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Army general

An army general is a senior rank in the armies of various nations, typically denoting the highest peacetime general officer grade and equivalent to a four-star rank in the NATO system. It is held by officers who command large formations, such as armies or theaters, or serve in top strategic and advisory roles. The term and its equivalents, such as général d'armée in France or Generalleutnant variants in Germany, evolved from 18th-century European military models to establish clear hierarchies in modern warfare.^[1] In the United States, the corresponding rank is simply "general" (four-star), while a wartime five-star rank, General of the Army, equivalent to field marshal elsewhere, was awarded to five individuals during and after World War II, including Dwight D. Eisenhower and Douglas MacArthur; it has not been active since 1981.^[2] General officers, including army generals, require extensive experience and often possess diplomatic skills for joint and multinational operations.

Overview and Definition

Definition and Etymology

An army general is a senior commissioned officer rank, typically the highest peacetime grade in most national armies, equivalent to a four-star general who holds strategic command over large-scale military formations such as corps, field armies, or theater commands.^[1] This rank denotes authority over multiple divisions or equivalent units, involving oversight of thousands of personnel and resources in operational theaters, distinguishing it from junior general officers who manage smaller tactical elements.^[3] In hierarchical terms, an army general occupies the apex of the officer structure, directly advising national military leadership on broad strategic matters.^[4] The term "general" originates from the Latin adjective generalis, meaning "pertaining to the whole" or "universal," derived from genus (kind or class), which implied overall or comprehensive authority rather than specific duties.^[5] By the medieval period, this evolved through Old French général, initially used in administrative contexts for leaders with broad jurisdiction, such as a "captain general" overseeing entire forces.^[6] The military application solidified in the 16th century, when "general" became a standalone title for supreme commanders, shortening from phrases like "captain-general" to emphasize unified command of armies.^[5] This rank contrasts sharply with lower echelons like colonel, which focuses on regimental-level tactics, or even major general, who typically commands a single division with more localized operational responsibilities; army generals, by contrast, exercise strategic oversight that integrates logistics, intelligence, and joint operations across vast fronts.^[1]

Role in Command Structure

The army general rank, the highest peacetime general officer grade and equivalent to NATO code OF-9, occupies a pivotal position within military command structures as the senior field officer responsible for overseeing large-scale operations and strategic decision-making. It serves at the apex of operational command in army hierarchies, directly below service chiefs or joint commanders, and is integral to unified combatant commands or theater-level organizations. In this capacity, it ensures the integration of army forces into broader joint or multinational frameworks, maintaining readiness and executing directives from higher authorities such as the secretary of defense or national command authorities.^[7] Primary duties revolve around strategic planning, which involves developing operational concepts, assessing threats, and allocating resources to achieve mission objectives; troop mobilization, including the rapid deployment and sustainment of forces; and logistics oversight, encompassing supply chain management, equipment maintenance, and infrastructure support for sustained campaigns. Army generals also act as key liaisons with civilian government leaders, providing military expertise to inform policy decisions and bridging operational needs with national strategic goals. For instance, they advise on force structure, budget priorities, and readiness assessments during peacetime and crises, ensuring alignment between military capabilities and governmental objectives.^[7] As the highest field command rank, an army general frequently advises chiefs of staff on army-wide policies or serves as commander of joint task forces, wielding authority over diverse units from multiple services or nations. During wartime, they may direct national defense forces, exemplified by four-star generals commanding unified combatant commands like U.S. Central Command, responsible for organizing forces, employing them in combat, and managing logistics across vast theaters involving tens of thousands of personnel. These roles underscore the function in translating high-level strategy into executable actions while fostering interoperability in coalition environments.^[7]

