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Alcinous

Alcinous (Ancient Greek: Ἀλκίνοος, Alkínoos, derived from álkē meaning "strength" and noûs meaning "mind") was a king of the Phaeacians, a seafaring people inhabiting the mythical island of Scheria in Homer's Odyssey. Renowned for his exceptional hospitality, wisdom, and prosperity, he played a pivotal role in aiding the hero Odysseus during his wanderings homeward after the Trojan War.^[1]^[2] According to Homer, Alcinous was the son of Nausithous, who himself was the offspring of the sea god Poseidon and Periboea, making Alcinous a grandson of the deity. He succeeded his father as ruler of the Phaeacians, a race favored by the gods for their superior shipbuilding and navigation skills, which allowed them to transport guests across the sea without charts or rudders. Alcinous married Arete, his niece and the daughter of his brother Rhexenor, who had been slain by Apollo; Arete was highly revered by her husband, children, and subjects alike for her counsel and nobility. Together, they had one daughter, Nausicaa, and five sons, including Laodamas, the eldest and a champion athlete.^[3]^[4]^[5] Alcinous's palace in Scheria exemplified the Phaeacians' divine favor and wealth, described as a gleaming structure with walls of bronze, doors framed in gold, and silver doorposts, guarded by golden and silver statues of dogs fashioned by Hephaestus. Inside, a spacious hall featured thrones of silver and blue rugs woven with intricate designs, while an adjacent orchard and vineyard yielded eternal fruits nurtured by the gods. This opulent setting underscored the king's status as a semi-divine figure, blending mortal rule with otherworldly abundance.^[6]^[7] In the Odyssey, Odysseus, shipwrecked and guided by Athena, washes ashore in Scheria and encounters Nausicaa, who leads him to the palace. Alcinous receives the disguised stranger with immediate generosity, seating him at his own hearth and convening a feast in his honor. After Odysseus reveals his identity and recounts his adventures, Alcinous, moved by the tales, assembles gifts of bronze, gold, garments, and slaves, and dispatches a swift Phaeacian ship to convey him safely to Ithaca. This act of xenia (guest-friendship) highlights Alcinous as an ideal host in ancient Greek values, though it ultimately incurs Poseidon's wrath, leading to the petrification of the Phaeacian ship and the burial of their harbor.^[8]^[9]^[10] Beyond the Odyssey, Alcinous appears in Apollonius Rhodius's Argonautica (3rd century BCE), where he and Arete shelter the Argonauts upon their return from Colchis with Medea. Facing demands from pursuing Colchians to surrender the princess, Alcinous consults Arete privately; swayed by her plea for mercy, he defies the pursuers, allowing Jason and his crew to escape, thus preserving Medea's union with the hero. This episode reinforces Alcinous's portrayal as a just and compassionate ruler influenced by familial bonds.^[11]

Background

Etymology

The name Alcinous originates from the Ancient Greek Ἀλκίνοος (Alkínoos), formed as a compound of ἀλκή (alkḗ, meaning "strength" or "prowess") and νοῦς (noûs, meaning "mind" or "intellect"). This etymology yields interpretations such as "mighty mind" or "strong of purpose," reflecting attributes of wisdom and resolve in heroic contexts.^[12]^[13] In modern English usage, the name is typically pronounced /ælˈsɪnəʊəs/. The original Ancient Greek pronunciation, based on reconstructed Attic-Ionic forms, was approximately /al.kí.no.os/, characterized by long vowels (e.g., ī and ō), pitch accent on the second syllable, and aspirated initial a from the rough breathing.^[14]^[15] Manuscript variants of the name are uncommon but include the Latinized Alcinoüs in Roman-era texts and the standard Homeric spelling Ἀλκίνοος in epic poetry. Etymologically, it aligns with other Greek heroic names that highlight intellectual strength, such as Antínoos ("contrary mind") and Pontónoos ("sea mind"), underscoring the cultural emphasis on mental acuity in mythological figures. This mythological Alcinous predates the 2nd-century CE Middle Platonist philosopher who adopted the same name.^[16]

