Christians
Christians are individuals who profess faith in Jesus Christ as the divine Son of God, crucified for the sins of humanity and resurrected, thereby constituting the adherents of Christianity, the world's largest religion with approximately 2.6 billion members as of 2025.[1] This faith originated in the 1st century CE as a movement within Judaism in Roman Judea, centered on the life, teachings, death, and claimed resurrection of Jesus of Nazareth, whom followers regard as the promised Messiah.[2] Core tenets include belief in one God existing as three persons (Father, Son, Holy Spirit), salvation by grace through faith rather than works, the inspiration and authority of the Bible as divine revelation, and anticipation of Christ's return to judge the world.[3][4] Christianity spread rapidly from its Jewish roots to encompass Gentiles across the Roman Empire, evolving into distinct denominations such as Roman Catholicism, Eastern Orthodoxy, and Protestantism following major schisms in 1054 and the 16th-century Reformation.[5] Today, while declining in Europe and North America due to secularization, it experiences robust growth in sub-Saharan Africa, Asia, and Latin America, where the majority of Christians now reside, reflecting a southward shift in global demographics.[6] Defining characteristics include emphasis on personal conversion, ethical living patterned after Christ's teachings (e.g., love for neighbor, forgiveness), and communal worship through sacraments like baptism and communion; notable achievements encompass founding universities, hospitals, and scientific advancements by Christian scholars, alongside historical controversies such as the Crusades, Inquisition, and denominational conflicts over doctrine and authority.[3]
Terminology
Etymology
The English noun "Christians," referring to adherents of the religion centered on Jesus Christ, derives from the Late Greek adjective Christianos (Χριστιανός), formed by adding the suffix -ianos—indicating belonging or adherence—to Christos (Χριστός), the Koine Greek translation of the Hebrew Māšîaḥ (מָשִׁיחַ), meaning "anointed one."[7][8] This etymological chain reflects the movement's Jewish roots, where anointing with oil signified consecration for kings, priests, or prophets, applied messianically to Jesus as the expected deliverer.[9][10] The earliest historical attestation of Christianos occurs in the New Testament book of Acts 11:26, which records that "the disciples were first called Christians [Christianoi] at Antioch" around 40 AD, during the ministry of Paul and Barnabas in the diverse Syrian city of Antioch, a major Hellenistic center with a mixed Jewish-Gentile population.[11] Scholars infer this term originated among outsiders—likely Greco-Roman Gentiles or Hellenized locals—rather than the believers themselves, who initially identified as part of the Jewish hodos ("the Way") or as followers of "the Nazarene."[11] The suffix -ianos parallels formations like Herodianos (partisan of Herod), suggesting an external labeling to denote partisan affiliation, possibly with derogatory intent akin to mocking factionalism.[8][12] By the late first century AD, the term gained traction within Christian communities, appearing in 1 Peter 4:16 (circa 60-65 AD), where it frames suffering "as a Christian" as honorable rather than shameful, indicating growing acceptance.[8] From Greek, it passed into Latin as christianus by the second century, as evidenced in writings like those of Justin Martyr (c. 150 AD), and entered Old English around the 9th century as cristen, evolving into the modern plural "Christians" via Middle English.[7][8] This linguistic adoption paralleled the faith's spread beyond Jewish contexts, solidifying Christianos as a self-identifier distinct from ethnic or sectarian Jewish terms.[11]Historical Usage
The term "Christians" (Greek: Christianoi, meaning "followers of Christ" or "partisans of Christ") first appears in historical records in the New Testament's Acts 11:26, stating that "the disciples were first called Christians at Antioch" around 40 AD, during a period of evangelism to Gentiles in the diverse Syrian city.[11] [13] This usage likely originated among non-Jewish observers, who employed it to differentiate the emerging sect from Judaism, potentially with a mocking or derisive intent similar to other labels for factions like the Herodians.[7] [14] Early adherents did not initially self-identify with the term; instead, they described themselves as disciples, brethren, saints, or followers of "the Way," reflecting their self-understanding as a Jewish messianic movement.[11] [15] The label gained traction externally as the movement spread beyond Judea, appearing again in Acts 26:28 (c. 59 AD), where King Agrippa uses it semi-ironically toward Paul, and in 1 Peter 4:16 (c. 60-65 AD), framing it as a basis for persecution: "if anyone suffers as a Christian, let him not be ashamed."[13] [16] By the early second century, Roman administrators and historians adopted "Christians" for official identification during inquiries into the group. Pliny the Younger, in his correspondence with Emperor Trajan (c. 112 AD), refers to "Christians" (Christiani) as those who worshiped Christ as a god and refused Roman sacrifices, leading to trials and executions.[11] Similarly, Tacitus in Annals 15.44 (c. 116 AD) describes "Christians" as a superstitious sect named after Christus, scapegoated by Nero for the 64 AD Rome fire, noting their "hatred of the human race" as perceived by contemporaries.[7] This external Roman usage solidified the term's association with a distinct, often vilified minority, distinct from synagogue Judaism, amid sporadic persecutions before Christianity's legalization in 313 AD.[15] Over subsequent centuries, the term transitioned from primarily pejorative outsider nomenclature to a self-embraced identity, particularly after Constantine's Edict of Milan, though early patristic writers like Ignatius of Antioch (c. 107 AD) occasionally invoked it positively in epistles.[17] Its rarity in the New Testament—only three occurrences—underscores its gradual adoption amid alternative self-descriptions rooted in communal and theological emphases.[18]Modern Definitions
