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Agis II

Agis II (died c. 400 BC) was a king of Sparta from the Eurypontid dynasty, reigning from c. 427 BC as the son and successor of Archidamus II, and commanding the Spartan army's major operations for much of the Peloponnesian War against Athens.^[1] His leadership marked a period of Spartan resurgence, highlighted by the victory at the Battle of Mantinea in 418 BC, where Spartan forces under his nominal command defeated a coalition of Athens, Argos, Mantinea, and Elis, restoring prestige after earlier diplomatic setbacks like the Peace of Nicias.^[1]^[2] In 413 BC, Agis established a permanent Spartan garrison at Decelea in Attica, which disrupted Athenian agriculture and silver mining, contributing significantly to Athens' economic strain and eventual surrender in 404 BC.^[1] Following the war, he directed campaigns against Elis from 402 BC, initially halting due to an earthquake omen but resuming to ravage the region and compel concessions, including the release of Olympic control over allied towns, though he faced domestic criticism for perceived leniency and earlier hesitations, such as at Mantinea where advisers restrained his pursuit of the fleeing enemy.^[1]^[3] Agis died shortly after dedicating spoils at Delphi, amid rumors questioning the legitimacy of his son Leotychides due to alleged infidelity with Alcibiades, leading to the accession of his half-brother Agesilaus II.^[1]

Family Background and Ascension

Parentage and Early Life

Agis II was born circa 457 BC as the eldest son of Archidamus II, king of Sparta's Eurypontid dynasty, and his first wife, whose name remains unrecorded in ancient sources.^[1]^[4] This parentage positioned him as heir apparent in the hereditary line, distinct from his younger half-brother Agesilaus II, who was born to Archidamus's second wife, Eupolia.^[4]^[1] Like other Spartan males, including those of royal descent, Agis entered the agoge—the state's mandatory education and training regimen—at approximately age seven, enduring communal barracks life, minimal rations to foster resourcefulness, and relentless physical and martial instruction until around age thirty.^[5] This system prioritized endurance, stealth, and collective obedience over individual comfort, embedding the values of homoioi equality and hoplite phalanx readiness essential to Spartan identity.^[5] Sparta's constitutional framework of dual kingship further contextualized Agis's formative environment: as a future Eurypontid ruler, he would share authority with a counterpart from the Agiad dynasty—both lines tracing descent from Heracles—while subject to oversight by the annually elected ephors, who enforced accountability and prevented monarchical overreach.^[6]^[7] This balance of ritual prestige and institutional restraint shaped the expectations for royal heirs from youth.^[6]

Succession to the Throne

Agis II ascended to the Eurypontid kingship of Sparta circa 427 BC upon the death of his father, Archidamus II, which occurred amid the early phases of the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC).^[1] Archidamus's demise left no recorded disputes over succession, as Spartan custom favored the eldest legitimate son in each royal line, ensuring Agis's uncontested inheritance without evident factional resistance or ephoral intervention at the time.^[8] This smooth transition preserved the dual monarchy's continuity, with Agis immediately inheriting command responsibilities over Spartan military operations.^[1] Agis's early actions exemplified policy persistence, as he directed the Spartan alliance's invasion of Attica in the summer of 426 BC, ravaging territory in line with prior annual campaigns under Archidamus to pressure Athens economically and psychologically.^[1] Concurrently, the Agiad kingship saw Pleistoanax's return from a decades-long exile (imposed after a controversial 446 BC withdrawal from Attica), reestablishing dual leadership around the same period and demonstrating Sparta's systemic capacity to maintain operational stability amid personal royal setbacks.^[9] No ancient accounts indicate immediate discord between the co-kings, though the dyarchy's inherent checks—such as ephoral oversight—continued to shape decision-making.^[1]

