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Bahram II

Bahram II was the fifth shahanshah of the , reigning from 274 to 293 as the son and successor of . His rule marked a period of artistic flourishing, particularly in rock reliefs that depicted the king alongside his queen Shapurdukhtak, son , and Zoroastrian clergy such as , emphasizing royal family dynamics and religious authority. Militarily, Bahram II faced challenges including a defeat by in 283, leading to temporary territorial losses in and , though Roman withdrawal followed Carus's death. Internally, his reign saw the rise of noble influence and high priest 's promotion of Zoroastrian orthodoxy, reflected in inscriptions and reliefs at sites like . He was succeeded briefly by his son before Narseh's usurpation.

Origins and Early Life

Genealogy and Family Background

Bahram II was the eldest son of , the fourth king of the , who reigned from 271 to 274 CE and succeeded his brother after a brief rule of one year. As such, Bahram II was the grandson of (r. 240–270 CE), the second Sasanian shahanshah whose conquests greatly expanded the empire's territory, including victories over three Roman emperors. The identity of Bahram II's mother remains unattested in surviving sources, though Sasanian royal consorts were typically drawn from noble or priestly families to reinforce dynastic legitimacy. Bahram I fathered at least two sons who achieved prominence: and Hormizd, the latter appointed as Kushanshah (viceroy) over the eastern provinces of Kushanshahr, where he governed autonomously before launching a revolt against his nephew's rule around 284 CE. This familial tension reflects the competitive dynamics within the House of Sasan, where collateral branches vied for power amid the empire's aristocratic power structure. Bahram II's principal known consort was Shapurdukhtak, depicted alongside him and their son on coins and reliefs, with evidence suggesting a close kinship tie, possibly as a cousin, in line with Sasanian practices of endogamous marriages to preserve royal bloodlines. Another wife, Ardashir-Anahid, is recorded, potentially his sister, further exemplifying these customs. The only attested heir of Bahram II was his son , who briefly succeeded him in 293 CE as a young prince but was deposed after four months by , a surviving son of . No other children are documented in inscriptions, coins, or contemporary accounts, underscoring the fragility of direct succession in the early Sasanian period, where noble and clerical factions often influenced outcomes. This genealogy positioned Bahram II within the core patrilineal descent from , the dynasty's founder, emphasizing Zoroastrian priestly heritage through his grandfather 's alliances with the .

Name and Titles

Bahram II (Middle Persian: Wahrām; Avestan: Vərəθraγna) was the throne name of the fifth king of the , succeeding his father in 274 CE. The name derives from the Zoroastrian Bahrām (), the god of victory, reflecting royal devotion to this deity, as evidenced by the winged motifs in his crown on coins and reliefs. He is distinguished as the second Sasanian ruler named Bahram, hence the in modern . As shahanshah (""), Bahram II's full titulature, inscribed in Pahlavi on his drachmae, reads approximately "Mazdēsn bay Wahrām šāhān šāh Ērān ud Anērān," translating to "the Mazda-worshipping lord Bahram, of the Iranians and non-Iranians." .jpg) This formulaic title, standard among Sasanian monarchs from onward, asserted divine favor, Zoroastrian orthodoxy, and dominion over both Iranian heartlands and subject territories. Numismatic evidence, including silver drachms from mints like , consistently bears this legend encircling the royal on the obverse, paired with a fire altar on the reverse invoking "fire of Bahram." No unique epithets beyond the conventional shahanshah appear in surviving or reliefs attributed to him, such as those at or Sarab-e Bahram, where he is depicted enthroned without accompanying textual titles.

Rise to Power

Governorship of Fars

Historical provide scant details on Bahram II's activities prior to his accession as shahanshah in 274 , following the death of his father, , after a reign of approximately three years. As the eldest son and designated heir, Bahram II was likely involved in the administration of the Sasanian heartland of (modern Fars), the dynasty's original power base established by in the early , though no inscriptions, coins, or contemporary texts explicitly document a formal governorship role for him in this province. In the Sasanian system, royal princes frequently served as viceroys (e.g., kushanshah or regional shah) in peripheral or eastern territories to gain experience and secure loyalty, as seen with Narseh's appointments to and later Sakastan before his own accession in 293 CE. However, for core provinces like , oversight often remained under direct or familial control without specified viceregal titles for heirs apparent, reflecting the centralized nature of in the ancestral domain. Bahram II's youth at accession—estimated in his mid-teens—suggests any pre-reign responsibilities in Fars would have been preparatory and supervised, aligning with the dynasty's emphasis on grooming successors amid frequent successions and noble intrigues. The absence of detailed pre-accession accounts may stem from the reliance on later Zoroastrian and Islamic compilations, which prioritize royal reigns over princely tenures, combined with the destruction of early Sasanian archives during later conquests. Rock reliefs and coins from Bahram II's reign, many located in (e.g., at and ), indicate continued royal patronage of the region but do not retroactively illuminate his governorship.

