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Amphora

An amphora (plural: amphorae) is a two-handled ceramic vessel originating in the ancient Mediterranean, characterized by a narrow neck, wide belly, and small foot or ring base, primarily used for the storage and transportation of liquids such as wine and olive oil, as well as dry goods like grains and olives.^[1]^[2] The term derives from the Greek words amphi ("on both sides") and phorein ("to carry"), reflecting its design for handling on either side.^[3] These vessels varied in size, typically holding between 20 and 50 liters, and served as a standard unit of measure in ancient trade.^[4] Amphorae first appeared in the Bronze Age, with early examples from Canaanite and Minoan cultures used for maritime trade of commodities like oil and wine across the eastern Mediterranean as early as the Middle Bronze Age (c. 2000–1550 BCE).^[5] In ancient Greece, production emerged and flourished during the Geometric period (c. 900–700 BCE), coinciding with the composition of Homeric epics, when large-scale amphorae were crafted for both practical and ceremonial purposes.^[6] Greek amphorae proliferated through the Archaic and Classical periods (c. 800–323 BCE), facilitating widespread commerce in the Aegean and Black Sea regions, often stamped on their handles with makers' marks, magistrates' names, or origins to regulate trade.^[7] The form persisted into the Roman era (c. 1st century BCE–5th century CE), where it became integral to the empire's economy, with specialized types like Dressel 20 amphorae mass-produced in Spain for olive oil export across the Mediterranean.^[8] Production continued in Byzantine contexts, adapting to local needs until late antiquity.^[9] Several distinct types of amphorae emerged based on region, period, and function, including the neck-handled amphora of Attica, with handles attached to the neck for easier pouring, and the belly-handled or Nolan amphora, popular in South Italy for its broader form.^[2]^[3] Panathenaic amphorae, awarded as prizes in Athens' athletic festivals from c. 566 BCE, featured standardized black-figure decoration depicting Athena and were often repurposed as grave markers.^[10] Roman variants, such as the cylindrical amphorae from Gaul or the flat-based Keay 52 type from southern Italy (e.g., Calabria or Sicily), were optimized for stacking in ship holds during long-distance voyages.^[8]^[11] Beyond storage, amphorae held ritual significance, serving as containers for funeral offerings, child burials, or with shards used as ballots (ostraka) in democratic processes such as ostracism.^[4] Culturally, amphorae were often elaborately decorated with painted scenes in styles like black-figure or red-figure pottery, illustrating myths, daily life, or athletic events, which provide key insights into ancient aesthetics and narratives.^[12] High-quality examples, such as those from Athenian workshops, were traded not just for contents but as luxury items, influencing art across the Mediterranean.^[13] Archaeologically, vast deposits of amphorae shards—known as amphorae wastelands—have enabled scholars to map trade routes and economic patterns from the 8th century BCE onward.^[7] Today, these vessels are prized in museums for their historical and artistic value, exemplifying the ingenuity of ancient ceramic technology.^[14]

Terminology

Etymology

The term "amphora" originates from the Ancient Greek word ἀμφορεύς (amphoreús), denoting a two-handled pitcher or vessel designed to be carried on both sides.^[15] This derives from the compound amphiphoreus, combining the prefix ἀμφί (amphí), meaning "on both sides," with φορεύς (phoreús), meaning "bearer" or "carrier," directly alluding to the characteristic pair of vertical handles positioned on opposite sides of the vessel's body.^[16] The word entered Latin as amphora during the Hellenistic influence on the Roman Republic, where it retained its core meaning while becoming standardized in Roman agricultural and trade contexts.^[17] In ancient Greek literature, the term appears as early as the 5th century BCE in Herodotus' Histories, where it describes large jars used for storage and transport, such as those filled with wine during festivals.^[18] By the 2nd century BCE, Roman author Cato the Elder employed "amphora" extensively in his De Agricultura, referencing the vessels in recipes for wine preservation and farm inventories, marking one of the earliest detailed literary uses in Latin texts. In ancient nomenclature, "amphora" was distinguished from related Greek terms for other jars; for instance, the pithos referred to much larger, often immovable storage pithoi used for bulk goods like grain or oil in households and palaces, lacking the portability and handles of amphorae.^[19] Similarly, the hydria was a specialized water-carrying vessel with three handles—one for pouring and two for lifting—contrasting with the amphora's dual-handled design optimized for transport rather than daily liquid fetching.^[20] The Latin amphora persisted through the Middle Ages and was adopted into modern European languages, entering Middle English around the early 14th century to describe similar two-handled jars, with cognates in French (amphore), Italian (anfora), and Spanish (ánfora).^[15] Beyond referring to the vessel, the term "amphora" also denoted a unit of liquid measure in ancient Greek and Roman contexts, typically around 39 liters for Attic amphorae and 26 liters for the Roman amphora quadrantal.^[4]

