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Addition principle

The addition principle, also known as the sum rule, is a fundamental concept in combinatorics that states if there are m ways to perform one task and n ways to perform a second task, where the two sets of outcomes are mutually exclusive (disjoint), then there are m + n ways to perform either task.^[1]^[2] This principle provides the mathematical foundation for counting total possibilities in scenarios involving alternative choices without overlap, such as selecting one option from separate categories.^[3] The principle generalizes to multiple disjoint sets: if there are k pairwise disjoint sets A_1, A_2, \dots, A_k with sizes m_1, m_2, \dots, m_k, respectively, then the size of their union is |A_1 \cup A_2 \cup \dots \cup A_k| = m_1 + m_2 + \dots + m_k.^[2] This extension, often proved by mathematical induction, ensures accurate counting only when no outcomes are shared across sets; otherwise, techniques like the inclusion-exclusion principle are required to adjust for overlaps.^[2]^[4] For instance, when rolling two fair six-sided dice, the number of ways to obtain a sum of 7 (six outcomes) or a sum of 11 (two outcomes) totals eight, as these events are disjoint.^[2] In practice, the addition principle is frequently combined with the multiplication principle to solve more complex counting problems, such as determining the total number of outcomes in sequential or independent choices.^[3] Applications span probability, computer science, and decision theory, including calculating possible subcommittees from a group of senators by summing binomial coefficients for each possible size, yielding $2^n total subcommittees for n senators (including the empty set).^[1] It underpins broader combinatorial structures, like permutations and combinations, by enabling the decomposition of problems into exclusive cases.^[4]

Basic Concepts

Definition

The addition principle, also known as the sum rule, is a foundational concept in combinatorics and probability theory that enables the determination of the total measure of a collection by aggregating the measures of its mutually exclusive components. It arises intuitively from the idea of partitioning a whole into non-overlapping parts: if a set or event space can be divided into disjoint subsets or events, the overall size or probability is simply the sum of the individual sizes or probabilities, without any adjustment for overlap since none exists. This principle assumes familiarity with basic set theory, where sets represent collections of distinct objects and events represent possible outcomes in a sample space.^[1]^[5] Central to the principle is the notion of disjointness, which must be explained explicitly: two sets A and B are disjoint if their intersection is the empty set, denoted A \cap B = \emptyset, meaning they share no common elements. Similarly, in probability, two events A and B are disjoint (or mutually exclusive) if they cannot occur simultaneously, so P(A \cap B) = 0. The standard notation for the union of sets is \cup, representing the combined collection of elements from both without duplication.^[6]^[7] Formally, for finite disjoint sets A and B, the addition principle states that the cardinality (size) of their union equals the sum of their individual cardinalities:

|A \cup B| = |A| + |B|.

This extends to any finite number of pairwise disjoint sets A_1, \dots, A_n, where |A_i \cap A_j| = 0 for i \neq j, yielding |A_1 \cup \dots \cup A_n| = |A_1| + \dots + |A_n|. In the context of counting, it quantifies the total number of ways to select or arrange elements from these separate groups.^[5]^[2] In probability theory, the principle applies analogously to disjoint events within a probability space, stating that the probability of their union is the sum of their individual probabilities:

P(A \cup B) = P(A) + P(B),

with the generalization P(A_1 \cup \dots \cup A_n) = P(A_1) + \dots + P(A_n) for pairwise disjoint events. This holds because the measure of the sample space covered by non-overlapping events adds directly, providing a basis for more complex probabilistic calculations.^[7]^[8]