In contemporary usage, a Christian is generally defined as an individual who professes belief in Jesus Christ as the divine Son of God, Savior, and Lord, and who seeks to follow his teachings as recorded in the New Testament. This definition emphasizes personal faith in Christ's atoning death and resurrection for the forgiveness of sins, often accompanied by baptism and participation in a faith community. Theological sources stress that true Christianity involves not merely nominal affiliation but a transformative commitment to Christ, distinguishing it from cultural or inherited identity alone.[19][20] Sociologically, the term encompasses a broader self-identification, where surveys classify as Christians those who report affiliation with denominations such as Protestant, Catholic, or Orthodox churches, regardless of doctrinal orthodoxy or active practice. For instance, the Pew Research Center's 2023-2024 Religious Landscape Study found that 62% of U.S. adults self-identify as Christian, including 40% Protestant, 19% Catholic, and smaller groups like Orthodox (1%) and Jehovah's Witnesses, though the latter's rejection of the Trinity leads some theologians to question their inclusion under historic Christian creeds. This approach prioritizes empirical self-reporting for demographic analysis, revealing trends like the decline from 90% Christian identification in the early 1990s to about two-thirds today, driven partly by nominal adherents disaffiliating amid secularization.[21][22][23] Modern definitions thus vary by context: ecumenical and interdenominational bodies often adopt inclusive criteria for dialogue, while confessional standards—like those from the Nicene Creed (affirmed by most Trinitarian groups)—exclude non-Trinitarian movements such as Unitarianism or Latter-day Saints, which self-identify as Christian but diverge on Christ's nature and the Godhead. This tension reflects causal realities of doctrinal fragmentation since the Reformation, where empirical data shows millions holding heterodox views under the Christian label, underscoring the need to distinguish professed identity from substantive belief for accurate assessment.[24][23]Historical Origins and Development
Roots in Judaism and the Life of Jesus
Christianity emerged during the Herodian era as a movement within Judaism, with all of its founders being Jewish and initially practicing Jewish customs amid the tumultuous religious landscape of Roman-occupied Judea.[25] Jesus of Nazareth, a Jewish preacher from Galilee, is regarded by scholars as the central figure whose life and teachings initiated this development, born circa 6–4 BCE in Bethlehem to Jewish parents Mary and Joseph.[26] His upbringing adhered to Jewish traditions, including circumcision on the eighth day and presentation at the Temple in Jerusalem, as recorded in early Christian accounts drawing from Jewish scriptural precedents.[27] Jesus began his public ministry around age 30, following baptism by John the Baptist, a Jewish prophet emphasizing repentance and eschatological judgment rooted in prophetic traditions like those of Isaiah and Malachi.[28] His teachings centered on the imminent Kingdom of God, interpreting and intensifying adherence to the Torah (Jewish law) rather than abolishing it, as he stated: "Do not think that I have come to abolish the Law or the Prophets; I have not come to abolish them but to fulfill them."[29] Examples include elevating ethical internals over mere externals—equating anger with murder and lust with adultery—while upholding commandments like Sabbath observance, though prioritizing mercy, as in healing on the Sabbath.[30] He engaged Jewish audiences in synagogues and the Temple, debating Pharisees and Sadducees on topics like resurrection and purity laws, positioning himself as fulfilling messianic prophecies from texts such as Isaiah 53 and Psalm 22.[31] Jesus' ministry, lasting approximately three years and focused primarily in Galilee and Judea, involved gathering Jewish disciples who viewed him as a rabbi and potential Messiah, performing acts interpreted as miracles—such as healings and nature control—corroborated in multiple early sources as drawing from Jewish expectations of prophetic signs.[32] His execution by crucifixion under Roman prefect Pontius Pilate occurred circa April 7, 30 CE, during Passover, charged with sedition for claims of kingship that challenged Roman and Temple authorities.[33] Following reports of his resurrection by female witnesses and appearances to disciples—events pivotal to the movement's formation—his Jewish followers proclaimed him as the risen Messiah, initiating communal practices like shared meals and prayer in Jerusalem, still within a Jewish framework.[34] This belief in Jesus as the fulfillment of Jewish covenant promises distinguished the nascent group, though it remained a sect of Judaism for decades, with adherents continuing Torah observance.[35]Apostolic Era and Early Spread
