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Al-Walid II

Al-Walid II ibn Yazid (died April 744 CE) was the eleventh Umayyad caliph, reigning from February 743 until his assassination the following year. The son of the preceding caliph Yazid II and grandson of Abd al-Malik, he succeeded his great-uncle Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik amid disputes over succession, designating his own sons as heirs in a move that alienated other Umayyad princes. Historical accounts, primarily from later Abbasid-era chroniclers, portray him as a patron of poetry and architecture who constructed lavish desert palaces such as Qusayr Amra, yet reviled for his alleged public indulgence in wine, music, and unconventional religious views expressed in his verses. His rule, marked by fiscal pressures on provincial governors and favoritism toward non-Arab clients, fueled opposition from pious factions and tribal leaders, culminating in a conspiracy led by his cousin Yazid III that ended his life. While traditional narratives emphasize his impiety as a cause of the Umayyad decline, some scholarly reassessments question the extent of bias in these sources against the dynasty's later rulers.

Origins and Early Years

Birth and Familial Lineage

Al-Walid ibn Yazid, who would rule as the eleventh Umayyad caliph, was the son of Yazid ibn Abd al-Malik, the ninth Umayyad caliph reigning from 720 to 724 , and his wife Umm al-Hajjaj bint Muhammad ibn Yusuf al-Thaqafi, from the prominent Thaqif tribe allied with the Umayyads. His birth occurred in , likely near , though the precise date remains unrecorded in surviving historical accounts; estimates place it circa 706–709 based on his reported age of about eleven during his nomination as a potential heir by his father around 720 . As a member of the Umayyad dynasty's Marwanid branch, al-Walid descended from Caliph (r. 685–705 ), his paternal grandfather, who had stabilized and expanded the after the Second Muslim Civil War () through administrative reforms and conquests reaching from Iberia to . Abd al-Malik's father, (r. 684–685 ), had seized power from the Sufyanid line, founding the Marwanids as the dominant Umayyad faction; al-Walid thus represented the third generation of this lineage, positioned within a family network of caliphs including uncles like (r. 705–715 ) and (r. 715–717 ). This heritage embedded al-Walid in the elite Arab-Islamic aristocracy of , where Umayyad rulers intermarried with tribal elites like the Thaqif to consolidate loyalty, though primary sources provide scant details on his immediate siblings beyond indications of at least one sister. His familial ties underscored the dynasty's reliance on hereditary succession tempered by nomination (walī al-ʿahd), a employed to secure al-Walid's future amid rivalries with cousins like .

Education and Formative Experiences


Al-Walid ibn Yazid was designated by his father, Caliph , in 720 CE at about eleven years old, indicating a birth 709 CE. Following Yazid II's death in 724 CE, he lived under the authority of his uncle, Caliph , whose reign extended until 743 CE. During this two-decade interval, al-Walid's youth unfolded at Hisham's court in Rusafa (likely ), marked by isolation and resentment stemming from succession disputes that alienated him from court factions. Barred from administrative duties, he withdrew to desert palaces, including those in the Jordanian region, prioritizing personal and intellectual activities over political engagement. In these retreats, al-Walid cultivated literary interests, particularly , consistent with Umayyad princely training in Arabic eloquence and adab (belles-lettres). His patronage of the bathhouse frescoes as underscores early immersion in artistic expression, featuring motifs of princely leisure and authority. Abbasid-era chronicles, prone to anti-Umayyad polemics, depict his formative phase as one of precocious indulgence—wine, music, and revelry—but such portrayals likely amplify traits to discredit the dynasty, overlooking evidence of cultured refinement in his surviving verses.