Military Engagements

Role in the Peloponnesian War

Agis II succeeded his father Archidamus II as Eurypontid king of Sparta in 427 BC and promptly assumed leadership of Spartan military efforts in the Peloponnesian War, including invasions of Attica aimed at ravaging Athenian territory and compelling a field battle.^[1] These operations from 426 BC onward followed the strategy of annual incursions to erode Athens' agricultural base and morale through systematic destruction, though Athens' naval superiority and defensive walls prevented decisive engagement. Agis also coordinated support for Peloponnesian allies, such as reinforcing Boeotian forces against Athenian raids in central Greece during the mid-war phase.^[1] The pivotal engagement under Agis's direct command occurred at the Battle of Mantinea in 418 BC, where Spartan and Tegean hoplites, numbering approximately 3,500 Spartiates plus allies, confronted a coalition of roughly 11,000 troops from Argos, Mantinea, Athens, and other Arcadian states. Agis positioned the Spartan phalanx in the center, leveraging its superior discipline and close-order tactics to withstand initial pressure before enveloping the enemy flanks; the resulting rout inflicted heavy casualties on the coalition—over 700 Argives and allies killed versus 300 Spartans—restoring Spartan hegemony over the Peloponnese and discrediting Athenian alliances there.^[2] Post-battle, Agis ordered a limited pursuit, prioritizing recovery of the dead and avoiding risks from potential enemy reserves amid the disorder of the field. In 413 BC, Agis spearheaded a renewed incursion into Attica with a Peloponnesian army, establishing and garrisoning the fort at Decelea as a persistent base for raids, which Thucydides notes exacerbated Athenian losses through slave desertions (up to 20,000 reported) and severed land access to silver mines, accelerating economic attrition. This complemented Spartan naval alliances, particularly after the Sicilian Expedition's failure, by tying down Athenian forces on multiple fronts. Agis maintained oversight of land campaigns through the war's denouement, sustaining pressure that, alongside Persian funding for Spartan fleets, forced Athens' surrender in 404 BC after the Battle of Aegospotami.^[1]^[10]

Campaigns Against Elis

In the aftermath of Sparta's victory in the Peloponnesian War, King Agis II initiated military action against Elis around 402 BC, driven primarily by longstanding grievances over Elis's management of the Olympic Games and territorial encroachments in the Peloponnese.^[11] Elis had excluded Spartan competitors from the 420 BC Olympics for violating a truce during their earlier conflict over Lepreon, a decision that Spartans viewed as an affront to their prestige and influence over panhellenic institutions.^[1] Additionally, Sparta sought to punish Elis for its inconsistent alliances, including neutrality toward Sparta's enemies and dominance over neighboring poleis like Lepreon and Heraia, which aligned with Spartan hegemonic ambitions to consolidate control in the western Peloponnese.^[12] Economic incentives played a role, as Elis's fertile plains offered opportunities for Spartan-aligned perioikoi settlements and resource extraction to offset post-war fiscal strains.^[13] Agis launched the first invasion from the northeast via Achaea along the Larissus River, ravaging Elean territory and prompting defections from subject communities such as the Lepreans and Macistians, who had long chafed under Elean hegemony.^[14] According to Xenophon, the campaign resembled a large-scale foraging operation, with Spartan forces systematically destroying suburbs, gymnasia, and crops while avoiding a direct assault on the unwalled city of Elis due to its defensive preparations and the risks of urban combat.^[14] Agis advanced to Olympia, where he sacrificed to Zeus and oversaw the games, symbolically asserting Spartan oversight and undermining Elean religious authority.^[11] Logistical challenges arose from the region's marshy terrain and Elean guerrilla tactics, which harassed supply lines and prolonged the operation across two summers, limiting decisive gains in the initial phase.^[3] By 400 BC, intensified Spartan pressure, including allied contingents from Arcadia and Achaea, compelled Elis to sue for peace after Agis rejected moderate terms and continued devastation.^[14] The resulting settlement forced Elis to cede border districts like Lasion and the Lethean district, liberate dependent poleis such as Lepreon, and acknowledge Spartan arbitration in regional disputes, effectively establishing temporary overlordship without full annexation.^[1] However, persistent Elean resistance and the diversion of Spartan resources toward emerging threats from Thebes highlighted the campaign's limits, as Elis retained autonomy and later challenged Spartan influence.^[13] This outcome underscored Sparta's post-war expansionism but also exposed vulnerabilities in sustaining peripheral campaigns amid broader imperial overreach.^[12]