The Apostolic Era, spanning approximately AD 30 to 100, commenced following the reported crucifixion and resurrection of Jesus Christ around AD 30–33 and extended until the death of the last surviving apostle, traditionally John, circa AD 100. During this period, the nascent Christian movement transitioned from a Jewish sect centered in Jerusalem to a distinct faith spreading across the Roman Empire, primarily through the efforts of Jesus' apostles and early disciples. The core activities involved preaching the message of Jesus' life, death, and resurrection, establishing house churches, and authoring texts that later formed the New Testament.[36][37] In Jerusalem, the initial community formed under leaders like Peter and James, with rapid growth reported after the Pentecost event in AD 30 or 33, where Peter's address allegedly led to about 3,000 conversions among Jewish pilgrims, followed by communal living and daily additions to the group. Persecution by Jewish authorities, including the stoning of Stephen around AD 34–36, dispersed believers to Judea, Samaria, and beyond, facilitating evangelism to Samaritans by Philip and to a Roman centurion named Cornelius by Peter, marking early outreach beyond ethnic Jews. By the late 30s AD, refugees from Jerusalem reached Antioch in Syria, where Greek-speaking Jews and Gentiles responded to preaching about Jesus, prompting Barnabas to recruit Saul (later Paul) from Tarsus around AD 43; there, disciples were first termed "Christians" during a year of teaching.[38][39][40] Paul's conversion on the Damascus road circa AD 33–36 transformed him into the primary missionary to Gentiles, authoring epistles and undertaking three journeys from Antioch's base church. The first journey (AD 47–48) covered Cyprus and southern Asia Minor (Perga, Antioch in Pisidia, Iconium, Lystra, Derbe), establishing congregations amid opposition. The second (AD 49–52) extended to Macedonia (Philippi, Thessalonica) and Greece (Athens, Corinth), while the third (AD 53–57) reinforced churches in Asia Minor, Macedonia, and Greece, including extended ministry in Ephesus. The Jerusalem Council of AD 49 resolved disputes over Gentile inclusion, decreeing exemption from circumcision and most Mosaic laws while upholding moral prohibitions, enabling broader expansion without full Judaization.[41][42][43] By AD 100, Christian communities existed in key urban centers like Rome, Alexandria, and Ephesus, numbering perhaps several thousand amid the empire's 50–60 million population, sustained by oral tradition, letters, and emerging scriptures despite sporadic local hostilities. This era's spread relied on trade routes, diaspora networks, and personal testimony rather than institutional power, laying foundations for doctrinal clarification in subsequent centuries.[36][37]Roman Persecutions and Legalization
Early Christians in the Roman Empire faced intermittent local persecutions from the 1st century onward, primarily due to their refusal to participate in sacrifices to Roman gods or the emperor, which Romans viewed as essential for civic loyalty and imperial stability.[44] The first recorded state-sponsored persecution occurred under Emperor Nero in 64 AD, following the Great Fire of Rome, when Nero scapegoated Christians, leading to executions including crucifixions, burnings as human torches, and arena deaths; this account derives from the Roman historian Tacitus, who described the punishments as excessive even by Roman standards.[45] Subsequent emperors like Domitian (81–96 AD) and Trajan (98–117 AD) enforced sporadic measures, with Trajan advising against active hunts for Christians but punishing those who refused to recant, as evidenced by Pliny the Younger's correspondence with him around 112 AD.[46] Empire-wide persecution intensified under Emperor Decius in 250 AD, motivated by his aim to unify the empire through renewed traditional piety amid military crises; he issued an edict requiring all citizens to obtain a libellus certificate proving sacrifice to the gods, resulting in widespread apostasy, imprisonment, or execution for non-compliance, though enforcement varied and lasted only about 18 months until Decius's death in 251 AD.[47] A briefer but targeted persecution followed under Valerian (257–260 AD), focusing on clergy and confiscating church property, before being halted by his capture.[48] The most systematic and severe campaign, known as the Great Persecution, began under Diocletian on February 23, 303 AD with four edicts: the first ordering destruction of churches and burning of scriptures, the second requiring clergy to sacrifice under threat of imprisonment, the third extending this to all Christians, and the fourth mandating universal sacrifice or death; enforcement was harshest in the East, leading to thousands of martyrdoms, though numbers are uncertain and some Christians lapsed to avoid penalties.[49] The persecution waned after Diocletian's abdication in 305 AD and Galerius's Edict of Toleration in 311 AD, which granted Christians legal status in exchange for prayers for the empire's stability.[48] Legalization culminated in the Edict of Milan, proclaimed by Emperors Constantine and Licinius in February 313 AD, which ended official persecution by declaring that "no one whatsoever should be denied the opportunity to give his heart to the observance of the Christian religion, or of that religion which he reasonably shall prefer" and restored confiscated Christian properties; this agreement, issued after Constantine's victory at the Milvian Bridge in 312 AD, reflected pragmatic tolerance rather than exclusive favoritism, though Constantine soon began privileging Christianity through exemptions and patronage.[50] By 380 AD, Emperor Theodosius I's Edict of Thessalonica elevated Nicene Christianity as the empire's official religion, prohibiting pagan practices, but the Milan edict marked the decisive shift from persecution to protected status, enabling Christianity's institutional growth.[50]Medieval Consolidation and Schisms