Accession and Suppression of Rivals

Bahram II ascended the Sasanian throne in September 274 upon the death of his father, , who had ruled since 271 . As the eldest son and designated successor, Bahram II's initial transition to power benefited from the administrative continuity established under his father's brief reign, including the influence of high-ranking Zoroastrian clergy such as , who had risen in prominence during Bahram I's execution of the prophet Mani. Almost immediately after his accession, Bahram II faced a major challenge from his Hormizd, who held the title of Kushanshah and governed the eastern provinces of the empire, encompassing regions like Sakastan, Margiana, and the former Kushan territories. Hormizd, another son of , rebelled against central authority, leveraging his control over the Kushano-Sasanian sub-kingdom to assert independence and contest Bahram II's legitimacy. This uprising exploited the decentralized structure of Sasanian governance, where semi-autonomous viceroys managed frontier satrapies, but it threatened the unity of the realm amid ongoing pressures in the west. Bahram II encountered significant difficulties in quelling the revolt, requiring prolonged military efforts to reassert control over the east. Historical accounts indicate that the suppression involved campaigns to subdue Hormizd's forces, though specific battles or dates remain unattested in surviving inscriptions or coins from the period. By the end of Bahram II's reign in 293 , the eastern revolts had been fully suppressed, allowing him to appoint his son as governor of Sakastan, signaling restored imperial oversight. This consolidation underscored the fragility of Sasanian succession, reliant on the king's ability to neutralize familial rivals through force and alliances with the and priesthood.

Military Campaigns

Conflicts with the Roman Empire

In 283, launched a major invasion of Sasanian , exploiting Bahram II's preoccupation with eastern campaigns against Kushan and forces as well as potential internal rebellions, such as that by his brother Hormizd. The Roman army advanced rapidly and unopposed through into , defeating scattered Sasanian defenses and capturing the cities of and , the Sasanian capital, marking a significant humiliation for Bahram II who was unable to coordinate an effective response from his eastern position. Carus' campaign ended abruptly in the summer of 283 when the emperor died suddenly near , reportedly struck by lightning during a , an event interpreted by sources as divine displeasure but leading to the withdrawal of forces under his son . The incursion resulted in temporary control over northern and influence in , though no formal annexation occurred immediately, with Bahram II compelled to accept these losses amid his divided attentions. By 287, following 's consolidation of power in , a peace treaty was negotiated between and Bahram II, averting further Roman aggression and likely formalizing the of Roman gains in while stabilizing the frontier; had mobilized forces eastward but opted for diplomacy given Bahram's vulnerabilities. This agreement held until after Bahram's death, when his successor challenged it in the 290s. No major Sasanian counteroffensives against are recorded during Bahram II's reign, reflecting the empire's focus on internal consolidation and eastern borders rather than western revanche.

Internal Rebellions and Border Consolidations

During the early years of his reign (c. 274–293 CE), Bahram II confronted a significant internal rebellion in the eastern provinces led by his brother Hormizd I Kushanshah, the governor of the Kushano-Sasanian territories, who sought to establish an independent kingdom and even minted coins bearing the title shahanshah (King of Kings). The uprising, centered in regions including Sakastan (Sīstān), disrupted Sasanian control over the eastern borders and diverted resources from other fronts, such as the ongoing tensions with Rome. Bahram II eventually suppressed the rebellion through military campaigns, restoring central authority by the late 280s CE, though Hormizd's forces posed a prolonged challenge that weakened the empire's cohesion. To consolidate gains in the east and prevent further instability, Bahram II appointed his young son and heir, , as (kushanshah) of Sakastan, thereby integrating the rebellious province more firmly under royal oversight. On the northern borders, Bahram II pursued diplomatic consolidation by installing Mirian III, an Iranian noble from the Mihranid house, as king of Iberia (eastern ) around 284 , following a peace agreement with the ; this move aimed to bolster Sasanian influence in the against potential nomadic incursions and encroachment. These actions reflected a pragmatic focus on stabilizing peripheral regions amid internal threats, prioritizing familial loyalty and strategic appointments over expansive conquests.