Simple Examples

One straightforward application of the addition principle arises in counting the number of ways to make a choice from disjoint options. Consider a scenario where there are 3 apples and 4 oranges available, and the task is to select one fruit, with apples and oranges being mutually exclusive choices.^[9] The disjoint sets are the apples (3 options) and the oranges (4 options). Applying the addition principle, the total number of ways to choose a fruit is the sum: 3 + 4 = 7. To verify, enumerate the possibilities: the 3 apples or the 4 oranges, confirming no overlap and totaling 7 distinct choices.^[9] In probability, the addition principle similarly applies to disjoint events, where the probability of the union equals the sum of individual probabilities. For instance, suppose a bag contains 10 marbles, including 3 red and 2 blue, with the rest neither; the events of drawing a red or a blue marble are disjoint.^[10] Here, the probability of drawing a red marble is P(\text{[red](/page/Red)}) = \frac{3}{10}, and for blue, P(\text{[blue](/page/Blue)}) = \frac{2}{10}. By the addition principle, the total probability of drawing either is P(\text{[red](/page/Red) or [blue](/page/Blue)}) = \frac{3}{10} + \frac{2}{10} = \frac{5}{10} = 0.5. Verification involves noting the 5 favorable outcomes out of 10 total, aligning with the summed probabilities.^[10] A common pitfall in applying the addition principle is failing to ensure the sets or events are truly disjoint, which can lead to unintended double-counting if any overlap exists in the setup.^[9] As defined earlier, disjointness means no shared elements, a condition that must be confirmed before summing.^[10]

Inclusion-Exclusion Principle

The inclusion-exclusion principle generalizes the addition principle to compute the size of the union of sets that may overlap, correcting for overcounting by alternately adding and subtracting intersections. For two finite sets A and B, the cardinality of their union is given by

|A \cup B| = |A| + |B| - |A \cap B|.

This formula arises directly from the addition principle: adding |A| and |B| counts elements in the intersection A \cap B twice, so subtracting |A \cap B| once ensures each element is counted exactly once in the union.^[11] In probability theory, the principle extends analogously to events. For two events A and B in a probability space, the probability of their union is

P(A \cup B) = P(A) + P(B) - P(A \cap B).

This follows from the set cardinality formula under the uniform measure on finite sample spaces, or more generally via the additivity of probability measures, where the intersection term corrects for the overlap.^[12] The principle generalizes to n finite sets A_1, A_2, \dots, A_n through an alternating sum over all possible intersections:

\left| \bigcup_{i=1}^n A_i \right| = \sum_{i=1}^n |A_i| - \sum_{1 \leq i < j \leq n} |A_i \cap A_j| + \sum_{1 \leq i < j < k \leq n} |A_i \cap A_j \cap A_k| - \cdots + (-1)^{n+1} \left| \bigcap_{i=1}^n A_i \right|.

Each term corresponds to the sum of cardinalities of intersections of exactly k sets, signed by (-1)^{k+1}, ensuring no over- or under-counting. The probabilistic version follows similarly:

P\left( \bigcup_{i=1}^n E_i \right) = \sum_{i=1}^n P(E_i) - \sum_{1 \leq i < j \leq n} P(E_i \cap E_j) + \cdots + (-1)^{n+1} P\left( \bigcap_{i=1}^n E_i \right).

^[13]^[12] A brief proof sketch uses indicator functions. Let I_{A_i}(x) = 1 if x \in A_i and 0 otherwise. The size of the union is \sum_x \left(1 - \prod_{i=1}^n (1 - I_{A_i}(x))\right), which expands via the binomial theorem to the inclusion-exclusion sum, as each element x in exactly k sets contributes a factor of (1 - 1)^k = 0 without correction but is properly counted once after the alternating terms. Alternatively, Venn diagrams illustrate this for small n: regions in single sets are added once, pairwise overlaps are added twice and subtracted once (net +1), and higher overlaps follow the sign pattern to yield +1 overall.^[14]^[11] While the principle is primarily formulated for finite collections, it extends to countable infinite unions of sets under suitable conditions, such as when the series of intersection measures converges absolutely, yielding an infinite alternating series without further proof here.^[13]