Path to Caliphate

Nomination Amid Dynastic Tensions

Al-Walid ibn Yazid's path to the caliphate was shaped by longstanding familial rivalries within the , particularly between the lines descending from Abd al-Malik's sons. Although , who ruled from 105 (724 ) to 125 (743 ), sought to secure the succession for his own son , he was ultimately constrained by dynastic precedent and pressures to designate his nephew al-Walid as . This nomination was fraught with tension due to al-Walid's reputation for indulgence, which had prompted his father, (r. 101–105 AH/720–724 CE), to override him in favor of Hisham on the advice of the influential general . Al-Walid's reported habits of drinking, composing poetry, and surrounding himself with entertainers raised concerns about his suitability, leading Hisham to issue rebukes and temporarily withhold funds while attempting to reform his conduct. In 117 AH (735 CE), Hisham appointed al-Walid to lead the pilgrimage, ostensibly to enhance his public standing and counter criticisms of his moral lapses, though this did little to quell underlying skepticism within elite circles. Efforts to displace al-Walid from the walī al-ʿahd () position in favor of Hisham's progeny failed amid resistance from kin and possibly tribal factions loyal to the Sufyanid branch, preserving al-Walid's claim until Hisham's death on 6 February 743 CE (15 Rabīʿ I 125 AH).

Succession Following Hisham's Death

Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik died on 6 February 743 (125 AH) at the age of 52 while hunting near Rusafa in , reportedly falling from his horse after chasing a . His death occurred without a finalized alteration to the established line of succession, which had been set by his brother in the early 720s to favor Yazid's son, al-Walid ibn Yazid. Al-Walid, already positioned as , ascended to the immediately thereafter, securing (oath of allegiance) from provincial governors and military commanders in . Throughout his reign, Hisham had repeatedly sought to bypass al-Walid due to reports of the latter's indulgence in wine, music, , and other behaviors deemed incompatible with caliphal duties, including controversial actions during the of 116 AH (735 CE) such as erecting a lavish tent near the Ka'bah. Hisham favored alternatives from his own progeny, initially pressing al-Walid to pledge allegiance to Hisham's son Maslama ibn Hisham around 735 CE, and later attempting to nominate his son or grandson Sulayman ibn Hisham (known as Abu Shakir). These efforts garnered support from Hisham's sons, maternal kin in , tribal commanders from , and scholar , but faced resistance from entrenched Umayyad elites, including al-Walid's maternal uncle Yusuf ibn 'Umar al-Thaqafi, governor of since 738 CE, who maintained loyalty to the prior designation. Al-Walid had proactively stationed agents at Rusafa and cultivated alliances to ensure continuity. The transition proceeded smoothly in the short term, with no immediate revolt, as al-Walid's prior status and preparations neutralized Hisham's unfinished maneuvers; however, underlying factional divisions exacerbated by the succession dispute contributed to the dynasty's , culminating in al-Walid's overthrow within a year.

Rule and Governance

Key Policies and Administrative Decisions

Al-Walid II's brief , spanning from February 743 to April 744, featured fiscal initiatives aimed at alleviating central government shortages while funding expanded expenditures. Upon accession, he decreed salary increases for soldiers—10 dirhams monthly for general troops and 20 dirhams for Syrian forces—alongside allocations for perfumes and clothing to large families and stipends for caretakers of the disabled and blind in . These measures, drawn from provincial revenues, underscored a welfare-oriented approach but strained the treasury amid ongoing military commitments. To bolster revenues, Al-Walid intensified extraction from , the caliphate's primary fiscal base, by torturing the former governor Khalid ibn Abdullah al-Qasri to yield 50 million dirhams and confiscating assets from Umayyad family members. This policy prioritized immediate inflows over sustainable provincial administration, reflecting the government's acute financial needs but fostering resentment among regional elites. In peripheral regions, he auctioned operational rights in to Umar ibn and mandated the relocation of Cyprus's population, decisions that outsourced frontier management but yielded limited central benefits. Administratively, Al-Walid asserted authority over succession by proclaiming his right to designate heirs independently, appointing his young sons al-Hakam as governor of and as governor of under a jurist's oversight—the first such instance of minors in high office with supervision. He also installed Yazid ibn Umar al-Taymi as lieutenant governor of Sind, who led 18 raids but remitted no revenues to . These appointments emphasized loyalty to his lineage over experience, diverging from precedents set by . Personnel decisions included a retaliatory campaign against perceived opponents from Hisham's era, such as imprisoning and flogging Sulayman ibn Hisham, torturing and executing members of the Banu al-Qa'qa' tribe, and detaining dissenters like Said ibn Bayhas and Khalid ibn Abdullah for refusing allegiance to his heirs. This purge alienated tribal factions, Umayyad kin, and military elements, eroding administrative cohesion without introducing structural reforms. Overall, Al-Walid's governance retained much of Hisham's framework but prioritized personal consolidation, contributing to frontier neglect in areas like , , and .