Historical Evolution

Origins in Ancient and Medieval Armies

In ancient Greece, the role of the strategos emerged as a foundational precursor to modern generalship, serving as the primary military commander in city-state armies from around 500 BCE through the Hellenistic period. Elected annually by the assembly in Athens and other poleis, strategoi initially oversaw tribal-based phalanx formations, with responsibilities including tactical leadership, resource allocation, and decision-making on campaigns, often rotating command to foster collective solidarity, as seen in the Battle of Marathon in 490 BCE.^[8] By the 4th century BCE, the position evolved into more specialized roles, such as commanding hoplite infantry or naval forces, with figures like Pericles exemplifying strategic oversight during the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BCE), where they bore personal accountability for outcomes like sieges.^[8] In coalition warfare, the strategos autokrator represented a supreme commander with plenipotentiary authority, elected to unify allied forces; for instance, Philip II of Macedon was appointed to this role by the Corinthian League in 338 BCE to lead against Persia, wielding powers to levy troops and dictate operations.^[9] The Roman Republic and Empire further refined this command structure through the legatus legionis, a senatorial officer who directed legions—self-contained units of about 5,000–6,000 infantry—from the late Republic onward, spanning roughly 100 BCE to 400 CE. Appointed by the Senate or emperor after serving as praetor, the legate held overall authority over legionary tactics, logistics, and provincial campaigns, supported by tribunes and centurions but ultimately accountable to the provincial governor.^[10] This role emphasized professional delegation within a hierarchical system, where legates like those under Augustus coordinated expansions into regions such as Britannia, blending political prestige with battlefield command to maintain imperial control.^[11] During the medieval period in Europe, from the 11th to 15th centuries, feudal lords functioned as de facto generals, leveraging their landholdings to assemble and lead private armies in service to monarchs or during regional conflicts. Under the feudal system, which solidified after the fragmentation of the Carolingian Empire around 800 CE, nobles provided knights, archers, and infantry in exchange for fiefs, forming a decentralized "warrior class" that constrained royal power and enabled checks like the Magna Carta in 1215.^[12] These lords, often barons or dukes, commanded heterogeneous forces in crusades or dynastic wars, prioritizing loyalty oaths over formal ranks, as exemplified by the mounted nobility in the Hundred Years' War (1337–1453).^[13] By the late Middle Ages, particularly in Italy from the 14th century, the rise of condottieri—mercenary captains—introduced more fluid, contract-based leadership for kings, city-states, and popes, acting as hired generals to supplement limited local levies. These professional commanders, such as John Hawkwood, led disciplined companies of 500–10,000 men in protracted campaigns, earning vast sums while navigating alliances in conflicts like the Wars of the Guelfs and Ghibellines.^[14] Operating as both strategists and entrepreneurs, condottieri emphasized tactical innovation, such as combined arms, but their opportunism—switching sides for better pay—highlighted the era's volatility.^[15] A pivotal transition occurred in the late 14th and 15th centuries, as warfare's scale and frequency eroded reliance on hereditary noble commands, paving the way for merit-based appointments among mercenaries and emerging professionals. The growth of paid service over feudal obligations, evident in the Low Countries and Italy, allowed rulers to hire leaders based on proven skill rather than birthright, subordinating the nobility to centralized authority and expanding army sizes from feudal hosts of a few thousand to professional forces exceeding 20,000 by 1500. This shift, driven by economic pressures and technological changes like gunpowder, foreshadowed the professionalization of officer corps in the early modern era.^[16]