Subtraction Principle

The subtraction principle, also known as the complement rule in counting, states that if U is the universal set and A is a subset of U, then the cardinality of the complement of A in U, denoted U \setminus A or A^c, satisfies |U \setminus A| = |U| - |A|.^[15]^[16] In probability theory, this extends to measures where P(U \setminus A) = 1 - P(A), assuming U is the sample space with total probability 1.^[17] The complement notation A^c specifically refers to the set of all elements in U that are not in A, providing a formal way to express exclusions in combinatorial and probabilistic contexts.^[15] This principle serves as a direct counterpart to the addition principle, framing subtraction as the measure of the remainder after removing a subset from the total space.^[16] It can be viewed as a special case of the addition principle applied to disjoint sets, where A and A^c partition U without overlap.^[15] The derivation follows immediately from the addition principle: since A and A^c are disjoint and their union is U, it holds that |U| = |A| + |A^c|, rearranging to yield |A^c| = |U| - |A|.^[15] The probabilistic version derives analogously, as the probabilities of A and A^c sum to 1 over the sample space U.^[17] Beyond simple arithmetic subtraction, the subtraction principle plays a distinct role in combinatorics by facilitating the counting of voids, failures, or undesired outcomes, often simplifying problems where direct enumeration is complex.^[16] For instance, it enables efficient computation of scenarios like invalid configurations by deducting them from the total possibilities in U.^[15]

Applications

In Combinatorics

In combinatorics, the addition principle, also known as the sum rule, provides a method for counting the total number of outcomes in a scenario by summing the counts from mutually disjoint cases or sets. If event A can occur in m ways and event B can occur in n ways, with no overlap between A and B, then the total number of ways for A or B to occur is m + n. This principle extends to any finite number of pairwise disjoint events. For example, when arranging items from distinct categories, such as selecting a pastry from 14 donut varieties or a savory from 16 hot dog types at a food stand, the total choices are $14 + 16 = 30, assuming one item is chosen from either category.^[4]^[18] A practical application appears in counting paths on a grid, where moves are restricted to horizontal (right) or vertical (down) directions, and the total paths to a point are found by summing disjoint incoming paths. In a lattice path problem, the number of ways to reach an intermediate grid point equals the sum of paths arriving from the left (previous horizontal move) and from below (previous vertical move), as these routes are disjoint. For a $4 \times 4 grid, this recursive summation yields 70 total paths from the origin to the opposite corner, building progressively by adding contributions at each node.^[19] The addition principle integrates with the multiplication principle in composite counting problems, where it sums over branches of sequential choices, though the focus remains on additive disjoint unions. In recursive counting, it underpins sequences like the Fibonacci numbers, where the nth term counts tilings of an n-board using squares (size 1) and dominoes (size 2). The tilings form two disjoint cases: those ending in a square (preceded by an (n-1)-tiling) or a domino (preceded by an (n-2)-tiling), yielding the recurrence F_n = F_{n-1} + F_{n-2} with F_0 = 1 and F_1 = 1. For an 5-board, this gives 8 tilings (F_5 = 5 + 3).^[18]^[20] In generating functions, the addition principle manifests when coefficients represent counts of objects from disjoint unions of sets; the generating function for the union is the sum of the individual functions, preserving the enumeration of weighted structures. For disjoint sets A and B with generating functions F(z) and G(z), the union's function is F(z) + G(z), where the coefficient of z^k sums the k-weighted objects from both. This approach enumerates choices between mutually exclusive combinatorial classes, such as strings from different alphabets.^[21]

In Probability

In probability theory, the addition principle applies to mutually exclusive events, stating that the probability of their union equals the sum of their individual probabilities. For a finite collection of mutually exclusive events E_1, E_2, \dots, E_n, this is given by

P\left( \bigcup_{i=1}^n E_i \right) = \sum_{i=1}^n P(E_i).

This rule holds because the events have no overlap, preventing double-counting of outcomes.^[22] The principle forms a fundamental part of Kolmogorov's axiomatic system for probability, introduced in 1933,^[23] where the third axiom specifies countable additivity: the probability of a countable union of pairwise disjoint events equals the sum of their probabilities. This axiom ensures that probability measures are well-defined over sigma-algebras and supports the theory's consistency for infinite sample spaces.^[24] A practical example occurs with a fair six-sided die, where the events of rolling a 1 and rolling a 2 are mutually exclusive. The probability of rolling either is P(1 \cup 2) = P(1) + P(2) = \frac{1}{6} + \frac{1}{6} = \frac{1}{3}. In contrast, for non-mutually exclusive events, simple addition overestimates the union probability due to overlaps, requiring corrections like subtracting intersection terms.^[8] In Bayesian networks, the addition principle enables marginalization by summing joint probabilities over disjoint and exhaustive states of hidden variables to obtain marginal distributions. For instance, the marginal probability P(A) is computed as P(A) = \sum_b P(A, B = b), where the values of B partition the space. This operation preserves the network's probabilistic structure while eliminating irrelevant variables for inference tasks.^[25] The principle's limitations emerge when events are not disjoint, as direct summation fails to account for intersections, or when assumptions of mutual exclusivity do not hold, necessitating alternative methods such as inclusion-exclusion to derive accurate probabilities.^[26]