Diplomacy and Internal Affairs

Peace Negotiations and Alliances

Agis II, as Eurypontid king, participated in the Spartan diplomatic efforts culminating in the Peace of Nicias, a fifty-year truce signed with Athens in March 421 BC that temporarily halted the Archidamian phase of the Peloponnesian War and enabled Sparta to recover from earlier setbacks such as the loss at Pylos.^[15] The agreement, sworn by Spartan representatives including the kings, aimed to restore pre-war borders and prisoners, though its enforcement proved fragile due to non-signatory allies like Boeotia and Corinth refusing ratification, and subsequent alliances such as Argos with Athens and Mantinea undermining its terms. In 418 BC, amid violations of the Nicias truce, Agis led an invasion of Argos but opted for a four-month truce rather than immediate conquest, reflecting a pragmatic approach to consolidate Spartan position without immediate escalation, despite opposition from his advisors who urged total subjugation.^[16] This decision drew sharp criticism from Spartan authorities upon his return, who blamed Agis for the truce's leniency, as Argos exploited the interval to seize Orchomenus and orchestrate further anti-Spartan coalitions.^[16] Xenophon's account in the Hellenica later highlights such inconsistencies in Spartan enforcement of truces and alliances under Agis, portraying a policy of expansion tempered by selective de-escalations that sometimes invited exploitation by adversaries.^[17] From 413 BC, Agis's fortification of Decelea in Attica exerted significant influence on broader Spartan strategy, facilitating alliances with Persian satraps Tissaphernes and Pharnabazus who provided funding starting in 412 BC to rebuild Sparta's navy during the Ionian phase of the war.^[18] These pacts, negotiated amid Persia's interest in weakening Athens, supplied the resources for Spartan resurgence at sea, complementing Agis's land-based pressure and avoiding overextension by leveraging external support rather than sole reliance on Peloponnesian levies.^[18] Thucydides notes Agis's commanding role in shaping this persistent war policy from Decelea, which prioritized sustained attrition over hasty peaces.^[1]

Relations with Co-King Pausanias

Agis II co-ruled Sparta with Pausanias, son of Pleistoanax, following the latter's recall from exile upon Pleistoanax's death in 409 BC, a period spanning until Agis's own death a decade later. This dyarchy, inherent to Sparta's constitutional design with one king from each royal house, fostered inherent tensions due to longstanding inter-dynastic rivalries, manifesting in mutual suspicions over authority, particularly in military command where joint operations required coordination between the kings. Ephors, as elected overseers, mediated these frictions by enforcing protocols that limited unilateral actions, thereby preserving institutional balance but underscoring the system's propensity for internal deadlock.^[19] A notable instance of rivalry emerged in 403 BC, when Pausanias led a campaign into Attica to suppress democratic remnants after the fall of the Thirty Tyrants, an effort criticized for leniency toward Athenian exiles. Agis, remaining in Sparta, distanced himself from the operation, avoiding entanglement in its controversies to safeguard Eurypontid prestige amid shifting ephoral factions. Upon Pausanias's return, Agis actively opposed him in the subsequent trial before the gerousia, where the king joined fourteen elders in voting for conviction on charges of incompetence and undue favoritism toward Athens, though the remaining votes secured acquittal.^[20]^[19] These dynamics exemplified the dual kingship's checks against monarchical overreach—kings could veto each other implicitly through ephoral arbitration—but also its inefficiencies, as divided loyalties hampered decisive leadership without external arbitration. No overt civil strife erupted, attributable to ephoral veto power and the houses' interdependence in rituals and councils, yet the pattern of guarded interactions reinforced a pragmatic stasis over collaborative governance.^[21]

Death and Succession Crisis

Final Campaign and Demise

In 400 BC (or 398 BC according to some chronologies), Agis II assumed command of Sparta's forces in the ongoing war against Elis, which had defied Spartan hegemony by withholding Olympic participation rights and mistreating allied poleis.^[11]^[1] Leading an invasion into Eleian territory, Agis ravaged the countryside, seized key positions, and pressured Elis into negotiations, ultimately forcing a surrender that included concessions such as autonomy for subordinate towns like Lepreum and Heraea.^[1] This outcome marked a successful culmination of Spartan efforts to reassert dominance in the Peloponnese following the Peloponnesian War.^[11] After securing peace, Agis proceeded to Delphi to dedicate a tithe of the spoils from the campaign.^[22] En route back to Sparta, he fell seriously ill at Heraea in Arcadia and was transported to the capital, where he succumbed to the ailment shortly thereafter, circa 400 BC.^[22] His death, at approximately 57 years of age, occurred amid a context of relentless warfare that typically shortened Spartan lifespans, yet underscored the system's heavy reliance on the king's direct presence for military cohesion in an era before formalized professional command structures.^[11] The army, having achieved its objectives under his leadership, withdrew following the peace terms, revealing the fragility of operations tethered to royal vitality.^[1]