Family and lineage

In Greek mythology, Alcinous was primarily depicted as the son of Nausithous, the king of the Phaeacians, who himself was the offspring of Poseidon and Periboea, the daughter of the giant king Eurymedon.^[17] This lineage established Alcinous as a grandson of the sea god Poseidon, linking the Phaeacian royal family to divine maritime origins. Nausithous had two sons: Alcinous and his brother Rhexenor, who was slain by Apollo shortly after his marriage, leaving no male heirs but a daughter named Arete.^[17] Alcinous married Arete, his niece and the sole child of Rhexenor, a union that exemplified the endogamous practices among the Phaeacian nobility to preserve royal bloodlines.^[17] Alternative traditions, however, traced Alcinous's parentage to Phaeax, the eponymous progenitor of the Phaeacians and son of Poseidon by the nymph Corcyra (also known as Korkyra), with Locrus as his brother in some accounts; this variant emphasized the Phaeacians' foundational ties to the god of the sea.^[18]^[19] With Arete, Alcinous fathered five sons and one daughter, Nausicaa, according to the Homeric tradition.^[20] The named sons included Laodamas, the eldest and a skilled athlete; Halius; and Clytoneus, with the remaining two unnamed but described as two married and three unmarried younger brothers at the time of Odysseus's arrival.^[21] This family structure underscored Alcinous's role as a prosperous ruler, with his descendants continuing the Phaeacian line descended from Poseidon through either Nausithous or Phaeax.^[22]

Kingdom of the Phaeacians

Location and characteristics

In Homer's Odyssey, Scheria is depicted as the mythical homeland of the Phaeacians, situated as a remote island in the western sea, far from other human settlements, where the people were relocated by their leader Nausithous from the earlier land of Hyperia to escape the plundering Cyclopes.^[23] The island is portrayed with an otherworldly quality, sometimes interpreted as floating or enveloped in mist due to its divine origins and isolation, emphasizing its separation from the mortal world.^[24] In later ancient traditions, Scheria was identified with the real island of Corcyra, modern-day Corfu, off the western coast of Greece, based on geographic proximity and seafaring descriptions that aligned with the Ionian region's features.^[24] Scheria's landscape is characterized as a utopian paradise, with fertile meadows, abundant fruit trees bearing pears, figs, grapes, and pomegranates in perpetual clusters, supported by a mild, eternal spring-like climate where the west wind ensures continuous growth without seasonal failure.^[25] The Phaeacians' advanced shipbuilding technology stands out, featuring vessels with self-navigating capabilities; these ships have oars but require no helmsmen or steering oars, instead comprehending the sailors' intentions and traversing the seas swiftly and unerringly through divine craftsmanship.^[21] The city's architecture includes imposing walls and structures, such as the palace with bronze walls gleaming like the sun, silver doorposts, and golden doors, reflecting the society's prosperous and divinely favored existence.^[17] The island's isolation fosters a self-sufficient society untouched by trade or warfare, relying on its natural bounty and internal harmony, though it remains under the shadow of divine displeasure from Poseidon, who prophesies the petrification of their ships and the burial of the city beneath a mountain as retribution for aiding strangers. Alternative accounts place the Phaeacian homeland at Drepane, a sickle-shaped island named after the nurse of the Phaeacians, as described in Apollonius Rhodius's Argonautica, where it serves as a refuge during the Argonauts' voyage.^[11]