Classification

Amphorae are systematically classified according to their morphology, which encompasses variations in body shape, handle configuration, and neck design, allowing archaeologists to identify production origins, functions, and chronological contexts. Body shapes typically include ovoid forms with elongated, egg-like profiles; globular types featuring rounded, bulbous bodies; and biconical variants with a pronounced waist-like constriction. Handles are generally two vertical elements attached to the neck and shoulder or upper body, categorized as ribbon handles (flat and strap-like) or bilobate handles (with two distinct lobes for added strength). Neck styles range from narrow and cylindrical, suited for secure transport of liquids like wine, to wide-mouthed openings that facilitate access for viscous contents such as oil or fish products.^[21]^[22] Key typological frameworks have been established for Greek and Roman amphorae, providing standardized nomenclature based on these morphological traits. For Greek examples, Virginia Grace's seminal classifications, developed through analysis of stamped handles and shapes from Athenian Agora excavations, distinguish early transport vessels such as Corinthian Type A, an ovoid form with a narrow neck and pointed base primarily used for wine storage and trade in the Archaic period. Later Hellenistic types, like those from Rhodes or Knidos, feature more standardized globular bodies with ribbon handles. In Roman contexts, Heinrich Dressel's typology from the late 19th century, outlined in the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum, categorizes over 60 types by form and inscriptions; notable among them is Dressel 20, a large globular amphora with bilobate handles and a short, thick neck, mass-produced in Baetica (modern Spain) for olive oil export across the Mediterranean during the Imperial era.^[23]^[24]^[25] Regional variations reflect local adaptations to resources and trade needs, further refining these classifications. Mediterranean amphorae, such as those from Italy and Greece, often emphasize globular or ovoid shapes optimized for sea voyages, while Black Sea variants from Sinope or Heraclea Pontica tend toward taller, more cylindrical forms with prominent ribbon handles to accommodate fish products in cooler climates. Punic amphorae from North Africa exhibit distinctive cylindrical bodies with heavy, bilobate handles and wide necks, evolving from Phoenician prototypes for wine and garum transport. Iberian types, like the ovoid Pascual 1 from the eastern coast, contrast with the later Haltern 70's elongated neck and narrow mouth, tailored for fish sauce in the western Mediterranean. These schemes are also organized chronologically, aligning with broad historical phases such as Archaic (pre-500 BCE), Classical-Hellenistic (500–30 BCE), and Roman Imperial (30 BCE–400 CE), without implying specific production events.^[26]^[27]^[28]

Physical Characteristics

Dimensions and Capacity

Amphorae varied significantly in size depending on their regional origin and intended use, but transport varieties generally featured heights between 45 and 120 centimeters, with maximum body diameters of approximately 30 to 50 centimeters. Attic Greek examples, such as those from the Geometric period, tended to be taller, often exceeding 70 centimeters, while many Roman types were shorter, typically 60 to 80 centimeters in height to facilitate handling. These dimensions allowed for efficient packing while maintaining structural integrity under load. The capacity of most transport amphorae ranged from 26 to 40 liters, a range that supported standardized commercial exchange across the Mediterranean. In the Roman context, the quadrantal served as a key unit of measure, equivalent to about 26 liters, reflecting deliberate efforts to align vessel volumes with imperial weight and volume systems for taxation and trade.) Full amphorae weighed 20 to 50 kilograms, varying with contents and vessel thickness, which influenced portability and stacking density. Structural features like the toe-shaped base and double handles were critical to functionality. The pointed or spiked base enabled secure stacking in ship holds through intercalation, where bases nestled into the spaces between upper-layer bodies, reducing shifting and breakage during voyages while lowering the center of gravity for stability when upright in racks.^[29] The two robust handles, attached to the neck and shoulder, facilitated lifting by individuals or teams, often using ropes or poles, and contributed to overall balance during transport. These designs balanced capacity needs with practical demands of maritime logistics, promoting some degree of standardization across production centers.

Materials and Production

Amphorae were primarily crafted from clay sourced locally to minimize transportation costs and leverage regional geological characteristics. In ancient Greece, potters often utilized red-firing clays from deposits in Attica, Corinthia, and the islands, which provided the necessary plasticity and fired to a characteristic reddish hue suitable for durable storage vessels.^[30] Roman amphorae, by contrast, employed coarser clays from Italian volcanic soils or provincial quarries in Gaul and Hispania, yielding robust, thick-walled containers optimized for mass transport.^[31] While clay dominated production, rare variants included stone-carved amphorae from Egypt or metal versions in bronze for elite use, though these were exceptional and not representative of standard trade goods.^[32]^[33] The manufacturing process began with clay preparation, involving kneading to remove impurities and achieve uniformity, followed by shaping on a potter's wheel. The elongated body was typically wheel-thrown in sections—starting with the base and building upward in coils or rings to manage the vessel's height—while handles were formed separately using coiling techniques and attached before final drying.^[28] Once leather-hard, the amphora underwent bisque firing in updraft kilns at temperatures between 800 and 1000°C, a process that vitrified the clay for impermeability and strength; Greek kilns often employed a three-phase cycle of oxidation, reduction, and re-oxidation to control color and density.^[34] Surface treatments varied, including the application of resin coatings for waterproofing or incised stamps denoting origin and capacity, with occasional painted details on Greek examples.^[35] Workshops were organized in specialized districts to facilitate efficient output, such as the Kerameikos quarter in Athens for Greek production or the industrial zones near Ostia for Roman operations, where teams of potters, apprentices, and laborers enabled mass production to meet trade demands.^[36] Quality control was maintained through potter's marks, capacity stamps, and post-firing inspections, ensuring vessels met commercial standards despite common defects like firing cracks from uneven kiln temperatures or warping during drying.^[37] Regional variations reflected local traditions and resources: Greek amphorae occasionally featured black-figure glazing—a slip technique fired to produce glossy black silhouettes on red clay bodies—contrasting with the predominantly plain, unglazed coarse wares of Roman production, which prioritized functionality over aesthetics.^[38] These differences arose from distinct clay compositions and firing practices, with Greek methods allowing for decorative finesse while Roman approaches emphasized volume and durability, though both grappled with production flaws like blistering or incomplete vitrification.^[30]