Dispute Over Heir Apparent

Following the death of Agis II around 398 BC during his return from Delphi, a succession dispute arose between his purported son Leotychidas and Agesilaus, Agis's younger half-brother and son of the same father Archidamus II by his second wife Eupolia.^[23] Prior suspicions had long clouded Leotychidas's paternity, stemming from an earthquake that reportedly separated Agis from his wife Timaea around the time of conception, coupled with rumors of her infidelity—possibly with the Athenian Alcibiades—leading Agis to exclude the boy from honors during his lifetime.^[23] However, on his deathbed, Agis relented, publicly declaring Leotychidas his legitimate son amid the youth's tearful supplications, witnessed by numerous attendants, thereby affirming the Eurypontid line's continuity through him.^[23] Lysander, the influential Spartan navarch and advocate for Agesilaus, contested Leotychidas's claim by reviving doubts over his birth, interpreting the earlier earthquake as a divine portent from Poseidon signaling illegitimacy and arguing that no true heir could emerge from such circumstances.^[23] To resolve the impasse, Spartan authorities consulted the Delphic oracle, which issued an ambiguous decree: "Beware, Sparta, lest a mutilated royalty be established among you."^[23] Lysander adroitly reinterpreted this warning not as prohibiting Agesilaus—physically lame from birth but untainted in lineage and proven in virtue—but as alluding to the "mutilated" or bastard status of Leotychidas's claim, thereby swaying opinion toward competence and Heraclid purity over contested bloodlines.^[23]^[24] This oracular reliance underscored Spartan's hereditary system's vulnerabilities, where empirical verification of paternity—absent modern equivalents—was supplanted by prophetic ambiguity and elite maneuvering, allowing Lysander's faction to prioritize a capable, if physically impaired, candidate like Agesilaus over a younger rival whose legitimacy rested on a deathbed affirmation amid persistent evidentiary skepticism. Agesilaus ascended as the Eurypontid king, with Leotychidas exiled, marking a pivotal shift determined less by direct proof than by interpretive consensus among the Spartan gerousia and ephors.^[24]^[23]

Legacy and Historical Assessment

Key Achievements

Agis II commanded Spartan forces to a decisive victory at the Battle of Mantinea on July 418 BC, defeating a numerically superior coalition of Argives, Athenians, Mantineans, and Eleans, with Spartan casualties reported at approximately 300 against over 1,100 enemy dead.^[2] This triumph, the largest land battle in Greece since the Persian Wars, reaffirmed the effectiveness of Spartan hoplite phalanx discipline against diverse opponents and reversed prestige losses from earlier defeats like Sphacteria in 425 BC.^[25] Throughout the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC), Agis II directed repeated invasions of Attica and established the permanent garrison at Decelea in 413 BC, which disrupted Athenian agriculture, slave labor, and cavalry resources, contributing to Athens' economic exhaustion and ultimate surrender.^[1] His sustained land command complemented naval efforts, facilitating Sparta's overall victory in 404 BC and the imposition of the Thirty Tyrants regime in Athens, which briefly established Spartan hegemony across Greece.^[26] In the Elean War (402–400 BC), Agis II led multiple campaigns that subdued Elis, a recalcitrant Peloponnesian League member, forcing their capitulation and transfer of control over the Olympic sanctuary and its revenues to Sparta-allied Pisa, thereby securing ritual prestige and economic resources from sacred lands and territories like Lasion and Epeium.^[1] These successes reinforced Sparta's dominance within the League, deterring defections and consolidating control over western Peloponnesian trade routes.^[14]