Military Engagements and Frontier Management

Al-Walid II's , spanning from February 743 to April 744 CE, featured limited military engagements, primarily consisting of routine summer raids against Byzantine territories in , which were administered by the Jazira province rather than directly from . These operations represented a continuation of established Umayyad practices but lacked significant or under his rule. No major campaigns or conquests were launched during this period, as internal fiscal and political priorities overshadowed offensive efforts. Frontier management deteriorated markedly, with neglect of peripheral provinces enabling local autonomy and revolts that eroded central authority. In Sind, Yazid bin ‘Arar led 18 raids that generated substantial personal fortunes but yielded no revenue to , highlighting administrative disconnection. slipped from effective control when Abdur Rahman bin Habib ousted the appointed , establishing independence. In , al-Walid II's sale of the province's fiscal rights to Umar bin Yusuf, governor of , disrupted standard tax collection and governance structures by April 744 CE. Efforts to maintain military cohesion faltered despite salary increases for Syrian troops—adding 10 dirhams monthly, with an extra 10 for select units—as funding shortfalls left stipends unpaid, fueling discontent among garrisons like those in . On , al-Walid II directed Aswad bin Bilal to offer inhabitants relocation to or allegiance to Byzantine rule, reflecting rather than strategic border policy. This pattern of fiscal mismanagement and provincial oversight contributed to the Third Fitna's outbreak, as instability amplified domestic rebellions.

Religious and Personal Conduct Controversies

Al-Walid II's brief (February 743–April 744 CE) was marred by accounts of impious behavior that alienated religious elites and contributed to his rapid overthrow. Historical sources, primarily from later Abbasid-era chroniclers sympathetic to pious opposition narratives, depict him as the first Umayyad caliph to publicly consume , flouting Islamic prohibitions against intoxicants. This open indulgence, including wine-drinking sessions with companions, contrasted sharply with the promoted by his predecessor , who had attempted to disinherit Al-Walid due to reports of his "immoral behavior" such as associating with disreputable company and habitual drinking even before ascension. Religious controversies intensified through Al-Walid's poetic output, which included verses interpreted as heretical or mocking orthodox practices. Some poems allegedly contained blasphemous elements, such as skepticism toward or , themes that later historians like attributed to his lifestyle. These compositions, preserved in Umayyad poetic anthologies, blended with theological irreverence, portraying the caliph as prioritizing personal pleasure over caliphal —a fusion of roles that demanded moral exemplarity in early Islamic governance. Critics, including Yamani tribesmen who rebelled against him, cited such conduct as evidence of unfitness, framing his rule as a deviation from the religious legitimacy expected of the . On the personal front, Al-Walid retreated to desert palaces like and Khirbat al-Mafjar, sites associated with lavish revelry, music, and , evading Damascus's administrative duties to indulge unchecked. Accounts accuse him of hedonistic excesses, including the mistreatment of prominent figures through , , and violations of their households, actions rationalized in some sources as stemming from or spite rather than . While these narratives dominate Sunni historiographical , potentially amplified by anti-Umayyad biases in post-conquest writings, they underscore a causal link between his perceived moral lapses and the erosion of dynastic support, culminating in Yazid III's coup on grounds of public welfare (maslaha).