The Christian Church consolidated its influence in Europe following the Western Roman Empire's collapse in 476 AD, as bishops assumed administrative roles in former Roman cities and monasteries preserved classical knowledge amid barbarian invasions.[51] In the West, the papacy in Rome gained prominence, forging alliances with emerging kingdoms; Pope Gregory I (r. 590–604) expanded missionary efforts and centralized ecclesiastical authority.[52] This period saw the Church's role in coronations and legal systems, with monastic orders like the Benedictines (founded c. 529 AD by Benedict of Nursia) fostering literacy and agriculture.[53] Conversion of Germanic tribes accelerated consolidation, often driven by rulers for political unity and legitimacy. Clovis I, king of the Franks, converted to Catholicism around 496 AD at Reims, rejecting Arianism adopted by earlier tribes like the Visigoths (converted c. 589 AD under Reccared I) and distinguishing Frankish rule.[51][54] The Franks under Pepin the Short (c. 751 AD) and Charlemagne (crowned 800 AD) enforced Christianity through conquests, including the Saxon Wars (772–804 AD), which involved mass baptisms and suppression of paganism.[52] By the 10th century, Christianity reached Scandinavia (e.g., Denmark under Harald Bluetooth c. 965 AD) and Slavs via missions like Cyril and Methodius to Moravia (863 AD), though syncretism persisted in rural areas.[55] In the East, the Byzantine Empire maintained Orthodox Christianity under imperial oversight, with emperors like Justinian I (r. 527–565) codifying canon law and rebuilding churches.[56] Tensions between Eastern and Western branches, rooted in linguistic divides, liturgical differences, and disputes over authority, culminated in schisms. The filioque clause—added to the Nicene Creed in the West by the 6th century to affirm the Holy Spirit proceeding from Father and Son—contrasted Eastern views and symbolized growing autonomy.[57] Papal claims to universal primacy clashed with Constantinople's patriarchal collegiality, exacerbated by events like the Photian Schism (863–867 AD), involving rival popes and patriarchs over Bulgarian jurisdiction.[58] The Great Schism of 1054 marked formal rupture, triggered by Norman incursions in Byzantine Italy and mutual suspicions. On July 16, 1054, papal legate Cardinal Humbert excommunicated Patriarch Michael I Cerularius in Hagia Sophia, citing closure of Latin churches in Constantinople; Cerularius retaliated, excommunicating the legates.[59][60] Underlying causes included power struggles—Western popes sought independence from secular rulers via reforms like Gregory VII's Dictatus Papae (1075)—and cultural drifts, such as unleavened bread in Eucharist and clerical celibacy mandates in the West.[57][58] Though not immediately severing all ties, the schism entrenched divisions, later deepened by the Fourth Crusade's sack of Constantinople (1204 AD), hindering reconciliation.[61] Other medieval rifts, like the Investiture Controversy (1075–1122), pitted popes against Holy Roman Emperors over bishop appointments but reinforced Western papal supremacy without Eastern involvement.[56]Reformation and Global Missions
The Protestant Reformation originated on 31 October 1517, when Martin Luther, an Augustinian monk and theology professor, publicly posted his Ninety-Five Theses on the door of All Saints' Church in Wittenberg, Saxony, decrying the Catholic Church's sale of indulgences as a means to remit temporal punishment for sins and asserting justification by faith alone rather than through works or ecclesiastical mediation.[62] Luther's critique, rooted in his study of Scripture and patristic sources, rapidly disseminated via the printing press, challenging doctrines such as papal infallibility and the treasury of merits, and igniting debates that fractured Western Christendom.[63] By 1521, Luther's excommunication by Pope Leo X and the Edict of Worms prompted him to translate the New Testament into German, making Scripture accessible to lay readers and emphasizing sola scriptura as the ultimate authority over tradition.[62] Parallel movements emerged, including Huldrych Zwingli's reforms in Zurich from 1519, which rejected the Mass as a sacrifice, and John Calvin's systematization of Reformed theology in Geneva after his 1536 publication of the Institutes of the Christian Religion, which articulated double predestination and covenant theology while advocating church discipline through consistories.[64] Anabaptist radicals, dissenting from infant baptism, formed autonomous congregations, enduring persecution for their believers' baptism and pacifism, as seen in the Münster Rebellion of 1534–1535.[63] These developments precipitated schisms, with Lutheran states gaining legal recognition via the 1555 Peace of Augsburg—allowing rulers to determine their territory's religion (cuius regio, eius religio)—and Calvinist influences spreading through Huguenot France and Presbyterian Scotland under John Knox from 1559.[62] The ensuing religious wars, including the French Wars of Religion (1562–1598) and the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648), which claimed up to 8 million lives, underscored the Reformation's disruptive force but also entrenched Protestant polities emphasizing congregational participation and vernacular worship.[64] The Catholic Counter-Reformation, formalized at the Council of Trent (1545–1563), reaffirmed transubstantiation, the seven sacraments, and clerical celibacy while condemning Protestant innovations, spurring internal renewal through the Jesuits, founded by Ignatius of Loyola in 1540 with papal approval in 1540, who prioritized education and foreign evangelization.[64] Jesuit missions, integrated with Iberian colonial ventures, established footholds in India (Francis Xavier from 1542), Japan (1549), and Paraguay reductions, baptizing millions but often entangling faith with empire.