References

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[PDF] Combinatorics Sum and Product Rules Some Subtler Examples
The Sum Rule: If there are n(A) ways to do A and, distinct from them, n(B) ways to do B, then the number of ways to do A or B is n(A) + n(B). • This rule ...
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1.2 Combinations and permutations
This principle is often called the addition principle. This principle can be generalized: if sets A1 through An are pairwise disjoint and have sizes m1,…mn ...
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8.2: Addition and Multiplication Principles - Mathematics LibreTexts
Jul 7, 2021 · Use the addition principle if we can break down the problems into cases, and count how many items or choices we have in each case.
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The additive principle states that if event A A can occur in m m ways, and event B B can occur in n n disjoint ways, then the event “A A or B B ” can occur in m ...
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[PDF] 6.042J Chapter 11: Cardinality rules - MIT OpenCourseWare
Notice that the Sum Rule holds only for a union of disjoint sets. Finding the size of a union of intersecting sets is a more complicated problem that we'll ...
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[PDF] Operation on Sets Union Intersection Disjoint Sets
The Addition Principle associates the cardinality of sets with the cardinality of their union • If A and B are finite sets, then |A ∪ B| = |A| + |B| – |A ∩ B| ...
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Rule 3: If two events A and B are disjoint, then the probability of either event is the sum of the probabilities of the two events: P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B).Missing: principle | Show results with:principle
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The addition rule is used to calculate the probability that either (or both) of 2 events will happen.
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2A Fundamental Principles
Addition Principle of Counting · A family consists of a mother, a father, 3 girl children and 5 boy children. How many ways can the family choose · breakfast ...
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Aug 18, 2022 · Seven Detailed Examples Using The Addition Rule · Example 1: Milk Tea (Simple) · Example 2: A Lottery (Simple) · Example 3: Newspaper Articles.Example 1 Solution · Example 2 Solution · Example 3 Solution · Example 4 SolutionMissing: principle | Show results with:principle
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Jul 7, 2021 · It is called the Inclusion-Exclusion formula, because it works by adding (or “including”) the cardinalities of certain sets, and subtracting (or “excluding”) ...Missing: derivation | Show results with:derivation
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Oct 13, 2014 · On the other hand, F - E and F n E are also exclusive events with union equal to F: P1Fl = P1(F - E) U (F n E)l = P1F - El + P1F n El. The ...
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The principle of inclusion-exclusion was used by Nicholas Bernoulli to solve the recontres problem of finding the number of derangements.
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Oct 22, 2024 · The inclusion-exclusion principle is an important combinatorial way to compute the size of a set or the probability of complex events.Statement · Proof · Generalization for calculating... · Usage when solving problemsMissing: derivation | Show results with:derivation
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addition principle here: set A1 is all pairs (1,x), set A2 is all pairs (2,x), and so on. This is somewhat more subtle than is first apparent. In this ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[16]
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is to observe that the complement consists of strings with all nonzero digits, of which there are clearly. 9n by the multiplication principle. 4.1.5 Counting ...
[17]
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1: Generalize the rule of sums and the rule of products to more than two events. ... Recall that ¯E is the complement event for E and ¯F is the complement event ...
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Jul 4, 2020 · We count the paths by adding the number of ways in which we can reach each dot in the lattice–remembering that we can only go east or south and that we always ...Missing: principle | Show results with:principle
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The number of ways to tile an n -board is a Fibonacci number! This means that anything we did with Fibonacci numbers can now be considered as tiling questions.
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Disjoint unions are done using addition as in simple counting: z+z2 represents the choice between a weight-1 object and a weight-2 object (which may have ...
[22]
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The axioms of Kolmogorov. Let S denote an event set with a probability measure P defined over it, such that probability of any event A ⊂ S is given by P(A).
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