Intellectual and Artistic Legacy

Poetic Compositions and Themes

Al-Walīd ibn Yazīd, later caliph al-Walīd II, produced a substantial body of poetry preserved in his dīwān, which encompasses over 100 poems across classical Arabic forms. His compositions innovated within the ghazal (love poetry) and khamrīyya (wine poetry) genres, blending traditional motifs with heightened lyrical expression. These works often reflected a hedonistic sensibility, prioritizing sensory pleasure and emotional immediacy over moral or narrative didacticism, as analyzed in scholarly examinations of Umayyad verse. Central themes in al-Walīd's ghazal included romantic yearning and melancholy remembrance, frequently evoked through the aṭlāl (deserted encampment) motif, which anchored his poetry in a stylized bedouin nostalgia despite his urban courtly life. A representative example is poem No. 44 from his dīwān, structured as a musical sequence of six verses varying a leitmotif without advancing a storyline, culminating in unresolved gloom to intensify emotional depth. The opening invokes halting at ruins: qifā khalīlayya ‘alā l-maḥā / wa-l-rab‘i min Sālamata l-muqfā ("Halt, my two friends, at the place of settlement, the deserted campsite of Salama!"), repeated and modulated phonologically and morphologically to evoke persistent longing for a lost beloved. This approach transformed conventional naṣīb (elegiac prelude) elements into pure lyricism, prioritizing rhythmic cadence and repetition over descriptive realism. In khamrīyya, al-Walīd celebrated wine as a source of ecstasy and defiance against ascetic norms, with verses depicting revelry, intoxication, and communal drinking that mirrored historical accounts of his indulgences, such as immersing himself in vats of wine. These poems employed lively meters like the sarī‘, aligning with his reputed skills as a musician and composer, and often incorporated zajal (colloquial strophic forms) for songs of abundance and fleeting joy. His thematic focus on erotic and bacchic pursuits, including amorous adventures and the transcendence of earthly taboos through verse, distinguished his output amid Umayyad literary traditions, though it drew criticism from pietistic contemporaries for flouting religious propriety.

Broader Cultural Influence

Al-Walid II's poetic innovations in khamriyya (wine poetry) and ghazal (love poetry) contributed to the evolution of Arabic literary forms during the Umayyad era, influencing subsequent poets by blending traditional motifs with personal introspection and sensual themes. His verses, often celebrating desert life, hunting, and pleasure, prefigured the stylistic developments seen in Abbasid poetry, particularly in the works of Abu Nuwas, who drew from Umayyad predecessors including al-Walid. As a patron of the arts, al-Walid supported the creation of elaborate desert structures featuring figurative frescoes, exemplified by those at Qusayr ʿAmra, which depict hunting scenes, bathing figures, and imperial motifs reflecting Umayyad and secular tastes. These artworks, including a throne scene with tributary rulers gesturing toward the caliph, underscored themes of and cultural synthesis, blending Byzantine, Sasanian, and local Jordanian elements to assert caliphal authority beyond religious . His reign highlighted tensions between elite artistic expression and emerging orthodox sensibilities, with later Abbasid critiquing Umayyad extravagance while preserving examples of their cultural output, thus embedding al-Walid's in the broader of early Islamic literary and visual traditions. The Umayyad period's poetic advancements under figures like al-Walid laid groundwork for the ghazal's refinement, marking a shift toward more individualistic and erotic expressions in .

Overthrow and Demise

Rebellions and Opposition

Al-Walid II's brief encountered mounting opposition primarily from within the Umayyad elite and Syrian military factions, fueled by perceptions of his moral laxity, including public consumption of and indulgence in and , which contravened expectations of pious . These behaviors, alongside favoritism toward select kin and allies at the expense of broader tribal constituencies, alienated key supporters such as the Yamaniyah tribes, who viewed his rule as a deviation from norms. Financial strains exacerbated discontent, as treasury depletion from lavish expenditures prompted severe revenue measures, including the torture and execution of the governor Khalid ibn Abd Allah al-Qasri in 744, which provoked outrage among Yamani troops in and . Unpaid military stipends in triggered an initial , with soldiers demanding the restoration of an alternative Umayyad heir, Hakam ibn al-Walid, reflecting broader unease over al-Walid II's designation of his young sons, and Hakam, as successors—a move deemed premature and destabilizing by family elders. The pivotal rebellion coalesced around ibn al-Walid, al-Walid II's paternal cousin and son of the prior caliph , who rallied opposition in by condemning the incumbent's impiety and pledging reforms to uphold justice and religious orthodoxy. Backed by Yamani leaders like ibn Jumhur and defectors such as al-Abbas ibn al-Walid, secured oaths of allegiance (bay'a) from Syrian garrisons, framing the uprising as a corrective to caliphal corruption rather than mere dynastic ambition. Tribal fissures intensified the conflict, with Qaysi (northern Arab) loyalists to al-Walid II clashing against Kalbi and Qahtani opponents aligned with , transforming the revolt into a proxy for longstanding Adnani-Qahtani rivalries that eroded Umayyad cohesion. Regional governors, including those in and , provided al-Walid II with some military backing, but defections and the rebel advance toward in spring 744 compelled him to relocate to the fortress of al-Bakhra near , where encirclement by Yazid's forces precipitated the regime's collapse. This uprising marked the onset of the Third Fitna, a cascade of civil strife that fatally undermined Umayyad authority.