[65] The Reformation's doctrines—particularly the priesthood of all believers and the command to preach the Gospel (Matthew 28:19–20)—initially oriented Protestants toward domestic evangelism amid Europe's spiritual fragmentation, viewing papist territories as primary mission fields rather than distant lands.[66] This inward focus delayed organized overseas Protestant missions until the 18th century, contrasting Catholic precedents tied to Spanish and Portuguese patronage post-1494 Treaty of Tordesillas, yet laid theological groundwork by democratizing evangelism beyond clerical monopoly.[67] Protestant global outreach accelerated with the Moravian Brethren's pioneering efforts from 1732, dispatching over 200 missionaries to the Danish West Indies, Greenland, and South Africa, emphasizing voluntary poverty and lay involvement, which influenced figures like John Wesley.[65] The 1792 Baptist Missionary Society, formed by William Carey in England, marked the advent of dedicated Protestant agencies; Carey arrived in India in 1793, translating the Bible into Bengali and six other languages, establishing Serampore College in 1818.[68] Nineteenth-century revivals, including America's Second Great Awakening (1790s–1840s) with 1–2 million converts, propelled societies like the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions (1810), which by 1840 operated 100 stations across Asia and the Pacific, and the China Inland Mission (1865) under Hudson Taylor, focusing on unengaged interior provinces.[66] These initiatives, often independent of state power, prioritized Bible translation—yielding versions in over 500 languages by 1900—and holistic ministry, including medical care and literacy, contributing to Christianity's shift from a Eurocentric faith to one encompassing 60% non-Western adherents by the early 20th century.[69] Catholic missions, bolstered by Propaganda Fide (1622), paralleled this in Africa and Oceania, though Protestant efforts uniquely stressed indigenous leadership and scriptural sufficiency, fostering self-propagating churches amid colonial contexts.[67]Theological Foundations
Core Doctrines: Trinity, Incarnation, and Atonement
The doctrine of the Trinity holds that God exists as one essence in three distinct persons—Father, Son, and Holy Spirit—who are coeternal, coequal, and consubstantial, without division or subordination in essence.[70] This formulation emerged from New Testament passages implying plurality within monotheism, such as the baptismal command in Matthew 28:19 to baptize "in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit" and the apostolic benediction in 2 Corinthians 13:14 invoking the grace of Christ, love of God, and fellowship of the Holy Spirit.[71] Early church fathers like Tertullian (c. 160–220 AD) used Latin terms such as trinitas to describe this unity-in-diversity, drawing on Old Testament monotheism (Deuteronomy 6:4) alongside New Testament revelations of Christ's divinity (John 1:1) and the Spirit's personhood (Acts 5:3–4).[72] The doctrine was formalized against Arianism, which subordinated the Son to the Father as a created being; the Council of Nicaea in 325 AD affirmed the Son as "begotten, not made, consubstantial with the Father," and the Council of Constantinople in 381 AD extended this to the Holy Spirit, producing the Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed.[72] [73] The Incarnation asserts that the eternal Son of God, the second person of the Trinity, assumed full human nature in Jesus Christ while retaining his divine nature, forming one person with two natures (divine and human) united without confusion, change, division, or separation—a position defined at the Council of Chalcedon in 451 AD.[74] Biblically, this is rooted in John 1:14, stating "the Word became flesh and dwelt among us," portraying the preexistent Logos as entering history through virgin birth (Luke 1:35) to live sinlessly (Hebrews 4:15) and fulfill messianic prophecies like Isaiah 7:14.[75] Early formulations countered heresies such as Docetism (denying Christ's true humanity) and Apollinarianism (impairing his human mind); Athanasius (c. 296–373 AD) argued in On the Incarnation that divine union with humanity enabled deification for believers, emphasizing Christ's miracles, teachings, and resurrection as evidence of both natures.[76] The Chalcedonian Definition rejected Nestorian separation of natures into two persons and Eutychian absorption of humanity into divinity, grounding orthodoxy in scriptural witness over speculative philosophy.[74] Atonement refers to the reconciliation of sinful humanity to a holy God achieved through Christ's sacrificial death, resurrection, and exaltation, addressing the problem of sin as rebellion incurring divine wrath (Romans 3:23–25; Isaiah 53:5–6).[77] No single theory exhausts the biblical data, which includes motifs of substitution (Christ dying for sinners, 1 Peter 2:24), propitiation (appeasing wrath, Hebrews 2:17), victory over evil (Colossians 2:15), and moral influence (1 Peter 2:21); early views like Christus Victor (developed by Irenaeus, c. 130–202 AD) saw Christ's life recapitulating and triumphing over Adam's fall, while Anselm's satisfaction theory (11th century) framed it as restoring divine honor through voluntary obedience.[78] The Reformation emphasized penal substitution, where Christ bore the penalty of sin as legal substitute (Galatians 3:13; 2 Corinthians 5:21), supported by covenantal language in Leviticus 16's Day of Atonement typology.[79] These doctrines interlink: the Trinity provides the relational basis for divine initiative in salvation, the Incarnation qualifies Christ to represent humanity as sinless high priest (Hebrews 7:26–27), and atonement effects redemption, with empirical historical claims like the empty tomb and post-resurrection appearances (1 Corinthians 15:3–8) underpinning their verifiability within Christian epistemology.[77]Scripture: Authority and Interpretation