Religious and Ideological Policies

Partnership with

, a prominent Zoroastrian , attained his highest influence during the reign of Bahram II (276–293 CE), serving as Ohrmazd mowbed and bōxt-ruwān-Warahrān ī Ohrmazd mowbed, titles signifying his role as chief priest blessed by the gods and associated with the king's protective deity. In his inscriptions, such as the one at Sar Mashhad (KSM), praised Bahram II as "truthful, generous, friendly, beneficent, and well-doing," reflecting a close ideological alignment that elevated as a . This partnership built on 's prior advancements under , with the king supporting the priest's consolidation of religious authority across the empire. Under Bahram II, Kartir and the king collaborated to enforce Zoroastrian orthodoxy, expanding rituals, establishing sacred fires, and suppressing rival faiths. Kartir's Ka'ba-ye Zartosht inscription (KKZ) details his campaigns against non-Mazdayasnians, including the destruction of idols (uzdēs), elimination of heresies (kēš), and persecution of groups such as Jews (yazdagān), Christians (nasrāyān), Manichaeans (zandīks), and others like Shamans, Brahmans, and Nazarenes. These actions converted "dens of demons" into Zoroastrian sites, marking a shift toward militant religious uniformity that positioned Zoroastrianism as the imperial faith's cornerstone during this period. Kartir's prominence is evident in Sasanian rock reliefs, where he appears alongside Bahram II, as in the Sarab-e Bahram panel depicting the king enthroned with , positioned prominently to the left. Beyond religious duties, held administrative titles like (wazurg), statewide mowbed, (dādwar), and overseer of customs (ēwēnbed), managing the priestly hierarchy (mowestān) and sealing charters for fires and . This integration of ecclesiastical and secular power underscored the symbiotic relationship, though it contributed to internal tensions culminating in Bahram II's overthrow.

Enforcement of Zoroastrian Orthodoxy

During Bahram II's reign (276–293 CE), the Sasanian Empire saw intensified enforcement of Zoroastrian orthodoxy, primarily through the authority granted to the high priest Kartir, who held the title mowbedān mowbed (chief of the magi). Kartir's inscriptions, such as those at Naqsh-e Rajab and Naqsh-e Rostam, detail his mandate from the king and the gods to suppress non-Zoroastrian faiths, marking a shift from earlier tolerance under Shapur I toward a state-enforced religious hierarchy. Kartir claimed to have "struck down" (zad) followers of rival religions, including (yudāyān), (krīstyānān), Manichaeans (zandīkān), and others deemed heretics, while destroying their "demon dens" (dēw sēk) and idols (uzdēs). These actions involved the of non-Zoroastrian temples, disruption of rituals, and of religious leaders, as evidenced by Manichaean texts reporting executions and forced dispersals under Bahram II. The policy aimed to consolidate Zoroastrian dominance, promoting rituals like ceremonies (with Kartir overseeing 6,798 annually) and the establishment of sacred fires. This enforcement reflected Kartir's unprecedented influence, depicted in royal reliefs alongside Bahram II and noble grandees, symbolizing clerical integration into state power. While primary evidence derives from Kartir's self-aggrandizing inscriptions, corroborated by foreign accounts of suppressed minorities, the extent of violence remains debated, with "striking down" likely encompassing suppression rather than wholesale extermination. Bahram II's complicity is inferred from Kartir's attribution of actions to royal and divine command, aligning with the king's reversal of prior religious pluralism.

Administrative and Cultural Patronage

Coinage and Economic Representations

Bahram II, reigning from approximately 276 to 293 , issued primarily silver , with rarer gold dinars, following Sasanian numismatic traditions of standardized weights and designs to facilitate trade and taxation across the empire. These coins featured the king's in profile on the obverse, typically facing right, adorned with a distinctive winged incorporating a korymbos, , and tied beard, symbolizing royal authority and divine favor. The reverse commonly depicted a fire altar flanked by attendants, underscoring Zoroastrian religious orthodoxy central to Sasanian ideology. Distinctive to Bahram II's coinage were innovative types depicting family members, marking a departure from predecessors' solitary royal portraits and emphasizing dynastic legitimacy amid internal challenges. One variant showed jugate s of the king and his queen, Shapurdukhtak, both right-facing, with the queen wearing a featuring a boar's head crest. Another included a smaller facing bust of , identified as , his heir, alongside the royal couple, as seen in drachms from the mint weighing around 4.2-4.5 grams. Such familial representations, minted in silver alloy, likely served propagandistic purposes to project stability and succession continuity during a period of rebellions and Roman pressures. Coins were struck at multiple mints, including as the primary imperial center, in the east, and others like associated with regional satrapies, indicating centralized oversight of monetary production to support military expenditures and commerce. Gold dinars, though scarce, followed similar and weighed approximately 7 grams, reserved possibly for high-value transactions or diplomatic gifts. The in design and metal purity across types reflects an economy reliant on , taxation, and transit , with coinage enabling state revenue extraction without direct governmental . These issues, totaling thousands of specimens in collections, underscore Bahram II's efforts to maintain fiscal infrastructure amid expansionist campaigns.