Development in the Modern Era

The formalization of the "general" rank in European armies began in the 16th century as monarchs transitioned from feudal levies to professional standing armies, necessitating a structured command hierarchy. The term "general" derived from "captain general," the medieval designation for the overall army commander, which shortened over time to denote top-level officers in permanent forces. By the early 17th century, this evolution accelerated under King Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden during the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648), where he introduced merit-based promotions and organized troops into brigades led by general officers, emphasizing discipline and mobility in a standing army of conscripts rather than mercenaries. These innovations, including the enforcement of strict military codes, professionalized command roles and influenced broader European adoption of formalized general ranks within hierarchical systems by the mid-18th century.^[17]^[18] In the 19th century, the Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815) marked a significant expansion of general ranks to accommodate mass mobilization and divisional tactics, with the French Imperial Army establishing distinct levels such as général de brigade (brigadier general) and général de division (divisional general) to command larger formations. This structure reflected the demands of industrialized warfare, where steam-powered logistics and rifled firearms required generals to oversee coordinated operations across expansive fronts. During the World Wars, particularly World War I (1914–1918) and World War II (1939–1945), the scale of conflict further necessitated higher echelons; the four-star general rank, originating in the U.S. Army with Ulysses S. Grant's promotion in 1866 and standardized globally by the 20th century, became essential for leading army groups of hundreds of thousands in mechanized, industrialized campaigns. For instance, in World War II, four-star generals like Dwight D. Eisenhower coordinated multinational forces, adapting to total war's emphasis on rapid maneuver and resource integration.^[19]^[20] Post-World War II, army general roles adapted to Cold War doctrines (1947–1991), shifting from conventional mass battles to nuclear deterrence and asymmetric warfare. Under President Dwight D. Eisenhower's "New Look" policy in the 1950s, U.S. Army generals focused on tactical nuclear capabilities, restructuring divisions into "Pentomic" formations for survivability in irradiated environments and supporting NATO's forward defense against Soviet invasion. The Kennedy administration's "Flexible Response" doctrine in the 1960s expanded generals' responsibilities to counterinsurgencies and proxy conflicts, such as in Vietnam, where they oversaw special forces growth and integrated conventional, nuclear, and unconventional operations to deter "wars of national liberation." These adaptations emphasized strategic advisory roles in alliances, with generals like those in Military Assistance Advisory Groups training foreign armies against asymmetric threats, ensuring deterrence across conflict spectra without escalating to full nuclear exchange.^[21]

Rank Equivalents and Hierarchy

NATO Standardization

The NATO Standardization Agreement (STANAG) 2116 establishes a uniform coding system for military personnel grades across member nations, enabling consistent identification of ranks in multinational contexts.^[22] This framework, developed shortly after NATO's formation in 1949 through the establishment of the Military Agency for Standardization in 1951, promotes interoperability by standardizing personnel documentation, requisitions, and reporting for joint operations.^[23]^[24] Within this system, army general ranks are categorized under the officer (OF) codes, with OF-9 designated as the highest operational grade, corresponding to a four-star general and equivalent to an admiral in naval forces.^[22] The progression maps as follows: OF-6 for a one-star brigadier general, OF-7 for a two-star major general, OF-8 for a three-star lieutenant general, and OF-9 for a four-star general, with OF-10 reserved for exceptional wartime or honorary ranks like field marshal.^[22] Non-NATO nations often align their ranks to these codes for partnership activities, such as through the Partnership for Peace program, though deviations occur based on national structures.^[23] For instance, Russia's General of the Army maps to OF-9, Colonel General to OF-8, Lieutenant General to OF-7, and Major General to OF-6, facilitating coordination in exercises or coalitions despite structural differences.^[25] Similar mappings apply to other non-members like Ukraine, where pre-accession reforms adopted NATO-compatible grades to enhance alliance integration.

Comparisons with Other Military Branches

In military hierarchies, the four-star rank of general in the army corresponds to the four-star admiral in the navy under NATO standardization, where both fall under the OF-9 code for senior operational leadership.^[22] Admirals at this level command major naval fleets, such as the U.S. Fleet Forces Command, which oversees training, certification, and deployment of combat-ready naval units across global maritime theaters, paralleling the army general's strategic oversight of ground forces but emphasizing sea-based power projection and fleet mobility. This equivalence ensures interoperability in multinational operations, though admirals focus on domains like anti-submarine warfare and carrier strike groups rather than terrestrial maneuvers.^[22] Similarly, the army's four-star general aligns with the air force's four-star general, also designated OF-9 in NATO codes, who leads major air commands such as the U.S. Air Combat Command responsible for organizing, training, and equipping air forces for global combat operations.^[22] While both ranks involve high-level strategic decision-making, air force generals manage operations with a faster operational tempo due to the rapid deployment and execution of aerial strikes and reconnaissance, contrasting with the army's emphasis on prolonged, sustained ground campaigns that prioritize logistics and troop endurance.^[26] This distinction arises from the inherent speed of air assets in achieving effects over vast distances, as opposed to the methodical advance of ground units.^[27] Army generals integrate into joint service roles within unified commands, where they often serve as combatant commanders overseeing multi-branch forces, as formalized by the Goldwater-Nichols Department of Defense Reorganization Act of 1986, which strengthened the unified combatant command system to enhance joint operations.^[28] In entities like U.S. Central Command or Indo-Pacific Command, an army general may direct combined army, navy, air force, and marine assets, drawing on service-specific expertise while prioritizing integrated mission accomplishment under a single chain of command.^[29] This structure promotes seamless coordination, with army generals frequently assigned to geographic commands due to their experience in large-scale force employment.^[30]