Historical Development

Prehistoric Origins

The earliest precursors to amphorae emerged around 3000 BCE in the Near East and Aegean regions, evolving from simple storage jars utilized by early farming societies for the preservation of agricultural products such as grain and olive oil.^[39] These Neolithic and Early Bronze Age vessels represented an adaptation to settled agriculture, with archaeological evidence from sites like Hajji Firuz Tepe in the Zagros Mountains indicating the use of large jars for liquid storage as early as 5400 BCE, though the distinctive two-handled forms associated with later amphorae began to appear closer to 3000 BCE in the eastern Mediterranean.^[39] In the Levant, Canaanite amphorae emerged around 2000 BCE, used for maritime trade of oil and wine across the eastern Mediterranean.^[40] In the Aegean, this development coincided with the transition to more complex societies, where storage needs drove innovations in vessel design for both domestic and emerging exchange purposes. Key archaeological sites in Minoan Crete, such as Knossos and Phaistos, provide evidence of large pithoi—immense, hand-built storage jars up to 2 meters tall—as primary precursors to amphorae, primarily used for bulk containment of foodstuffs within households and early palatial structures from the Early Minoan period (ca. 3000–2000 BCE).^[41] These pithoi, often featuring rope-like coil construction and occasional relief decoration, facilitated the storage of olive oil and grains, reflecting the island's reliance on intensive agriculture.^[41] Similarly, excavations on the Cycladic island of Ayia Irini on Keos have uncovered two-handled storage jars from Early Cycladic II contexts (ca. 2800–2300 BCE), with thick-walled forms and strap handles indicating early experimentation with portable designs suitable for inter-island movement.^[42] A functional shift occurred during this period, as these vessels transitioned from purely household use to proto-trade containers, particularly with the introduction of collared jars in the Early Bronze II Aegean, which served as the first specialized maritime transport containers for high-value commodities like wine. This evolution was influenced by expanding agricultural surpluses and nascent maritime networks, allowing for the bulk transport of liquids across the Aegean and into the Near East.^[43] Material production also advanced, moving from hand-built techniques to wheel-thrown methods by Early Minoan II in Crete (ca. 2600 BCE), which enabled greater standardization and efficiency in crafting handled jars, laying the groundwork for the more refined amphorae of later periods.^[44]

Development in Ancient Greece

The production of amphorae in ancient Greece reached its peak between the 8th and 4th centuries BCE, evolving from simple Geometric forms to more refined and decorated vessels during the Archaic (c. 700–480 BCE) and Classical (c. 480–323 BCE) periods.^[45] Early examples from the 8th century BCE featured basic geometric patterns and were primarily functional storage jars, but by the 7th century BCE, workshops began incorporating figurative scenes, marking a shift toward artistic expression alongside utility. A notable development was the use of Panathenaic amphorae as prizes in the Athenian Panathenaic Games, starting around 566 BCE; these black-figure vessels, filled with olive oil, were awarded to victors in athletic events and featured standardized iconography of Athena on one side and the specific contest on the other.^[46] Key innovations included advancements in painting techniques and vessel forms tailored to contents. The black-figure technique, dominant from the late 7th to mid-5th century BCE, involved incising details into silhouettes fired black against a red clay background, allowing for complex narrative scenes on amphorae surfaces.^[38] Around 530 BCE, the red-figure technique emerged as an innovation, reversing the colors by painting outlines and details in black slip, leaving figures in the natural red clay for more naturalistic rendering; this was particularly suited to neck amphorae, which had a distinct offset between body and neck for easier pouring of oils.^[38] In contrast, belly amphorae, with a continuous curve from neck to base, were optimized for wine storage due to their stability when stacked.^[47] These form distinctions reflected practical adaptations, with neck types often exported for oil trade and belly types used locally for wine. Major production centers included Attic workshops in Athens, which dominated from the 6th century BCE onward, Corinthian facilities known for early exports, and East Greek sites like those in Samos and Chios producing regional variants from the 8th to 5th centuries BCE.^[45] Attic amphorae were widely exported to Greek colonies in the Black Sea, Italy, and Sicily, facilitating trade networks, while Corinthian types circulated in the western Mediterranean before Attic predominance.^[48] East Greek workshops innovated with heavier, more robust forms suited to maritime transport, often featuring stamped handles for identification, and their products reached Carthage and southern Spain by the 6th century BCE.^[49] Distinct types emerged, such as the Nolan amphora, a compact neck variant (typically under 30 cm tall) with an elongated neck and ribbed handles, popular in red-figure from c. 475–465 BCE and widely distributed to South Italy, where many were recovered from tombs near Nola.^[3] The Tyrrhenian amphora, an ovoid black-figure neck type produced briefly from c. 570–545 BCE in Attica, featured frieze decorations and was primarily exported to Etruria (modern Italy), with over 200 examples found in Etruscan contexts.^[50] SOS amphorae, named for their "SOS"-like neck markings, were mass-produced in Attica during the 6th century BCE for oil transport; archaeological evidence shows their distribution concentrated in central Greece and the Peloponnese, with standardized volumes indicating organized production peaking mid-century before declining.^[51]