Governance and society

Alcinous ruled as the benevolent king of the Phaeacians, wielding authority that commanded the obedience of his people, who listened to him "like a god."^[26] His governance blended monarchical power with consultative elements, as he frequently sought advice from elders such as Echeneos during decision-making processes.^[27] Assemblies were convened in the agora to address communal matters, where Alcinous would urge the leaders (hēgētores) and protectors (medontes) for approval on key actions, fostering a participatory yet hierarchical structure without formal voting.^[26] Succession appeared patrilineal, with his son Laodamas positioned as a potential heir, evident in his prominent role among the youth during public events.^[28] Phaeacian society exhibited a blend of egalitarianism and hierarchy, comprising aristocrats, skilled artisans, athletes, and musicians who contributed to a prosperous community.^[27] The people were renowned for their adherence to xenia, the sacred code of guest-friendship, which they treated as a divine imperative, offering aid and honor to strangers without initial scrutiny.^[26] This cultural emphasis on hospitality extended to women, exemplified by Queen Arete's influential role; she actively participated in counsel, resolved disputes, and even questioned visitors directly, underscoring her authority alongside Alcinous.^[28] Artisans excelled in weaving and craftsmanship, while men and women alike valued peaceful pursuits over warfare.^[27] The Phaeacians' seafaring prowess defined much of their identity, with ships powered solely by oars that "understood commands" and required no helmsman, allowing them to navigate vast distances shrouded in mist.^[28] These vessels enabled rapid, effortless transport, as demonstrated by their ability to convey passengers across the sea in a single day while they slept.^[26] Culturally, society revolved around athletic games, lavish feasting, and oral poetry performed by bards like Demodocus, with public displays of dancing and song highlighting their refined, harmonious lifestyle.^[28] This idyllic existence thrived on the island's fertile, isolated nature, supporting year-round abundance that reinforced their peaceful and artistic inclinations.^[27]

Role in the Odyssey

Arrival of Odysseus

After enduring Poseidon's storm at sea following his departure from Calypso's island, Odysseus washes ashore on the island of Scheria, the homeland of the Phaeacians, exhausted and naked, where he collapses in sleep beneath an olive tree.^[29] In this vulnerable state, Athena intervenes divinely, appearing in a dream to Nausicaa, the daughter of King Alcinous and Queen Arete, urging her to go to the river to wash her family's clothes in preparation for her potential marriage.^[30] Obeying the goddess's prompt, Nausicaa sets out with her handmaidens, and upon discovering Odysseus, she remains composed—bolstered by Athena's influence—while providing him with clothing, olive oil for bathing, and food from her wagon.^[31] Odysseus, praising Nausicaa's beauty and likening her to a goddess, supplicates her for aid, and she agrees to guide him toward the city while advising him to approach her parents' palace discreetly to avoid the Phaeacians' reputation for pride and gossip toward strangers, which might lead to mockery.^[32] Following Nausicaa's instructions, Odysseus waits in Athena's sacred grove before entering the city, where the goddess, now disguised as a young girl, envelops him in a protective mist to shield him from scrutiny and leads him to Alcinous's bronze-thresholded palace, described in the epic as gleaming with gold and silver, guarded by divine statues, and surrounded by a lush, eternally fruitful orchard.^[33] Upon arrival, Odysseus enters the hall and immediately supplicates Arete by grasping her knees, recounting his woes and pleading for assistance to reach his home in Ithaca, while Athena removes the mist to reveal him.^[34] Though initially seated in the ashes as a mark of humility, he is raised by the elder Echeneus at Alcinous's prompting and granted a seat of honor, with the king offering immediate hospitality through a bath, fresh clothing, and a share in the feast, noting Odysseus's noble bearing as reminiscent of a god.^[35] This reception underscores the Phaeacians' customs of xenia, or guest-friendship, though Alcinous briefly falters in protocol before ensuring Odysseus's rights as a protected stranger, promising swift conveyance home by ship the following day.^[27] Divine intervention, particularly Athena's guidance, proves crucial in securing this welcome, averting potential hostility from the assembly and affirming Alcinous's role as a benevolent ruler attuned to heroic guests.^[36]