Rock Reliefs and Artistic Innovations

Bahram II commissioned multiple rock reliefs across , showcasing him in , , victory, and scenes, which exemplify the maturation of Sasanian monumental art. These carvings, executed primarily on cliffs, number at least ten attributed sites, including Naqsh-e Rustam, Sarab-e Bahram, Barm-e Delak, Guyum, Sar Mashhad, Naqsh-e Bahram, and . At Naqsh-e Rustam, two prominent reliefs depict Bahram II: one illustrates an equestrian triumph over adversaries, emphasizing martial prowess through dynamic combat poses; the other portrays an elaborate audience scene with enthroned amid family members—his queen Shapurdukhtak, princes, and high officials like the high priest and noble Papak—highlighting court hierarchy and royal lineage. The Sarab-e Bahram relief similarly captures an audience composition, with Bahram II central among grandees, underscoring administrative authority. At Barm-e Delak, two panels show familial intimacy—one with Bahram II and Shapurdukhtak exchanging a flower symbolizing conjugal bonds, and another of in a pious receiving a from a —introducing tender, personal motifs rare in prior Sasanian reliefs. Hunting scenes, such as the Sar Mashhad relief where Bahram II slays lions while grasping his queen's hand, with and a prince observing, blend royal valor with domestic elements, portraying the king as protector. The Guyum relief features Bahram II standing solitary, possibly in a devotional stance, while Naqsh-e Bahram near shows him seated flanked by , Papak, and dignitaries. At Sarab-e Qandil, a divine depicts Bahram II receiving a lotus flower from the goddess , merging Zoroastrian with regal legitimacy. Artistic innovations under Bahram II elevated Sasanian reliefs through heightened realism, expressive detailing of attire and gestures, and compositional depth that conveys social stratification among figures. Unlike earlier kings' focus on solitary victories or divine encounters, Bahram's works innovated by integrating extended royal family portrayals—queens, heirs, and nobles—fostering a narrative of dynastic continuity and courtly splendor, as evidenced in the unprecedented inclusion of female figures in prominent roles. This period marked a shift toward more humanistic, almost portrait-like renderings of courtiers, achieving technical excellence in carving that influenced subsequent Sasanian silverwork and stucco decoration. Such developments reflect Bahram II's patronage, prioritizing elaborate representations over predecessors' austerity.

Personal Life and Depictions

Royal Family and Court

Bahram II's documented immediate family consisted of his wife Shapurdukhtak and son , the latter serving as of Sakastan before succeeding his father in 293. Silver issued under Bahram II uniquely feature the king enthroned with Shapurdukhtak to his right and the young to his left, attesting to their central roles in royal representation and dynastic propaganda. These numismatic depictions, minted primarily at and regional centers, mark the first such inclusion of royal consorts and heirs in , signaling an emphasis on familial bonds amid internal challenges. The royal court under Bahram II was dominated by influential Zoroastrian and aristocratic grandees, with the Kartir emerging as a key figure. Kartir, bearing titles such as mowbedān mowbed (chief of priests), dādwar (judge), and ēwēnbed (custodian of rites), expanded his authority during this reign, as recorded in his inscriptions at . His proximity to the throne is evident in rock reliefs, including the Sarab-e Bahram panel where he appears immediately left of the king among assembled nobles, alongside figures like the Papak, reflecting the integration of religious and administrative elites in decision-making. Court life is further illustrated in reliefs like those at Barm-e Delak, depicting Bahram II in a of toward Shapurdukhtak or receiving symbols of from attendants, which highlight the court's role in reinforcing kingship through and . These carvings portray courtiers in standardized Sasanian dress—high rounded caps, cloaks, and belts—symbolizing great Parthian noble houses' enduring influence despite Sasanian centralization efforts. The emphasis on such scenes underscores a period of artistic innovation tied to court , though reliant on fragile noble-priestly alliances that later contributed to dynastic instability.