Development in Ancient Rome

The development of amphorae in ancient Rome began with imports from the Greek world during the 3rd century BCE, as Roman trade expanded into the Mediterranean, initially relying on foreign designs for transporting wine and other liquids.^[52] By the late 2nd century BCE, local Italian production emerged with the introduction of the Dressel 1 type, a tall cylindrical form optimized for wine transport, marking the start of widespread Roman adaptation and mass manufacturing that continued to dominate through the 1st to 4th centuries CE.^[53] This period saw kilns proliferate in provinces like Gaul and Hispania, where southern Gallic workshops produced variants such as Gauloise 4 from the 1st century CE onward, and Baetican sites in Spain specialized in olive oil containers like Dressel 20 starting in the late 1st century BCE.^[54]^[55] Roman amphorae shifted toward utilitarian designs, prioritizing durability and efficiency over aesthetic decoration, in contrast to earlier Greek influences that emphasized painted motifs.^[21] Key typological changes included the evolution from early forms like Dressel 1 and 2-4 (wine amphorae with angular shoulders and solid footings, produced from the 2nd century BCE to 1st century CE) to later ovoid shapes such as Dressel 20 (for olive oil, with bifid handles and a capacity of around 70 liters, dominant from the 1st to 3rd centuries CE) and Dressel 28-30 (fish sauce variants from Spain and North Africa in the 2nd-4th centuries CE).^[25]^[56] A notable adaptation was the widespread use of tituli picti, painted inscriptions in red or black ink on the shoulders or necks, detailing contents (e.g., wine type or oil quality), origins (e.g., estate names), dates, and shippers, which facilitated commerce and quality control across the empire.^[57]^[58] Production reached an immense scale under the Empire, with state-organized kilns and workshops functioning as quasi-imperial factories, particularly in Baetica, supplying the annona system that distributed foodstuffs to Rome's population and legions along frontier trade routes.^[55] For instance, the Dressel 20 type alone accounted for millions of vessels annually, with approximately 50 million estimated at the Monte Testaccio dump in Rome, reflecting organized export networks that integrated provincial economies into imperial supply chains.^[59] Amphorae served as key economic indicators, their distributions revealing trade volumes, regional specializations (e.g., Italian wine to the Rhine legions, Spanish oil to Britain), and fluctuations in commodity flows, as quantified through archaeological assemblages and stamped handles tracing producers.^[60]^[61] By the post-4th century CE, amphorae production declined sharply, coinciding with the empire's fragmentation and a shift to wooden barrels for liquid transport, which were lighter and more versatile for overland routes.^[29] Shipwreck evidence supports this transition, showing a peak in amphora cargoes during the 1st-2nd centuries CE (e.g., over 1,000 Mediterranean wrecks with Roman amphorae) followed by a marked drop after the 3rd century, with fewer intact ceramic containers and increased reliance on perishable barrels that rarely preserve in the archaeological record.^[62]^[63]

Uses and Significance

Ancient Uses in Trade and Storage

Amphorae served as essential vessels for transporting and storing key commodities in ancient Mediterranean economies, primarily liquids such as wine, olive oil, and fish sauce (garum), with residue analysis from archaeological sites confirming these uses through the detection of biomarkers like tartaric acid for wine and hydroxy fatty acids for olive oil.^[64] Organic residue studies on Roman amphorae have further identified garum via amino acid profiles and lipid residues, particularly from wrecks in the western Mediterranean, underscoring their role in the trade of preserved fish products.^[65] While less common for dry goods, amphorae were occasionally adapted for grain storage, especially in Greek contexts where pointed bases allowed for stable piling in ships or warehouses.^[66] In trade networks, amphorae facilitated extensive maritime commerce across the Mediterranean, with shipwrecks providing direct evidence of their scale; for instance, the Madrague de Giens wreck off southern France, dated to around 70–45 BCE, carried approximately 6,000–10,000 Dressel 1B amphorae filled with Italian wine, stacked in multiple layers to optimize space in the vessel's hold.^[67] This standardization of amphora shapes and capacities—typically 20–30 liters—enabled efficient loading and unloading, supporting routes from production centers in Italy and Gaul to ports in Spain, North Africa, and the Levant.^[68] Such uniformity also aided in assessing tariffs, as customs officials used amphora counts to impose duties.^[69] For storage, amphorae were employed in diverse settings, from state-managed warehouses known as horrea to private households and even burials, where their durable form allowed reuse after transport. In Roman horrea, such as those in the Portus emporium near Ostia, amphorae were arranged in racks or stacked vertically with pointed bases embedded in sand or wood frames to prevent rolling and maximize capacity, preserving contents like oil and wine for months without spoilage.^[70] Household storage involved similar stacking in cool, shaded areas, often with stoppers of cork or clay to seal against air and pests, while in funerary contexts, empty amphorae were repurposed as grave markers or containers in regions like Egypt and Gaul.^[71] These practices highlight amphorae's versatility in maintaining supply chains for perishable goods. Economically, amphorae functioned as de facto units of measure in commerce, with the Roman amphora equivalent to about 26 liters serving as a standard for quantifying liquids in contracts, inventories, and taxation records, thereby streamlining trade accounting across the empire.^[72] Marks stamped on handles, including producers' names and capacities, facilitated quality control and fiscal oversight, as seen in lead seals and tituli picti that denoted contents for customs collection at ports.^[69] This integration into economic systems amplified amphorae's impact, enabling the bulk movement of staples that underpinned urban provisioning and imperial expansion.^[73]