Hospitality and farewell

During Odysseus's stay in the Phaeacian court, Alcinous hosted elaborate feasts featuring the songs of the bard Demodocus, who performed tales from the Trojan War, including the quarrel between Odysseus and Achilles, the love affair of Ares and Aphrodite, and the stratagem of the wooden horse.^[37] These performances, set against a backdrop of abundant sacrifices—such as twelve sheep, eight boars, and two oxen—stirred Odysseus to tears, revealing his emotional burden without yet disclosing his identity.^[38] Complementing the banquets, Alcinous organized athletic games to honor the stranger, showcasing Phaeacian prowess in running, wrestling, boxing, and discus-throwing, during which Odysseus, initially declining participation, demonstrated superior strength by hurling a discus farther than any competitor.^[39] The emotional impact of Demodocus's songs prompted Alcinous to inquire about the guest's origins, leading Odysseus to reveal himself as the son of Laertes from Ithaca after Queen Arete questioned his backstory and the circumstances of his arrival.^[40] In response to Alcinous's encouragement, Odysseus recounted his adventures in Books IX–XII, detailing encounters with the Cicones, Lotus-eaters, Cyclops Polyphemus, Circe, and the Underworld, thereby fulfilling the Phaeacian king's role in eliciting the hero's narrative as an act of xenia, the sacred Greek custom of guest-friendship overseen by Zeus.^[41]^[42] This exchange not only affirmed Alcinous's hospitality but also gauged the Phaeacians' civilized nature through their generous reception of the wanderer.^[43] In preparation for Odysseus's departure, Alcinous assembled lavish gifts from the Phaeacian nobles, including fine raiment, gold, a bronze cauldron, a tripod, and additional treasures, which were loaded onto a swift ship.^[44] He promised a safe and swift voyage home, ordering libations to the gods and emphasizing the Phaeacians' duty under xenia to aid strangers without harm.^[45] The crew transported the sleeping Odysseus to Ithaca, unloading him and his gifts on the shore, but Poseidon, resentful of the Phaeacians' aid, transformed the returning ship to stone mid-voyage and threatened to encircle their city with mountains.^[46] Through these actions in Books VIII–XIII, Alcinous exemplified ideal xenia by providing entertainment, revelation, and restitution, enabling Odysseus's nostos or homecoming.^[47]

Role in the Argonautica

Hosting the Argonauts

Upon their return from Colchis with the Golden Fleece, the Argonauts, pursued by the Colchians and exhausted from their perilous voyage, reached the island of Drepane in the land of the Phaeacians.^[11] Fleeing under the cover of night, they beached the Argo and sought refuge, drawn by the Phaeacians' renowned reputation for aiding seafarers in distress.^[48] King Alcinous, recognizing the heroes' weary state, extended an immediate and warm welcome, treating them as honored guests rather than fugitives.^[49] The initial hospitality provided by Alcinous and his people was generous and multifaceted, reflecting the Phaeacians' seafaring kinship and neutral stance toward strangers. Provisions of food and wine were offered abundantly, including feasts with sheep, heifers, and jars of mixed wine to restore the crew's strength.^[11] The Argo was secured on the shore and repaired as needed, allowing the heroes to rest and recover from their ordeals.^[48] The city rejoiced at their arrival, celebrating with sacrifices and gifts such as fine linen, gold ornaments, and other treasures, as if welcoming their own sons home; nymphs even gathered flowers to adorn the occasion.^[49] In the context of Apollonius Rhodius's Argonautica (Book 4, lines 982–1028), this reception underscores the Phaeacians' role as benevolent hosts to mariners. Alcinous consulted his wife, Queen Arete, regarding the status of the fugitives, seeking her wise counsel on how to proceed with the beleaguered group.^[11] He then convened an assembly of his people to debate the matter, emphasizing the Phaeacians' tradition of neutrality and their shared bonds with seafaring adventurers, ensuring a deliberate and just approach to granting refuge.^[48]