Insignia and Uniform Distinctions

Army-Specific Insignia

In army traditions, the insignia for general officers commonly consists of silver stars affixed to epaulets, shoulder boards, or collar points, with the number of stars signifying the specific rank level from brigadier general (one star) to full general (four stars). This configuration emphasizes the ground force's hierarchical command structure, where the stars are typically arranged horizontally for clarity and visibility. The four-star design for the senior general rank originated in the United States Army during the post-Civil War period, established by War Department General Orders No. 75 on September 5, 1866, for Ulysses S. Grant's appointment as General of the Army.^[2] The broader use of stars for denoting general ranks traces back to 1780 in the Continental Army, when regulations specified two stars for major generals and one for brigadier generals on epaulets to distinguish command authority.^[31] Historically, army general insignia evolved from earlier European influences, particularly the Napoleonic era, where crossed batons—symbolizing the field commander's authority—were prominent in French and subsequent British designs, often paired with a sword on shoulder boards or cuffs. In the British Army, for instance, general ranks feature crossed baton and sword beneath a crown, a practice formalized in the 19th century and retained in dress uniforms with gold embroidery on dark blue or scarlet fabric. Over time, many armies transitioned toward the star-based system for practicality, especially in field uniforms, while incorporating variations like subdued black or olive-drab stars on camouflage backgrounds to suit ground operations. Placement details include rigid shoulder boards with stiff fabric for formal attire, such as the Army Green Service Uniform, and Velcro-backed patches for operational camouflage patterns like the Operational Camouflage Pattern.^[32] The stars themselves hold symbolic significance in army contexts, representing elevated command, guidance, and excellence in leadership over ground forces, often set against army-specific colors like olive drab or dark green to differentiate from naval or air insignia. This symbolism underscores the general's role in directing large-scale terrestrial maneuvers, with the metallic silver finish evoking enduring authority across eras.^[33]

Variations in Air Force Contexts

In joint military commands involving air operations, such as those during World War II's Allied air-ground coordination efforts, army generals often served in dual roles overseeing integrated forces, wearing their standard army uniforms adorned with silver star insignia to denote rank while liaising with air components.^[34] This practice highlighted the unified command structure under the U.S. Army Air Forces (AAF), where general officers retained army-specific silver stars on olive drab uniforms for air-related assignments. Historically, U.S. Army Air Forces generals prior to 1947, who functioned as army officers in air command roles, displayed silver star motifs on their shoulder boards and collars as per army regulations.^[35] Upon the establishment of the independent U.S. Air Force in September 1947, these officers transitioned to USAF service, retaining the star-based rank structure but adapting to silver stars on the new blue service uniforms introduced in 1949 to align with air force heraldry.^[36] Qualified aviator generals, such as General Henry H. Arnold, supplemented the stars with aviation wings badges, emphasizing their specialized air expertise without altering the core rank design.^[37] In contemporary settings, army generals assigned to integrated air defense roles continue to use silver star insignia, often augmented with NATO-specific patches for multinational operations. For instance, within NATO's Allied Air Command framework, which coordinates air and missile defense across allied forces, army officers in supporting roles wear their national army stars alongside the command's compass rose emblem to signify joint integration.^[38] This adaptation maintains service distinctions while facilitating collaboration in air-centric missions, as seen in commands like the U.S. Army's 10th Air and Missile Defense Command, where generals oversee ground-based air defense systems interfacing with air force assets.^[39]