Cultural and Artistic Role

Amphorae held profound symbolic value in ancient cultures, often serving as grave goods in Etruscan tombs where they depicted banquets and mythological scenes, reflecting beliefs in the afterlife and elite commemorative practices.^[74] For instance, Attic black-figure amphorae imported to Etruria featured narratives of heroic feats, such as Herakles' labors, which resonated with Etruscan viewers through shared mythic traditions and underscored the vessels' role in funerary rituals.^[75] These artistic depictions not only honored the deceased but also conveyed cultural exchanges between Greek and Etruscan societies, with amphorae placed alongside other luxury items to signify status in the tomb.^[47] In ancient Greece, amphorae were integral to ritual contexts, particularly symposia where they stored and served wine, often adorned with painted scenes of Dionysus and his retinue to invoke the god's presence during communal gatherings.^[76] Such vessels participated in religious offerings to Dionysus, as seen in festivals like the Anthesteria, which included marriage rites and libations from amphorae symbolizing renewal and divine favor.^[77] The painted narratives on these amphorae, depicting mythological episodes like Dionysus' voyages, enhanced their ceremonial function by narrating stories of ecstasy and transformation central to Dionysiac worship.^[78] Decorated amphorae signified social prestige among the elite, with finely painted examples from workshops like that of Exekias reserved for affluent patrons or awarded as prizes in events such as the Panathenaic Games.^[79] Exekias' masterpieces, such as the amphora showing Achilles and Ajax at play, exemplified this through intricate black-figure techniques that portrayed heroic camaraderie, appealing to aristocratic audiences and influencing subsequent pottery traditions.^[80] Ownership of such vessels marked participation in high-society rituals, reinforcing hierarchies where only the wealthy could commission or acquire works blending artistry with mythic prestige.^[81] Archaeological evidence from amphora iconography provides insights into gender dynamics, with depictions of women in domestic or ritual roles on Attic vases revealing societal expectations of femininity tied to household and religious duties.^[82] Scenes of Amazons or heroines, as on Exekias' works, further illuminated cultural myths that explored inverted gender norms, portraying women warriors as exotic threats to Greek masculinity and order.^[83] These motifs, drawn from epics like the Aithiopis, offered symbolic commentary on identity and otherness without direct economic connotations, enriching understandings of ancient worldview through preserved tomb and sanctuary finds.^[84]

Modern Applications

In contemporary contexts, replicas of ancient amphorae are prominently featured in museum collections to aid education and preservation efforts. For instance, the British Museum houses examples such as an early black-figure style amphora that serves as an Attic replica of a Peloponnesian type, allowing visitors to engage with historical forms without risking damage to originals.^[85] These reproductions are also integral to experimental archaeology, where researchers recreate production techniques to understand ancient methods. A study on Punic amphorae from southern Iberia during the Iron Age employed physical replicas and 3D digital modeling of potter's wheels to simulate throwing processes, revealing that fast wheels enabled efficient mass production of standardized vessels for trade.^[28] Amphorae-inspired vessels have seen commercial revival, particularly in winemaking, where they offer an alternative to oak barrels. In Georgia, qvevri—large clay amphorae buried underground for fermentation and aging—continue a tradition over 8,000 years old, producing natural wines with minimal intervention; modern producers emphasize their sustainability, as the vessels are reusable for centuries and reduce reliance on wood resources.^[86] This practice has gained global traction, with winemakers in regions like Portugal and Italy adopting similar amphorae for aging, resulting in wines noted for their fruity profiles and light tannins.^[87] Additionally, smaller amphora replicas serve as popular tourism souvenirs in Greece, often crafted from polyresin or ceramics and sold in sites like Athens' Plaka district to commemorate visits to ancient heritage areas.^[88] Amphorae play a key role in modern archaeological research, especially as tools for analyzing ancient economies and diets. In underwater archaeology, they are among the most common artifacts recovered from shipwrecks, providing evidence of maritime trade routes; a recent excavation off Turkey's Antalya coast uncovered a sealed 1,100-year-old amphora containing olive residues, highlighting their preservation in marine environments and aiding reconstructions of medieval provisioning.^[89] Residue analysis on amphorae interiors further informs paleodiet studies, with techniques like gas chromatography-mass spectrometry identifying lipids and biomarkers from absorbed contents, such as wine or oil, to trace dietary habits and commodity exchanges in ancient Mediterranean societies.^[90] Complementing these, digital modeling employs finite element analysis to simulate amphorae performance, assessing structural integrity under transport stresses; research on Roman-era types demonstrated that variations in shape and thickness optimized load-bearing for long-distance shipping.^[91] Cultural revivals of amphorae emphasize sustainability and artistic expression in contemporary settings. Modern artists draw on amphora forms for installations, such as a 2024 collaboration where artists like Jordan Casteel and Jenny Holzer created ceramic amphorae to support water conservation initiatives, symbolizing ancient storage vessels in the context of global resource challenges.^[92] In festivals, particularly in Georgia's wine regions, qvevri-based events showcase eco-friendly winemaking, promoting clay vessels over disposable alternatives to highlight low-carbon production and cultural heritage preservation.^[93]