Resolution with the Colchians

Following their arduous escape from Colchis with the Golden Fleece, the Argonauts arrived at the island of Drepane in Phaeacia, where King Alcinous and Queen Arete provided them refuge.^[11] Shortly thereafter, a contingent of Colchians, dispatched by King Aeetes in pursuit, arrived on the island, demanding Medea's immediate return as a traitorous fugitive who had aided the theft of the fleece.^[11] Alcinous, seeking to maintain peace and avoid bloodshed between the two parties, hosted both the Argonauts and the Colchians and convened a public assembly to deliberate the matter impartially.^[11] In the assembly, Alcinous proclaimed a judicious ruling: Medea would be surrendered to her father if she remained a virgin, but if she had wed Jason and shared his bed, she could not be separated from her husband, as such a union would bind her fate to the Argonauts under customary law.^[11] This decree, articulated as "But if she be a maid, I decree that ye carry her back to her father’s house; but if she share a husband’s bed, I will not separate her from a husband’s love" (Argonautica 4.1001–1004, trans. R.C. Seaton), hinged on verifying Medea's marital status to ensure fairness.^[11] Anticipating the potential outcome, Medea had earlier pleaded with Arete for protection, and the queen, swayed by compassion and the subtle influence of Hera, advised Jason to marry Medea without delay to secure her safety under Alcinous's terms.^[11] That same night, Arete arranged a secret wedding in a secluded sacred cave near the city, where Jason and Medea consummated their union amid ritual preparations, including libations and a bridal couch, effectively nullifying any claim of virginity.^[11] The following day, upon inquiry, Medea affirmed her new status as Jason's wife, compelling Alcinous to uphold his decree in favor of the Argonauts.^[11] Deprived of their quarry, the Colchians, fearing Aeetes' wrath, requested and received permission to settle in the region around Drepane, with some remaining there and others dispersing to nearby areas such as Illyria, rather than return in disgrace.^[11] Alcinous, praising the resolution, bestowed abundant gifts, supplies, and provisions upon the Argonauts, enabling their safe departure from Drepane on the seventh day, guided by favorable winds dispatched by Hera to ensure their protection.^[11] The Argonautica extols Alcinous's impartiality in this crisis, yet highlights how Arete's strategic intervention shaped the outcome, reflecting the Phaeacians' favored status under divine patronage from Poseidon and Athena.^[11]

Other accounts and interpretations

Variations in parentage

In the Homeric tradition, Alcinous is described as the son of Nausithous, who in turn was the son of Poseidon, establishing a direct divine lineage for the Phaeacian king.^[20] This genealogy positions Alcinous as Poseidon's grandson and emphasizes the Phaeacians' semi-divine origins, with Nausithous having led the people from Hyperia to Scheria to escape the Cyclopes. Later ancient sources introduce variations, portraying Alcinous as the son of Phaeax, the eponymous ancestor of the Phaeacians, rather than Nausithous. In these accounts, Phaeax himself is the offspring of Poseidon and the nymph Corcyra (also spelled Korkyra), daughter of the river-god Asopus, whom Poseidon abducted to the island later named after her.^[18] This lineage underscores the Phaeacians' foundational ties to the sea-god and the island of Corcyra (modern Corfu). The Corcyra variant predominates in preserved texts such as those of Diodorus Siculus. Brotherly relations also vary across sources. Homer identifies Rhexenor as Alcinous's brother, whose daughter Arete Alcinous married after Rhexenor's death without male heirs.^[17] In contrast, Conon's Narrations, preserved in Photius's Bibliotheca, present Locrus as Alcinous's brother and co-son of Phaeax; following their father's death, Locrus migrated to Italy, where he married a daughter of Latinus and founded the Locrian people there.^[50] These discrepancies in parentage and sibling ties reflect the evolving mythic traditions of the Phaeacians, shifting from a more insular, divinely sanctioned heroic lineage in Homer to broader colonial and eponymous origins in Hellenistic and later accounts that link them to historical migrations and island foundations.^[28]