Christians regard the Bible, comprising the Old and New Testaments, as the authoritative revelation of God, with its 66 books (in Protestant reckoning) or 73 (including deuterocanonical books in Catholic and Orthodox traditions) forming the foundational text for doctrine and practice.[80] The doctrine of verbal plenary inspiration posits that the original autographs were divinely superintended, ensuring their truthfulness in all affirmed matters, including theology, history, and morality.[81] [82] This view, articulated in documents like the 1978 Chicago Statement on Biblical Inerrancy, holds that Scripture is infallible and without error in what it intends to teach, though interpretive challenges arise from transmission copies and genre variations.[81] The biblical canon emerged through a historical process spanning centuries, beginning with the Hebrew Scriptures recognized by Jewish authorities around 90-100 CE for the Writings, while early Christians adopted the Septuagint for the Old Testament.[83] The New Testament canon solidified via church recognition of apostolic origins and orthodox content, with key affirmations at the Councils of Hippo in 393 CE and Carthage in 397 CE, though these reflected widespread prior usage rather than invention.[84] Disputes persist, as Protestants exclude deuterocanonical books based on their absence from the Hebrew canon and limited New Testament quotation, viewing them as apocryphal rather than inspired.[80] Interpretive authority diverges denominationally: Protestants, following the Reformation principle of sola scriptura—Scripture alone as the supreme rule for faith and practice—reject ecclesiastical tradition or magisterium as co-equal, arguing it leads to subjective additions unsupported by the text itself.[85] Catholics and Orthodox, conversely, integrate Scripture with sacred tradition and the magisterium (teaching office) as interdependent sources, claiming this preserves apostolic deposit against individualistic readings.[86] This tension traces to patristic eras, where figures like Augustine affirmed Scripture's primacy yet allowed tradition's role, but Reformation leaders like Luther prioritized Scripture's perspicuity (clarity) for essential matters.[85] Biblical hermeneutics employs methods to discern authorial intent, with the historical-grammatical approach dominant among evangelicals, emphasizing original language, cultural context, literary genre, and canonical unity over allegorical impositions.[87] [88] Early interpreters like Origen favored allegorical senses for spiritual depths, but subsequent reformers advocated literal interpretation where the text's plain meaning allows, guarding against eisegesis.[89] Modern applications stress contextual rules—such as Scripture interpreting Scripture and historical setting—to yield consistent doctrine, though liberal scholars influenced by higher criticism question traditional authorship and historicity, prompting conservative rebuttals on empirical grounds like manuscript evidence exceeding 5,800 Greek New Testament copies.[87] [90]Salvation, Sin, and Grace
In Christian theology, sin refers to any willful disobedience or rebellion against God's moral law, originating with the disobedience of Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden as described in Genesis 3, which introduced a corrupted human nature inherited by all descendants.[91] This doctrine of original sin holds that humanity is born in a state of total depravity, inclined toward sin and separated from God, as evidenced in Romans 5:12, where sin entered the world through one man, resulting in death spreading to all because all sinned.[92] Empirical observation of universal human moral failure across cultures supports this causal reality of inherited propensity, rather than mere environmental influence alone.[93] Grace constitutes God's unmerited favor and empowering presence toward sinful humanity, freely bestowed without prerequisite human achievement, enabling reconciliation and transformation.[94] Biblically, it manifests as divine benevolence forgiving the undeserving and providing strength for obedience, distinct from earned merit, as in Ephesians 2:8, where salvation itself is by grace as God's gift.[95] This concept underscores causal realism: human efforts cannot bridge the infinite gap sin creates, necessitating God's initiative in initiating and sustaining faith.[96] Salvation, or soteriology, entails deliverance from sin's eternal penalty—death and separation from God—through Christ's atoning death and resurrection, imputed to believers by faith alone.[97] Ephesians 2:8-9 explicitly states it is "by grace you have been saved, through faith—and this is not from yourselves, it is the gift of God—not by works, so that no one can boast," emphasizing justification as a forensic declaration of righteousness based on Christ's substitutionary sacrifice, not personal merit.[98] Protestants, drawing from Reformers like Luther and Calvin, affirm sola fide and sola gratia, viewing works as fruit of salvation rather than cause, while Catholics integrate sacraments and cooperative merit, seeing justification as transformative infusion involving faith formed by charity.[99] This divergence stems from interpretive disputes over passages like James 2:24, but the shared core remains Christ's exclusive mediation, as no empirical human system has demonstrated self-redemption from sin's universal bondage.[100]Denominations and Diversity
Catholic and Orthodox Traditions