References

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An amphora is a two-handled, slender-necked pot used for food storage. Most often, the pot was used to hold oil, wine, olives, or grains.
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Neck-handled Amphora | Museum of Art and Archaeology
An amphora is a vessel shape that varies greatly, but usually has a narrow neck for pouring, and is wider at the top of the belly and narrows to a small foot or ...
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1 An amphora is a ceramic vessel with two handles for carrying on either side. The name derives from the Greek amphi, meaning “on both sides,” and phorein, ...Missing: definition | Show results with:definition
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An amphora, such as the one at left, is a two-handled storage jar that held oil, wine, milk, or grain. Amphora was also the term for a unit of measure. Amphoras ...Missing: definition | Show results with:definition
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Amphoras were primarily used for transporting olive oil and wine from Canaan to Egypt, especially by sea. Artifacts were categorized by period, including Middle ...
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Greek, Roman and Byzantine Pottery at Ilion (Troia) - UC Classics
Pontic amphoras occur in middle roman deposits at Troia. The one-handled MRA 3, known as "micaceous water jar", likewise occurs regularly. Its two handled ...Missing: history | Show results with:history<|control11|><|separator|>
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A locally manufactured amphora recovered at the site of Sikyon, Greece, from a late fourth- to early fifth-century CE destruction deposit.
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In the Eleusis Neck-Amphora's case it was used as a coffin with the skeleton of a small child found inside. Clearly this Protoattic vessel was not for status ...Missing: definition | Show results with:definition
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An amphora is a type of ceramic vessel used in the ancient Mediterranean for transportation and storage of oil, wine, and other commodities. High quality ...
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Initially affordable only among the wealthy, glass was used in ancient Rome as containers for oils, perfume, and tablewares.Missing: definition | Show results with:definition
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Early 14c. "amphora" means a two-handled vessel for wine or oil, originating from Greek amphoreus, from amphi "both sides" + phoreus "bearer," via Latin.
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An amphora is a two-handled vase with a long neck. A cup has many variations. A rhyton is a container for libations. A pithos is a large storage jar.
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An old shape, with precursors in the eighth century, the hydria (pl. hydriai; compare Greek hudor - water) is a water-jar with three handles, two for carrying ...
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### Summary of Roman Amphorae Dimensions, Capacity, Standardization, Base, and Handle Designs
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Amphoras were used in the ancient world to transport various different types of products, including wine and oil. The author shows how chronological variations ...Missing: typology | Show results with:typology
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'Salvation from the Sea': Amphorae and Trade in the Roman West
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Oct 9, 1996 · Typology: The Dressel 20 is a large globular form, with two handles and thickened, rounded or angular rim, concave internally.Missing: scholarly | Show results with:scholarly
[26]
[PDF] A Weighty Matter: Pontic Fish Amphorae - Antikmuseet
Dec 4, 2007 · If we consider that most Mediterranean fish amphora types have a design which favoured a content of fish sauce while most Pontic amphora types ...
[27]
[PDF] Regional Amphora Standardization in Roman Africa (146 B.C.–A.D. ...
Apr 3, 2024 · Probably the Ostia LIX and perhaps also the Dressel 26 type carried oil or olives, as recently proposed in a collective article that ...
[28]
Throwing Punic Amphorae: An Archaeological and Experimental ...
May 26, 2021 · This contribution aims to systematize the information on the parts of potter's wheels found in the south of the Iberian Peninsula.
[29]
Small terracotta amphora (jar) - Greek, Attic - Late Geometric I
Title: Small terracotta amphora (jar) · Period: Late Geometric I · Date: ca. 800–750 BCE · Culture: Greek, Attic · Medium: Terracotta · Dimensions: H. 6 3/8 in. ( ...
[30]
amphora | British Museum
amphora ; Weight: 7350 grammes ; Width: 374 millimetres ; Depth: 350 millimetres ; Inscription type: inscription ; Inscription position: on body ...
[31]
Mediterranean Containerization | Current Anthropology: Vol 55, No 4
Aspects of ancient Greek trade re-evaluated with amphora DNA evidence. Journal of Archaeological Science 39(2):389–398. First citation in article. Crossref ...
[32]
WHOI: Archaeology in Deep Water: Printer Friendly Version
The amphora dimensions are overall height 0.665 m, greatest diameter 0.400 m, handle height 0.145 m, neck height 0.140 m, neck inner diameter 0.085 m. The ...Missing: typical | Show results with:typical
[33]
The Decoration and Firing of Ancient Greek Pottery: A Review of ...
Kilns themselves provide direct if often fragmentary evidence for the process of pottery firing, information that can be set beside the material aspects of ...
[34]
[PDF] Amphora Production in the Roman World: A View from the Papyri
Abstract. Survey of the papyrological evidence for the various stages of the pottery production process in Graeco-Roman Egypt with a focus on wine amphorae.
[35]
The Production of Pottery | Department of Classics
Jun 15, 2018 · The ancient Greeks used a three-stage firing process that consisted of a cycle of oxidizing, reducing, and re-oxidizing the atmosphere inside ...
[36]
Experimenting with the Ancient Greek Pottery Production Process ...
Aug 25, 2023 · This article presents an experimental archaeology project that aimed to reproduce the Hellenistic Greek pottery production process.
[37]
Pottery Workshops - commercial architecture