Assassination and Succession Crisis

Al-Walid II was assassinated on 17 April 744 CE at his desert palace in al-Bakhra', near the Jordanian border, by a contingent of Syrian troops dispatched from under the command of Yazid ibn al-Walid, a who had been proclaimed the new caliph by disaffected palace officials and tribal leaders. The plot stemmed from widespread discontent among Umayyad elites over al-Walid's perceived moral lapses, including public indulgence in wine and poetry recitals, which critics viewed as violations of Islamic piety, though such accounts in later histories like those of may reflect Abbasid-era biases against the Umayyads. Besieged and refusing to surrender, al-Walid was reportedly stabbed to death while in a pool, reciting verse, after his guards defected or were overwhelmed. Yazid III's accession marked the onset of a chaotic , as his rule lasted only five months before his death from illness in late October 744 CE, leaving the without a clear heir amid factional rivalries. He had nominated his brother as successor, but northern Syrian armies, led by the governor ibn Muhammad (a distant Umayyad relative), rejected this, proclaiming caliph instead and marching on in a bid to consolidate power. 's forces clashed with Ibrahim's supporters at 'Ayn al-Jarr in 744 CE, securing victory and forcing Ibrahim's abdication, though sporadic revolts persisted, escalating into the Third Fitna—a that fatally weakened Umayyad authority. This rapid turnover—from al-Walid II to , , and within a year—exposed deep fissures in Umayyad legitimacy, exacerbated by tribal divisions between Qaysi and Yamani factions and the caliphs' failure to maintain administrative cohesion after Hisham's death. 's tenuous hold initiated a phase of internal strife that Abbasid propagandists later exploited, contributing to the dynasty's collapse by 750 CE.

Family and Personal Relations

Marriages and Offspring

Al-Walid II's marital and familial life was marked by the expansive practices common among Umayyad elites, though specific details on formal wives remain sparse in surviving accounts. Upon his accession to the in 743, one of his initial priorities was to marry a named Salma, as recorded by the early al-Mada'ini. Beyond this, he cultivated a vast collection of concubines, numbering in the thousands according to contemporary reports, which served both personal indulgence and the consolidation of a luxurious court environment. These included notable singers such as Shuhda and al-Nawar, integrated into his household as part of the era's of artistic talents. His known offspring were limited to two sons, al-Hakam and , both designated as successors in his will to ensure dynastic continuity amid opposition to his rule. was slain alongside al-Walid during the uprising led by in April 744, while al-Hakam's fate post-rebellion is less documented, with no records of him assuming power. No daughters or additional children are prominently attested in historical narratives, likely due to the focus of sources on male heirs in caliphal lineages. The emphasis on concubines over formal marriages aligns with Umayyad patterns, where offspring from slave women could still hold status but rarely challenged primary succession lines.

Key Relationships and Intrigues

Al-Walid II maintained close ties with his maternal uncle, Yusuf ibn Umar al-Thaqafi, the governor of appointed in 738, whose support proved crucial in countering opposition from Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik's faction during the following Hisham's death in 743. This alliance aligned with Thaqafi interests against Hisham's preferred heir, his son Abu Shakir, backed by groups such as the and . Among other allies, Muhammad ibn Marwan, governor of the , provided military backing early in al-Walid's rule. His relationships with immediate family included appointing his sons al-Hakam, who served as governor of , and the younger , placed as governor of under guardianship, as his designated heirs in succession immediately after his accession on February 6, 743. This designation of minors to bypass established Marwanid lines alienated broader Umayyad kin, including Hisham's sons, whom al-Walid arrested shortly after taking power to seize their wealth and neutralize potential rivals. Key intrigues arose from these moves, compounded by the execution of Khalid ibn Abd Allah, Hisham's former governor of and Khurasan, which incited resentment among Yamani tribal contingents. Al-Walid's perceived favoritism toward Qaysi elements and reports of personal indulgence further eroded support, enabling his cousin ibn al-Walid—son of the earlier caliph —to orchestrate a coup in , branding al-Walid as impious and unfit while rallying disaffected Syrian troops and Umayyad princes. Sulayman ibn Hisham, another son of the late caliph, contributed to the opposition through rebellion in , exploiting clan rifts within the Marwanids. These converging resentments led to al-Walid's flight and assassination on April 17, 744, at al-Bakhra'.