Country-Specific Variations

United States Army General

In the United States Army, the rank of general encompasses four distinct grades within the general officer structure: brigadier general (O-7, one-star), major general (O-8, two-star), lieutenant general (O-9, three-star), and general (O-10, four-star). These ranks represent the highest levels of commissioned officer leadership, with statutory limits on active-duty strength to maintain organizational efficiency and prevent overstaffing at senior levels. Under 10 U.S.C. § 526(a), the total authorized strength for Army general officers on active duty is 219, excluding certain temporary or joint assignments. Further distribution within grades is governed by 10 U.S.C. § 525(b), which caps the number of generals at 8, limits officers in the grades of lieutenant general and general combined to 46, restricts major generals to 90, and derives brigadier general numbers from the remaining total after accounting for higher grades.^[40]^[41] Promotions to these general officer grades are highly selective and require presidential nomination followed by Senate confirmation, ensuring political oversight of senior military appointments. Candidates are typically selected from the pool of eligible colonels or higher-ranking officers through a rigorous evaluation by promotion boards convened under the Defense Officer Personnel Management Act (DOPMA), assessing performance, command experience, and strategic potential. For instance, advancement to brigadier general often occurs after approximately 22-25 years of commissioned service, while promotions to four-star general usually follow 30 or more years of service, predominantly from the rank of lieutenant general after demonstrating exceptional leadership in major commands.^[42] A unique aspect of the U.S. Army's general rank system is the wartime rank of General of the Army, a five-star grade established by Public Law 78-482 in 1944 to align with Allied counterparts during World War II. This rank was conferred on five officers—George C. Marshall, Douglas MacArthur, Dwight D. Eisenhower, Henry H. Arnold, and Omar N. Bradley—for their pivotal roles in the conflict, granting them permanent seniority above all other ranks. The grade has remained dormant since Bradley's death in 1981, with no subsequent appointments, as postwar needs did not warrant its reactivation, though it could be revived by congressional action in extreme circumstances.

European and Commonwealth Variations

In the British Army, the rank of General serves as the highest active commissioned rank, classified as a four-star officer and positioned immediately above Lieutenant General in the hierarchy. This rank typically commands army-level formations or holds senior staff positions, such as Chief of the General Staff. Historically, the superior rank of Field Marshal functioned as a five-star equivalent during wartime, but it has been awarded only as an honorary rank since World War II, with the most recent promotions in June 2025 to former Chiefs of the Defence Staff, Lord Richards of Herstmonceux and Lord Houghton of Richmond.^[43]^[44] European nations influenced by British traditions or NATO frameworks exhibit similar structures, with adaptations reflecting national histories. In France, the rank of général d'armée represents the pinnacle of active general officer ranks in the French Army, equivalent to a four-star position and overseeing major operational commands or the Chief of the Defence Staff role; this designation solidified its modern four-star status amid post-colonial reforms around 1961. Germany's Bundeswehr, established in 1955 as part of the post-World War II rearmament, employs the rank of General as its highest active general officer grade, an OF-9 equivalent under NATO classification, typically assigned to command the entire army or joint forces.^[45]^[46] Commonwealth countries, drawing from British imperial origins, align their army general ranks with NATO standards while preserving ceremonial elements tied to monarchical ties. In Canada, the rank of General denotes the four-star level, held by the Chief of the Defence Staff or equivalent, emphasizing joint operations in a unified Canadian Armed Forces structure. Australia's Army similarly designates General as its top active rank, often vacant outside appointments like Chief of the Defence Force, but incorporates imperial legacies through titles such as Captain General, accorded to the Governor-General in honorary oversight of units like the Royal Australian Artillery. These adaptations maintain operational interoperability with allies like the United States while honoring historical traditions.^[47]^[48]