Later traditions and depictions

In later traditions, Alcinous is depicted as succeeding his father Phaeax as king of the Phaeacians on the island of Corcyra (modern Corfu), following a dispute with his brother Locrus over the succession. According to Conon's third narration, as summarized by Photius, after Phaeax's death, Alcinous retained rule over the Phaeacians on Corcyra, while Locrus led a portion of the people to Italy, where he was hosted by King Latinus, married his daughter, and established connections between the Phaeacians and the Locrians, fostering familial ties through intermarriage.^[51] Hellenistic and Roman sources rationalized Alcinous as a historical figure tied to the founding myths of Corfu. Strabo identifies Corcyra as the Homeric Scheria, the Phaeacian homeland ruled by Alcinous, emphasizing its prosperity and strategic location in the Adriatic as a Corinthian colony that echoed the mythical island's seafaring excellence. Artistic representations of Alcinous often highlight his role in hosting Odysseus, particularly in scenes of hospitality and athletic contests. In ancient Greek vase paintings from the 5th century BCE, such as Attic red-figure amphorae depicting the Phaeacian games, Alcinous is shown overseeing events like wrestling and discus-throwing, underscoring the Phaeacians' prowess and civility.^[52] 19th-century Romantic interpretations include Francesco Hayez's oil painting Ulysses at the Court of Alcinous (1814–1816), which portrays Odysseus revealing his identity amid the royal banquet, with Alcinous and Queen Arete central to the composition, now housed in the Palazzo Brera, Milan. John Flaxman's neoclassical illustrations for Alexander Pope's 1793 translation of the Odyssey feature line drawings of Alcinous's court, emphasizing the idyllic garden and harmonious society. In modern scholarship, Alcinous symbolizes ideal kingship in analyses of ancient utopias, with Phaeacia representing an early literary paradise of abundance, hospitality, and isolation from strife, as critiqued in Homer for its underlying vulnerabilities.^[53]

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https://www.academia.edu/12809869/The_Significance_of_Xenia_in_the_Odyssey_of_Homer
[43]
https://fpuscholarworks.fresno.edu/bitstreams/a443ca15-8df8-4a26-b2ff-59308fa2e5fe/download
[44]
The Significance of Xenia in the Odyssey of Homer - Academia.edu
Xenia was a way of gauging the level of civilisation of a community, which Odysseus must identify as he encounters new and alien groups on his voyage.
[45]
[PDF] “All Strangers and Beggars are from Zeus”: Early Greek Views of ...
The best lens with which to view early Greek ideas of xenia, hospitality or. “guest-friendship” are the two poems, the Iliad and the Odyssey, attributed by.
[46]
http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0136%3Abook%3D13%3Aline%3D125
[47]
https://firescholars.seu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1016&context=classicalstudies
[48]
https://www.gutenberg.org/files/830/830-h/830-h.htm
[49]
[PDF] Ancient Lessons from the Odyssey to Address Timeless Human ...
Apr 5, 2024 · Through analysis of the nostos or homecoming process of Odysseus, the reader recognizes the importance of offering opportunity through xenia of ...
[50]
The Argonautica, by Apollonius Rhodius - Project Gutenberg
Originally written in Ancient Greek sometime in the 3rd Century BC by the Alexandrian poet Apollonius Rhodius (“Apollonius the Rhodian”).
[51]
Rhodius, Apollonius (fl.300–225 BC) - Argonautica: Book IV
Book IV of a new, downloadable English translation by Christopher Kelk ... Apollonius Rhodius: Argonautica. Book IV. Translated by Christopher Kelk. Home ...
[52]
https://www.theoi.com/Gallery/L8.1.html
[53]
Photius: Bibliotheca. Codices 186-222 (selected)
I read the Narrations, Conon's little book, an exercise he dedicates to King Archelaos Philopator, which contains fifty narratives drawn together from many ...Missing: Locrus | Show results with:Locrus
[54]
Polyphemus & Odysseus - Ancient Greek Vase Painting
Odysseus and his men drive a burning stake into the eye of the Cyclops Polyphemus. The giant reclines asleep with a club held in the crook of his arm.
[55]
Homer's Critique of the Phaeakian Utopia in the Odyssey - jstor
32 UTOPIAN STUDIES. Homer creates an undercurrent of violence or defensiveness, not unlike ... "The Phaeacians and the Symbolism of Odysseus' Return." Arion 1,4 ( ...