Eleni Hasaki, in “Ceramic Kilns of Ancient Greece,” provides a clear and outlined definition of what constituted a workshop in the ancient world.Missing: Ostia mass quality control
[38]
[PDF] MASS PRODUCTION, STANDARDIZED PARTS, AND THE ...
It is generally considered that the increased demand for Corinthian pottery in the 6th century resulted in a rise of production that led to a decline in quality ...Missing: Ostia control
[39]
Athenian Vase Painting: Black- and Red-Figure Techniques
Oct 1, 2002 · Painted vases were often made in specific shapes for specific daily uses—storing and transporting wine and foodstuffs (amphorai), drawing water ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[40]
History of Amphorae Worldwide | October 2021
Oct 20, 2021 · The first literary person to use the word was the Roman writer Cato. The Romans adopted the word when they became a Roman Republic. Greeks ...
[41]
Cretan Bronze Age Pithoi: Traditions and Trends in the Production ...
Mar 5, 2007 · Archaeological data and ethnohistoric fieldwork are cited regarding storage uses of pithoi ... pithoi recovered from 70 Late Minoan I ...
[42]
EARLY BRONZE AGE SEAL IMPRESSIONS FROM THERASIA ...
May 16, 2025 · It discusses two seal impressions stamped on a jar handle from an Early Cycladic II context. One aligns with the broader Aegean glyptic ...
[43]
Dawn of the amphora: the emergence of maritime transport jars in ...
The collared jar emerged as the first Maritime Transport Container in the Early Bronze II Aegean. Wine likely served as the high-value liquid commodity ...
[44]
A RE-EXAMINATION OF EARLY WHEEL POTTING IN CRETE - jstor
The manner in which Minoan potters first employed the pottery wheel has become a matter of some debate . A growing body of.<|separator|>
[45]
Pottery, the body, and the gods in ancient Greece, c. 800–490 B.C.E.
Jul 21, 2022 · Pots like the Dipylon Amphora were large versions of smaller pots and decorated with geometric designs and funerary scenes, relating to their ...
[46]
Attic Panathenaic Amphora - Getty Museum
Mar 19, 2024 · These Panathenaic Amphorae had a distinctive form with narrow necks and feet, and received standard decoration, always in the black-figure technique.Missing: corinthian nolan sos
[47]
[PDF] Greek Vases - Yale University Art Gallery
Panathenaic amphorae were essentially standardized in shape and deco- ration by around 530 B.C., and they retained their standard form as long as they were ...
[48]
[PDF] CORINTHIAN DEVELOPMENTS IN THE STUDY OF TRADE IN THE ...
4 Chian and Mendean amphoras, normally used for the export of wine, were also imported over the course of the quarter century in which the building functioned.
[49]
(PDF) East Greek fine wares and transport amphorae of the 8th
This study emphasizes the chronology and distribution of East Greek wares in Carthage and Toscanos. Amphorae types include Samian, Chian, Clazomenian, Milesian, ...
[50]
Attic Black-figure "Tyrrhenian" Amphora with (A) a Wedding ...
Mar 6, 2025 · This type of ovoid amphora with densely patterned friezes is known as "Tyrrhenian," a term derived from the Greek word for Etruscans, "Tyrsenoi.Missing: ancient | Show results with:ancient
[51]
THE 'SOS' AMPHORA: AN UPDATE | Annual of the British School at ...
Apr 28, 2015 · Distribution map of SOS amphorae in central Greece and the Peloponnese, with volumes accounted for and colour-coded for chronology. Our ...
[52]
Dressel 1 amphoras - Potsherd - Atlas of Roman Pottery
Dressel 1 amphoras. A tall cylindrical amphora with angular shoulders, long straight handles and a collar rim. This form is the most important Italian wine ...Missing: adaptations designs 1-30 tituli inscriptions
[53]
2.2. Dressel 1 amphoras - Internet Archaeology
Oct 9, 1996 · Cylindrical amphora with angular shoulders and long straight handles, generally oval in section. There are two sub-categories.
[54]
Internet Archaeol. 40. Atkinson and Preston. The Amphoras
Versions of Spanish and Italian amphoras made in Gaul are not present at Elms Farm. Seven of the nine recorded Gaulish amphoras are Gauloise 4, the standard ...
[55]
Trends in the production of olive oil amphorae at ceramic workshops ...
Jun 7, 2023 · The method is tested using amphorae produced in the Roman province of Hispania Baetica (today, south-west Spain), which was the principal ...
[56]
Amphora types according to Dressel
Amphora Types According to Dressel. This table for dating amphoras is taken from Heinrich Dressel: Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum, band XV, Berlin 1899.
[57]
2492: Amphorae: Painted Inscriptions
Amphorae often carried painted inscriptions (tituli picti) added after firing, which give details concerning the names of shippers, the point of origin, the ...Missing: utilitarian designs
[58]
[PDF] Tituli picti on Spanish amphorae - HAL
Jan 4, 2022 · Epigraphy on Roman amphora uses different types of inscriptions, mainly graffiti, stamps and tituli picti. The meaning of these rich and ...Missing: shift | Show results with:shift
[59]
Data Analysis of Roman Amphorae in a Long-Term Perspective
Jan 11, 2025 · This paper presents novel insights into the long-term chronological patterns related to the distribution and consumption of amphora-borne foodstuffs in Italy.
[60]
Data Analysis of Roman Amphorae in a Long-Term Perspective
Aug 7, 2025 · This paper presents novel insights into the long-term chronological patterns related to the distribution and consumption of amphora-borne ...Missing: timeline | Show results with:timeline
[61]
(PDF) Amphora studies in Xanten: From the local Roman legionary ...
The study reveals that amphorae were essential for understanding interprovincial commodity circulation in the Roman Empire, particularly linking Colonia Ulpia ...<|separator|>
[62]
[PDF] Shipwrecks and amphorae: Their relationship with trading routes ...
On monuments of the Roman period can be seen that cargo was rarely carried on deck. The deck of the ship was normally reserved for passengers and crew (Rougé.
[63]
[PDF] Maritime archaeology and the ancient economy
The apparent peak in wreck numbers in the first century AD, and sharp fall thereafter, may conceal a partial switch in containers from amphorae to barrels.
[64]
Chemical evidence for the persistence of wine production and trade ...
Feb 22, 2021 · In the absence of visible residues, marks, or labels, chemical analysis of organic compounds absorbed into the walls of amphorae offers the only ...
[65]
Fish sauce, new amphora type identified on Roman wreck