Other Global Examples

In the Russian Armed Forces, the rank of General of the Army (Generál armii) serves as the highest active general officer rank, equivalent to a four-star general, positioned above Colonel General and below the wartime or honorary rank of Marshal of the Russian Federation. This structure, inherited from Soviet military traditions, supports command over large formations in doctrines emphasizing centralized control and rapid mobilization of mass forces. General officers at this level typically lead military districts or key operational commands, with insignia featuring four stars on shoulder boards.^[49]^[50] The People's Liberation Army (PLA) of China reintroduced formal ranks in 1988 as part of modernization reforms, establishing Shang Jiang (Senior General) as the top four-star rank for ground force officers, worn with four stars and a laurel wreath on insignia. This system prioritizes alignment with the Chinese Communist Party, where promotions to general ranks require demonstrated political reliability and service to the Central Military Commission, chaired by the paramount leader, over purely operational experience. Shang Jiang officers command theater commands or hold senior joint positions, reflecting the PLA's emphasis on integrated civil-military governance.^[51]^[52] In the Israel Defense Forces (IDF), Rav Aluf (Chief General) represents the pinnacle of the officer hierarchy, equivalent to a lieutenant general and reserved exclusively for the Chief of the General Staff, who oversees all branches in a unified command structure. This rank, denoted by four bars and a star on insignia, is retained for life by incumbents upon retirement, underscoring the IDF's conscript-based model and emphasis on continuous strategic leadership amid ongoing security threats. Complementing this, Aluf (Major General) ranks command regional divisions, adapting to the compact, high-mobility forces suited for rapid response operations. The Indian Army employs the rank of General as its sole four-star position, held only by the Chief of the Army Staff to direct national defense strategy, with a hierarchy derived from British traditions but scaled to oversee vast territorial commands. Lieutenant Generals lead operational commands, including specialized border formations like the Northern and Western Commands, which manage defenses along the 3,300-kilometer Line of Actual Control with China and the Line of Control with Pakistan, incorporating integrated battle groups for enhanced agility. This structure supports a force of over 1.2 million personnel focused on multi-domain warfare in diverse terrains.

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10 U.S. Code § 525 - Distribution of commissioned officers on active ...
10 U.S. Code § 525 - Distribution of commissioned officers on active duty in general officer and flag officer grades ... 6 officers in the grade of major general.
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[PDF] General and Flag Officer Careers: Consequences of Increased Tenure
Year of service. Figure 2.13—Percentage Distribution of General Officer Promotions: Army. 31 years of service are promoted to 0-7; about 10 percent of all 0-8.
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Rank Structure - The British Army
A General is sometimes referred to as a four-star. They are equivalent to an Admiral in the Royal Navy and Air Chief Marshal in the Royal Air Force.
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Five star rank Field Marshal comes with prestige – and a red velvet ...
Jun 17, 2025 · When the substantive rank of Field Marshal was effectively ended by the Government in 1994 with the appointment of Lord Inge, Lord Bramall began ...
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Field Marshal The Lord Inge KG GCB PC DL
He was appointed Chief of the General Staff in 1992 and Chief of the Defence Staff in 1994 when he was promoted to Field Marshal; the last such promotion of a ...Missing: active | Show results with:active
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5 choses à savoir sur les grades de l'armée de Terre
Le premier grade des militaires du rang est caporal. Les officiers généraux peuvent être promus jusqu'à général d'armée, la plus haute distinction. Maréchal ...
[52]
Rank insignia of the German Army - Bundeswehr
Rank insignia of the German Army · Picture of Rank Insignia General (OF-9) for field dress · Picture of Rank insignia Private E-1 (OR-1) for service dress.
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Canadian Army ranks and badges - Canada.ca
Nov 14, 2023 · Canadian Army ranks and badges ; General Officers. General (Gen). Lieutenant-General (LGen). Major-General (MGen). Brigadier-General (BGen).
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Leaders | About - Defence
Chief of Army. Lieutenant General Simon Stuart AO DSC. Lieutenant General Simon Stuart was appointed Chief of Army in July 2022. Chief of Air Force. Air ...
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Military Rank / Russian Federation - GlobalSecurity.org
May 27, 2019 · COLONEL GENERAL, ADMIRAL, COLONEL GENERAL ; LIEUTENANT GENERAL, VICE ADMIRAL, LIEUTENANT GENERAL ; MAJOR GENERAL, REAR ADMIRAL, MAJOR GENERAL.<|control11|><|separator|>
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Russian General Officer Guide - May 11, 2022 | ISW
May 10, 2022 · Introduction. This is a guide to the current command structure of the Russian Armed Forces at the General Staff, Military District, ...
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Six Structure and Process in the Chinese Military System
The principal obstacle to institutional reform was the sheer size of the PLA. ... general (shang jiang ) when ranks were formally reintroduced in September 1988.
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Reorientation of China's Armed Forces: Implications for the Future ...
Jun 24, 2010 · Since the restoration of military rank (junxian) in 1988, the CMC has promoted 118 military leaders to generals: 17 under Deng Xiaoping (1981- ...Missing: reforms | Show results with:reforms