Hunting and Symbolic Imagery

The primary depiction of hunting associated with Bahram II (r. 276–293 CE) appears in the at Sar Mashhad, south of in , where the king is shown combating s. In this scene, Bahram II stands with a dead lion reclining at his feet, while thrusting his sword into a second lion leaping toward him, emphasizing his physical prowess and dominance over wild beasts. The relief, likely carved early in his reign around 276 CE, also includes figures such as Queen Shapurdukhtak gesturing protectively, the high priest , and nobles, integrating the hunt into a broader courtly context. Lion-hunting imagery in Sasanian art, including this relief, symbolizes the king's bravery, protective role against chaos, and divine mandate to rule, drawing from Mesopotamian and Achaemenid precedents where monarchs subdued predatory forces as emblems of cosmic order. The dynamic pose and detailed weaponry underscore Bahram II's martial valor, reinforcing ideological propaganda amid internal and external challenges during his rule. No other confirmed hunting reliefs are attributed solely to him, though such motifs align with royal hunts as elite pastimes affirming sovereignty. Symbolic elements extend to Bahram II's beyond hunting scenes, notably in coinage featuring a winged crown—the first such design among Sasanian kings—evoking , the deity of victory and strength, often linked to boar and attributes in Zoroastrian . This crown, appearing on drachmae from mints like , pairs with earrings and familial portraits to project dynastic continuity and divine favor, blending martial symbolism with courtly legitimacy.

Death, Succession, and Legacy

End of Reign and Overthrow

Bahram II's reign concluded with his death in 293 , though the precise cause remains unknown in surviving historical records. He was succeeded by his young son, , whose accession was orchestrated secretly by the nobleman Wahnām (also spelled Wahram or Wahnam), son of Tatrus, without the formal acclamation of the broader Sasanian nobility. This irregular coronation, occurring amid Bahram III's status as a minor or inexperienced heir, failed to garner widespread support and precipitated a swift . Narseh, a son of and experienced viceroy of regions including and the east, mobilized opposition to 's rule, positioning himself as a legitimate alternative due to his royal lineage, military background, and administrative tenure. Rallying key nobles at the Paikuli pass in modern , Narseh secured endorsements that highlighted the illegitimacy of Wahnām's actions and the risk of civil war under . The Paikuli inscription, erected by Narseh to commemorate these events, records the assembly's deliberations and serves as a primary contemporary source affirming the nobility's preference for Narseh. Bahram III's tenure lasted only four months before he resigned the throne in 293 , allowing Narseh's uncontested ascension; Wahnām was subsequently executed for his role in the unauthorized enthronement. This overthrow underscored tensions between centralized royal authority and noble factions, with Narseh's success attributed to his perceived stability over the perceived puppetry of Bahram III's brief regime.

Historical Assessment

Bahram II's reign (274–293 CE) marked a phase of internal religious consolidation and cultural patronage within the , yet it was undermined by military vulnerabilities and the erosion of royal authority. Early in his rule, he suppressed the rebellion led by his paternal uncle , who had declared independence as Kushanshah in the eastern provinces; Bahram II appointed Hormizd's son to the position, restoring nominal central control over Sakastan and adjacent regions. However, nomadic incursions from the Kushano-Sasanian frontiers persisted, straining resources, while the exploited Sasanian distractions to invade in 283 CE, sacking before his mysterious death halted further advances, leading to a fragile peace under . These events exposed defensive weaknesses, as Bahram II's forces failed to prevent significant territorial losses temporarily, contrasting with the aggressive expansions under predecessors like [Shapur I](/page/Shapur I). Domestically, Bahram II empowered the Zoroastrian high priest , elevating him to unprecedented influence through inscriptions at key sites like , where Kartir documented the persecution of Manichaeans, , , and other nonconformists, enforcing orthodoxy as a tool for ideological unity. This policy, while strengthening clerical networks and suppressing heterodox movements—culminating in the execution of Mani around 277 —fostered dependency on (priestly) elites, diminishing the king's autonomy and sowing long-term tensions between throne and temple. Administrative introspection, evidenced by innovative coinage featuring portraits and expanded rock reliefs symbolizing and , prioritized symbolic legitimacy over robust , reflecting a causal shift toward ceremonial rule amid fiscal strains from defenses and . The abrupt end to his reign underscores its fragility: Bahram II's death in 293 CE led to the installation of his young son Bahram III, whose four-month rule collapsed under noble opposition, enabling Narseh's coup and restoration of stability. Empirical patterns from numismatic and epigraphic evidence indicate overemphasis on personal iconography—such as hunting scenes on reliefs at Sar Mashhad and Barm-e Delak—correlated with administrative neglect, contributing to elite discontent and succession crises. Later Sasanian sources, filtered through Islamic-era chronicles, portray him as indulgent in hunts and courtly displays, a narrative supported by the proliferation of such motifs, which likely diverted attention from border fortifications and revenue reforms. While some analyses highlight stability through religious uniformity, the reign's causal outcome—heightened clerical power and dynastic vulnerability—prefigured recurring Sasanian challenges, rendering Bahram II's legacy one of transitional introspection rather than enduring strength.

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