The Catholic and Eastern Orthodox traditions constitute the principal ancient communions of Christianity, tracing their origins to the apostolic era and sharing a common patrimony until their separation in the Great Schism of 1054, when mutual excommunications were issued between papal legate Humbert of Silva Candida and Patriarch Michael I Cerularius of Constantinople over disputes including papal authority, the addition of the filioque clause to the Nicene Creed, and variances in liturgical customs such as the use of unleavened bread in the Eucharist.[101] [58] This event formalized longstanding tensions exacerbated by linguistic, cultural, and political divergences between Latin West and Greek East, though some historians argue the effective schism unfolded gradually, culminating in events like the Fourth Crusade's sack of Constantinople in 1204.[57] The Catholic Church operates under a monarchical-episcopal structure, with the Pope as the supreme pontiff exercising universal jurisdiction as the Vicar of Christ and successor to Saint Peter, supported by the college of bishops in the Magisterium for teaching authority on faith and morals.[102] It encompasses the Latin (Western) rite and 23 autonomous Eastern Catholic Churches, totaling approximately 1.406 billion baptized members as of 2023, representing about 17.8% of the global population.[103] Doctrinally, it affirms seven sacraments—including baptism, confirmation, Eucharist (defined via transubstantiation at the Fourth Lateran Council in 1215), penance, anointing of the sick, holy orders, and matrimony—as efficacious channels of grace, alongside veneration of saints and the Virgin Mary as defined in dogmas such as the Immaculate Conception (1854) and Assumption (1950).[104] Priestly celibacy is mandated in the Latin rite but not in Eastern Catholic Churches, and moral teachings emphasize natural law-derived prohibitions on practices like abortion and euthanasia.[102] In contrast, the Eastern Orthodox Church functions as a eucharistic communion of 14 (or more, depending on recognition) autocephalous and autonomous churches, each governed by a synod of bishops under a primate such as a patriarch or metropolitan, adhering to conciliar governance without a single ecumenical head and prioritizing the first seven ecumenical councils for doctrine.[105] Adherents number approximately 260 million worldwide, concentrated in regions like Eastern Europe, Russia, and the Middle East.[106] It recognizes seven mysteries (sacraments) analogous to Catholic ones, including baptism by triple immersion and chrismation, with the Divine Liturgy as the central act of worship featuring extensive iconography and chant, rejecting purgatory while permitting limited divorce and remarriage under oikonomia (pastoral economy).[107] Theological emphases include the distinction between God's essence and energies (articulated by Gregory Palamas in the 14th century) and theosis (deification) as the goal of salvation, with married men eligible for priesthood but bishops selected from monastics.[108] Both traditions uphold apostolic succession, real presence in the Eucharist, and monasticism as pillars of spiritual life, fostering continuity with patristic sources like the Church Fathers, yet diverge on papal infallibility (defined at Vatican I in 1870 for Catholics) and the Orthodox rejection of post-1054 Western councils. Efforts at reconciliation, such as the 1965 mutual lifting of 1054 anathemas, persist amid ongoing disagreements over primacy and doctrine.[109]Protestant Branches and Reforms
The Protestant Reformation began on October 31, 1517, when Martin Luther, a German monk and theologian, publicly posted his Ninety-Five Theses at the Castle Church in Wittenberg, critiquing the Catholic Church's sale of indulgences and emphasizing justification by faith alone.[110] This act ignited widespread theological and ecclesiastical challenges to papal authority, priestly mediation, and sacramental practices, rooted in Luther's conviction that Scripture alone (sola scriptura) should guide doctrine over tradition.[111] Luther's ideas spread rapidly via the printing press, leading to his excommunication in 1521 and the formation of Lutheran churches in German principalities by the 1530 Peace of Augsburg, which allowed rulers to choose Lutheranism or Catholicism for their territories.[110] Lutheranism, the first major Protestant branch, retained elements like infant baptism and liturgical worship but rejected transubstantiation in favor of consubstantiation, where Christ's presence in the Eucharist is real but not a physical transformation of elements.[112] In Switzerland, Huldrych Zwingli initiated reforms in Zurich from 1519, advocating a symbolic view of sacraments and stricter iconoclasm, influencing the Reformed tradition.[110] John Calvin systematized Reformed theology in Geneva starting in 1536 with his Institutes of the Christian Religion, emphasizing predestination, God's sovereignty, and covenant theology; this branch spread to France (Huguenots), the Netherlands, Scotland (via John Knox in 1560), and Puritan England.[113] Reformed churches typically practice infant baptism and reject elaborate rituals, focusing on disciplined congregational governance through elders. The Anglican tradition emerged in England under Henry VIII, who broke with Rome via the 1534 Act of Supremacy amid his divorce dispute, establishing the monarch as head of the church while initially retaining Catholic forms.[110] Under Elizabeth I from 1558, the 1559 Book of Common Prayer blended Reformed doctrines with episcopal structure, creating a "middle way" (via media) between Lutheranism and Catholicism, though internal Puritan reforms sought further Calvinist alignment.