Apr 25, 2024 · Researchers took a multipronged approach to the analysis, using petrographic analysis to determine the origin of the amphorae, residue analysis ...
[66]
Amphorae - University of Oxford
The amphora (pl. amphorae; from Greek amphi - on both sides, phero - carry) is a two-handled pot with a neck that is considerably narrower than the body.Missing: classification schemes morphology globular bilobate ribbon
[67]
The Madrague de Giens Wreck | The Shelby White and Leon Levy
The Madrague de Giens wreck is a major nautical archaeology milestone, a large merchantman sunk around 70-45 BCE, 35.10m long, 9m wide, carrying wine and ...
[68]
Madrague de Giens, an Archaeology Fieldschool
Madrague de Giens is a reference site for underwater archaeology, with 6,000 Roman wine amphorae and a 40m long ship wreck, and a demonstration of rigorous ...
[69]
[PDF] Transport Wine Amphorae and the Economic System in Southern ...
Transport amphorae are an optimal medium for examining ancient commercial activities ... taxation system comprising a fixed commerce tax rate of 10% and a ...
[70]
Warehouse of the world - Roman Ports
Nov 14, 2020 · The emporium district in Rome attested the finds of an elephant tusk in one storage-room, lentils in another, sand used by stone cutters in a ...
[71]
Managing food storage in the Roman Empire - ScienceDirect.com
Sep 30, 2021 · This paper considers how, without technology such as refrigeration, Roman builders constructed warehouses and cellars and potters produced containers.
[72]
(PDF) Commercial Amphoras: The Earliest Consumer Packages?
Aug 7, 2025 · Commercial amphoras are large ceramic vessels that were used from 1500 BC to 500 AD to ship wine and other products throughout the Mediterranean.
[73]
Taxation | Oxford Classical Dictionary
Jul 18, 2022 · Lead tags, used for sealing loads of goods, and marks found on amphorae, are ancient micro-remnants of the daily process of customs collection ...
[74]
Objects of Trade and Transport in the Ancient Mediterranean – AHA
Sep 4, 2024 · The lesson centers large ceramic containers called transport amphorae, which were the primary means of packaging and transporting foodstuffs in ...
[75]
Athenian Masterpieces in Etruscan Tombs
Jul 30, 2024 · The scene painted all around its body, its association with the other grave goods, and the location and structure of the tomb itself, offer an ...
[76]
[PDF] HERAKLES ICONOGRAPHY ON TYRRHENIAN AMPHORAE
By the end of the Tyrrhenian amphora's quarter century of popularity Greek mythology had been fully incorporated in the Etruscan culture and manifested ...
[77]
Dionysos and the Symposium | Museum of Fine Arts Boston
Dionysos, god of wine, was central to symposia, where guests reclined and conversation included the heroic past, theatrical life, and gods. His festivals ...
[78]
14 The Anthesteria and other Dionysiac Rites - Oxford Academic
The Anthesteria is a festival in ancient Athens, associated with Dionysus, with a central ritual of marriage. It has names associated with pots.
[79]
[PDF] Spirit Possession, Mediation, and Ambiguity in the Ancient Greek ...
Mar 20, 2019 · Liquids including wine, blood, and milk were present in Dionysian myth and ritual. They were used as libations as means to grow closer to the ...
[80]
Panathenaic Prize Amphora with Lid - Getty Museum
Jul 26, 2025 · Amphorae filled with oil pressed from olives from the sacred trees of Athena were given as prizes in the Panathenaic Games.Missing: cultural | Show results with:cultural
[81]
Exekias, Attic black figure amphora with Ajax and Achilles playing a ...
Exekias, Attic black figure amphora with Ajax and Achilles playing a game, c. 540-530 B.C.E., Archaic Period, 61.1 cm high, found in Vulci (Gregorian ...
[82]
Exekias - Getty Museum
Jul 3, 2025 · Exekias worked as a potter and vase-painter in the black-figure technique in Athens from about 540 to 520 BC
[83]
The Iconography of Women on Attic Pottery
Mar 28, 2023 · Domestic scenes of women in ancient Greek pottery have long been overlooked by classical scholarship. This page focuses on the roles women ...
[84]
[PDF] The Amazons of Exekias and Eupolis: Demystifying Changes in ...
Amazon imagery is particularly informative corpus for analyzing female gender roles because the Amazons are imagined as a foreign race3; however, through the ...
[85]
Exekias and the Aithiopis - Scenes from a lost epic on two black ...
Jul 28, 2021 · Black-figure amphora attributed to Exekias as painter and potter. Acquired in Campanari, no doubt through dubious means. Dated ca. 540-530 ...
[86]
amphora | British Museum
Description: Pottery: black-figured amphora with cover. Early black figure style, finely executed; probably an Attic replica of a Peloponnesian type.
[87]
Winemaking Tradition - Wines of Georgia
Qvevri are uniquely Georgian vessels, different in shape and function from the clay amphorae used elsewhere. Used for wine fermentation, maturation, and storage ...
[88]
http://www.souvenirsfromgreece.com/
[89]
Buy greek souvenirs online bronze greek statues busts pottery ...
30-day returnsWe are a souvenir shop in Plaka, Athens, Greece, offering a wide selection of quality souvenirs from Greece and gifts, greek statues, busts statues, ...
[90]
Rare Sealed Amphora Discovered on Turkish Shipwreck
Apr 28, 2025 · The discoveries highlight the crucial role of olives for ancient sailors and have unearthed a remarkably well-preserved, sealed amphora, ...
[91]
Interpreting ancient food practices: stable isotope and molecular ...
Aug 27, 2020 · Similarly, lipid residue analysis can be performed on both carbonized and absorbed residues, which provides biomarker evidence for the natural ...Missing: paleodiet | Show results with:paleodiet
[92]
Digital modeling of function and performance of transport amphorae
May 30, 2020 · The present manuscript introduces an approach to examine the mechanical performance of transport amphorae using the finite element method ...
[93]
Artist Amphorae · Artspace & Avant Arte
Collect a septet of amphorae designed by leading contemporary artists in support of charity: water. Jordan Casteel, Derek Fordjour, Jenny Holzer, ...Missing: festivals | Show results with:festivals
[94]
Georgian Qvevri: How 8000 years of winemaking tradition still ...
Sep 24, 2025 · Fermentation within the Qvevri can last from a few weeks to several months depending on the grape variety and temperature. Sometimes wines are ...