Criticisms from Contemporaries

Agis II encountered significant rebuke from Spartan authorities following his decision to halt the pursuit of the defeated Argive-Argos-Mantinean alliance forces after the Spartan victory at the Battle of Mantinea on July 418 BC. Thucydides recounts that, despite initial success in routing the enemy, Agis ordered a withdrawal upon the occurrence of an earthquake, which seers interpreted as a divine prohibition against further advance. This allowed the adversaries to regroup and fortify their positions, forestalling a decisive consolidation of Spartan gains and extending the regional conflict. The ephors responded by dispatching commissioners to censure Agis and threaten deposition, reflecting contemporary Spartan prioritization of pragmatic tactical completion over superstitious deference.^[11] Agis's subsequent campaigns against Elis from 402 to 400 BC drew implicit criticism for representing overextended aggression in peripheral disputes, diverting Spartan forces and resources at a time when broader Peloponnesian stabilization was imperative after the Peloponnesian War's conclusion in 404 BC. Xenophon's Hellenica details Agis's two invasions, which culminated in Elis's submission under harsh terms, including territorial concessions and alliance mandates, yet portrays them amid Sparta's emerging hegemonic strains without endorsing their strategic necessity. This focus on a minor rival, rather than addressing threats like Persian influence or northern unrest, suggested to observers a misallocation that strained alliances and logistics without proportionate gains in core Spartan interests. Domestically, Agis provoked unpopularity through perceived arbitrary favoritism in command appointments, exacerbating internal factions and prompting ephoral oversight. In response to the Mantinea lapse, the ephors mandated that Agis conduct future operations under the supervision of ten appointed Spartan commissioners, a measure aimed at curbing unilateral decisions that favored personal allies over meritocratic selection.^[1] This intervention, documented in Thucydides, underscored contemporary concerns over leadership that sowed discord, later exploited in succession disputes and contributing to eroded cohesion within the gerousia and assembly.

Long-Term Impact on Sparta

Agis II's successful command in key engagements, such as the victory at Mantinea in 418 BC, restored Spartan military prestige and contributed to the ultimate defeat of Athens in the Peloponnesian War by 404 BC, enabling Sparta's subsequent hegemony over Greece until the Battle of Leuctra in 371 BC.^[11] This reinforcement of traditional Spartan militarism, centered on the citizen-hoplite phalanx, preserved the polity's exceptionalism as a land power but prioritized external conquests—exemplified by his final campaign against Elis culminating in his death around 400 BC—over internal reforms to address demographic stagnation among the Spartiates.^[1] The resulting overextension manifested in Sparta's strained capacity to garrison and control subject territories during its imperial phase, as the fixed number of full citizens (estimated at around 8,000 at Mantinea but declining thereafter due to war losses and low birth rates) limited sustainable projection of power without broader systemic changes.^[27] The succession crisis following Agis' death highlighted the inherent fragilities of Sparta's dual hereditary kingship, where legitimacy hinged on perceived purity of lineage rather than codified rules. Agis' son Leotychidas was sidelined amid widespread suspicions of illegitimacy, linked to his conception during Alcibiades' visit to Sparta in 413 BC, allowing his uncle Agesilaus II to ascend with the support of influential figures like Lysander.^[28] This episode, while not directly destabilizing under Agesilaus' initial 40-year reign (c. 400–360 BC), exemplified how personal scandals could exacerbate factionalism in an oligarchic system lacking robust succession mechanisms, foreshadowing later dynastic disputes that compounded Sparta's vulnerabilities amid external pressures.^[29] Ultimately, Agis' adherence to conventional warfare tactics and alliances sustained Sparta's short-term dominance but failed to anticipate shifts toward professionalized forces, as evidenced by Sparta's post-400 BC increasing dependence on perioikoi, helots, and foreign allies rather than expanding its core citizen levy to counter emerging mercenary armies funded by Persian gold.^[30] This continuity of traditionalism under his successor preserved Spartan identity but eroded adaptability, contributing to the polity's inability to reform its rigid agoge and land distribution systems, which empirical outcomes—such as manpower shortages during the Corinthian War (395–387 BC)—revealed as causal factors in the hegemony's collapse by 371 BC.^[31]

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