Historical Evaluations

Traditional Islamic Sources' Perspectives

Traditional Islamic sources, drawing from historians like (d. 923 CE) and al-Ya'qubi (d. circa 897 CE), predominantly portray al-Walid II as morally corrupt and unfit for caliphal rule, emphasizing his indulgence in wine, poetry, and worldly pleasures as evidence of . recounts al-Walid's public consumption of , a habit unprecedented among prior caliphs, and describes him as prioritizing revelry over , including neglect of frontier defenses amid regional unrest. These narratives frame his brief reign (February 743–April 744 CE) as a period of debauchery that invited divine disfavor and human opposition, with al-Ya'qubi specifically criticizing his disinterest in outlying provinces, where rebellions festered unchecked. Such depictions often highlight al-Walid's cruelty, including the execution of rivals and harsh treatment of critics, as relayed by , who attributes to him a lack of seriousness in religious duties and favoritism toward sycophants. Later compilers like (d. 1373 ) echo these views, labeling al-Walid al-fasiq ("the sinner") and linking his vices to familial discord, such as his uncle Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik's earlier attempts to bypass him in succession due to observed immorality. These sources justify the coup by his cousin in 744 as a corrective to caliphal excess, portraying it as adherence to Islamic principles of . Historiographical context reveals a pattern of Abbasid-era bias against Umayyad rulers, as these accounts were produced after the 750 CE revolution that ended Umayyad dominance; and contemporaries, writing under Abbasid patronage, amplified moral critiques to delegitimize predecessors while upholding the new dynasty's piety claims, though core anecdotes of al-Walid's behavior trace to earlier transmitters. Despite this, the consistency across Sunni chroniclers underscores perceptions of al-Walid's reign as a in Umayyad legitimacy, contrasting with rarer or positive notes on his poetic talent in select literary traditions.

Modern Scholarly Reassessments

Modern scholars have increasingly questioned the traditional portrayal of al-Walid II as an impious whose debauchery precipitated the Umayyad collapse, viewing such depictions as products of Abbasid-era designed to delegitimize the preceding . Everett K. Rowson argues that a critical reexamination of primary sources reveals al-Walid's as evidence of theological sophistication and personal , rather than deviance, challenging the notion that he ignored caliphal responsibilities or wielded capriciously. This reassessment posits that accusations of moral laxity, including alleged public drinking and unconventional religious practices during his 743–744 reign, were amplified by opponents like to justify rebellion, with scant contemporary corroboration beyond poetic fragments that blend hedonistic imagery with orthodox supplications. Historians such as emphasize al-Walid's brief tenure as emblematic of Umayyad internal fissures, yet highlight his cultural patronage—including potential links to opulent sites like —without endorsing the exaggerated scandals reported in later chronicles like al-Tabari's, which drew from biased informants. 's analysis frames al-Walid not as a deviant but as a product of dynastic entitlement, where fiscal policies favoring tribal elites exacerbated revolts, grounded in fiscal records showing continuity from Hisham's austerity rather than personal profligacy. This causal perspective prioritizes structural decline—overextension, Kharijite unrest, and succession disputes—over character flaws, supported by numismatic evidence of stable coinage issuance under al-Walid in AH 125–126. Broader reassessments underscore al-Walid's poetic as a window into Umayyad intellectual life, with themes of countering Abbasid claims of Umayyad ; scholars note that while his verses employ wine and pleasure motifs common to pre-Islamic tradition, they align with adab literature's rhetorical conventions rather than literal impiety. Such views caution against uncritical acceptance of sources like , whose Abbasid provenance introduces retrospective moralizing, advocating instead for philological scrutiny to discern authentic Umayyad self-representation from post-conquest vilification. Empirical limitations persist, as no non- contemporary accounts survive, yet reassessments affirm al-Walid's overthrow on , 744, as politically motivated rather than a on vice.

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