationship of proline with wheat anti-drought ...
Our current study was focused on the physiological relationship of proline and different genotype wheat anti-drought under soil water deficits. Main results ...
[73]
Evolution of root plasticity responses to variation in soil nutrient ... - NIH
Root plasticity, especially in wild barley, is greatest under low nutrient levels. Cultivars show the greatest capacity to translate this into increased plant ...
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Photoperiodic Flowering: Time Measurement Mechanisms in Leaves
Many plants use information about changing day length (photoperiod) to align their flowering time with seasonal changes to increase reproductive success.
[75]
Transcriptome Analysis of Arabidopsis thaliana Plants Treated with ...
We identified 330 genes whose expression was increased by 24 h Natolen128 treatment compared with Necolen124 (Table S1) and 232 genes whose expression was ...
[76]
Effect on the myoglobin concentration in skeletal and cardiac muscle ...
By physically conditioning their muscles, bar-headed geese may improve the oxygen flow to mitochondria and, thereby, enhance their ability to exercise under ...
[77]
How Bar-Headed Geese Fly Over the Himalayas | Physiology
Mar 1, 2015 · Circulatory O2 delivery in hypoxia is improved in bar-headed geese by evolved changes in blood physiology. The hemoglobin of bar-headed ...
[78]
[PDF] Physiological Responses to Temperature in the Horned Lizards ...
In the laboratory, Phrynosoma cornutum and Phrynosoma douglassii from central New Mexico had mean preferred body temperatures of 38.5? C and 35? C respectively.
[79]
Hydration and evaporative water loss of lizards change in response ...
Summary: Acclimation to different humidity and temperature treatments drives plasticity in cutaneous evaporative water loss and related changes in plasma.Missing: efficiency | Show results with:efficiency
[80]
Thermal refugia and persistence of Texas horned lizards ...
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[81]
Osmoregulation in Barnacles: An Evolutionary Perspective of ... - NIH
This review provides an overview of available knowledge of salinity tolerance in barnacles and what is currently known about their osmoregulatory strategies.
[82]
Seasonal changes in the free amino acid composition of the adult ...
4. Barnacles kept without food at 5°C from January to June had a lower FAA content than animals on the shore. Animals kept at shore temperatures and fed ...
[83]
(PDF) Osmoregulation in Barnacles: An Evolutionary Perspective of ...
Aug 10, 2025 · This review provides an overview of available knowledge of salinity tolerance in barnacles and what is currently known about their ...
[84]
Differential transcriptomic analyses revealed genes and signaling ...
Responses of gill mitochondria-rich cells in Mozambique tilapia exposed to acidic environments (pH 4.0) in combination with different salinities. Comp ...
[85]
Ion uptake in naturally acidic water
Apr 23, 2024 · (2011) reported that changes in tilapia gills exposed to pH 4 water (and low Na+ levels) were similar to that described above in dace (Kaneko ...
[86]
https://www.atsjournals.org/doi/10.1164/rccm.201108-1396OC
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Heights and haematology: the story of haemoglobin at altitude - PMC
In a long term study conducted over a year, the increase in red cell production has been shown to continue for up to 8 months and result in an increase in red ...Missing: scale | Show results with:scale
[88]
High-Altitude Erythrocytosis: Mechanisms of Adaptive and ...
Increased production of red blood cells (RBCs), or erythrocytosis, has been considered a hallmark response of acclimatization in lowlanders at high altitude ...<|separator|>
[89]
Heat Acclimatization to Improve Athletic Performance in Warm-Hot ...
Heat acclimatization (or acclimation) is a biological adaptation that reduces physiological strain (e.g., heart rate and body temperatures), improves comfort, ...Missing: Fregley | Show results with:Fregley
[90]
Heat Adaptation in Military Personnel: Mitigating Risk, Maximizing ...
A meta-analysis of 12 studies reported adaptations in end-exercise heart rate decreased by 2.3% for every day of heat acclimation decay. For end-exercise core ...
[91]
[PDF] Acclimatization to Cold in Humans
A decreased shivering threshold temperature, accom- panied by a reduction in the magnitude of thermal discomfort and cold sensation explain the high cold tol-.
[92]
Seasonal acclimatization to cold in man
The decrease in shivering was associated with a change in the surface temperature threshold of shivering onset. The February-September group showed an ...
[93]
Breath‐Hold Diving - Fitz‐Clarke - 2018 - Wiley Online Library
Apr 1, 2018 · A diving response triggered by apnea and face immersion causes bradycardia and vasoconstriction. Spleen contraction releases red blood cells ...
[94]
Diversity in and adaptation to breath-hold diving in humans
The diving response consists of bradycardia, perhaps of vagal origin, extreme peripheral vasoconstriction ... Splenic contraction during breath-hold diving ...
[95]
High altitude polycythemia and its maladaptive mechanisms
Aug 27, 2024 · High altitude polycythemia is a maladaptation of highlanders exposed to hypoxic environment, leading to high blood viscosity and severe cardiorespiratory ...
[96]
High-Altitude Pulmonary Edema (HAPE) - Medscape Reference
Apr 7, 2020 · The risk of HAPE rises with increased altitude and faster ascent. At 4500 m, the incidence is 0.6% to 6%,; at 5500 m, the incidence is 2% to 15 ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[97]
Physiological Risk Factors for Severe High-Altitude Illness
Aug 4, 2011 · Several risk factors that have been identified, in particular speed of ascent greater than 300 to 500 m/day in the acclimatization period (2–4) ...
[98]
Genetic Predisposition to High-Altitude Pulmonary Edema
Likely pathogenic variants in 3.1% of HAPE-S mountaineers suggest a genetic predisposition in some individuals that might be linked to PAH signaling pathways.