[112] Radical reformers like Anabaptists, originating in 1525 Zurich under Conrad Grebel, rejected infant baptism for believer's baptism and state-church ties, enduring persecution for pacifism and communalism; their descendants include Mennonites and Hutterites.[110] Later branches arose from 17th-18th century revivals. Baptists, tracing to English Separatists like John Smyth in 1609 Amsterdam, emphasized congregational autonomy, believer's baptism by immersion, and religious liberty, influencing American denominations post-1638.[112] Methodism formed under John Wesley in 1738 during the Great Awakening, stressing personal holiness, Arminian free will against Calvinist predestination, and methodical class meetings for spiritual discipline; it split from Anglicanism formally after Wesley's death in 1791.[112] Ongoing reforms, such as Pietism in 17th-century Germany under Philipp Spener, prioritized experiential faith over orthodoxy, paving the way for 18th-century evangelical awakenings that cross-pollinated branches.[110] These developments fragmented Protestantism into over 30,000 denominations worldwide by emphasizing individual interpretation and local governance, contrasting Catholic hierarchy.[114]Evangelical, Pentecostal, and Emerging Movements
Evangelical Christianity emerged as a transdenominational movement within Protestantism during the 18th and 19th centuries, building on Reformation emphases on sola scriptura and personal faith while prioritizing the preaching of the gospel, individual conversion experiences, and active evangelism.[115] Key historical catalysts included the Great Awakenings in Britain and America, led by figures such as Jonathan Edwards and George Whitefield, which stressed heartfelt piety over formal ritualism.[116] Core tenets, often summarized as conversionism (new birth), biblicism (Scripture's authority), activism (spreading the faith), and crucicentrism (atonement through Christ's cross), distinguish evangelicals from other Protestants, though definitions vary and self-identification influences counts.[117] Globally, evangelicals number approximately 619 million adherents as of recent estimates, representing about 25% of all Christians, with significant concentrations in the United States, sub-Saharan Africa, and Latin America.[118] Pentecostalism, which arose in the early 20th century as an outgrowth of the Holiness movement, emphasizes a distinct post-conversion baptism in the Holy Spirit, typically evidenced by speaking in tongues (glossolalia), and the ongoing operation of spiritual gifts like prophecy and healing.[119] The movement traces its modern origins to the 1906 Azusa Street Revival in Los Angeles, led by African-American preacher William J. Seymour, which drew diverse participants and sparked rapid global spread despite initial racial and denominational barriers.[120] Pentecostals and charismatics— the latter incorporating similar emphases within mainline denominations— now comprise around 644 million believers worldwide, or 26% of Christians, with explosive growth in the Global South driven by experiential worship, missions, and adaptation to local cultures.[121] This expansion outpaces overall Christianity, fueled by high birth rates, conversions, and a focus on supernatural intervention amid poverty and instability, though critics note risks of theological excesses like prosperity gospel variants.[122] The emerging church movement, gaining traction in the late 1990s and early 2000s primarily in North America and Europe, represents a decentralized response to perceived shortcomings in traditional evangelical structures, advocating contextualized worship, communal dialogue, and engagement with postmodern skepticism.[123] Proponents, including figures like Brian McLaren and Mark Driscoll (early on), emphasize narrative theology, social justice, and de-emphasizing propositional doctrines in favor of ancient practices and cultural relevance, often through innovative gatherings like house churches or multimedia services.[124] While smaller in scale—lacking formal denominations and precise counts—it has influenced broader evangelical experimentation but faced pushback for tendencies toward doctrinal ambiguity, such as questioning biblical inerrancy or hell's eternality, which some view as diluting historic orthodoxy.[125] Overlaps exist with evangelical and charismatic circles, yet emerging expressions prioritize missional living over institutional growth, reflecting broader shifts toward fluidity in a secularizing West.[126]Practices and Sacraments
Worship and Liturgy
Christian worship centers on communal gatherings that emphasize praise of God, proclamation of Scripture, prayer, and participation in sacraments, primarily on Sundays to commemorate Jesus Christ's resurrection. Early practices, as described in Acts 2:42, involved devotion to the apostles' teaching, fellowship, breaking of bread (Eucharist), and prayers, reflecting influences from Jewish synagogue services including Scripture reading and exhortation.[127][128] These elements formed the core of worship from the first century, evolving into more structured forms by the third century while retaining a focus on word, prayer, and sacrament.[129][130] Liturgical worship, prevalent in Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Lutheran, and Anglican traditions, follows prescribed orders of service with fixed texts, rituals, and calendars to ensure doctrinal fidelity and communal unity. Key components include the invocation, confession and absolution, Kyrie eleison, Gloria in excelsis (hymn of praise), Scripture readings, sermon, Nicene Creed recitation, offertory, Sanctus, and Eucharistic prayer, often accompanied by chant or hymns.[131][132] The Roman Catholic Mass, for instance, structures these around the Liturgy of the Word and Liturgy of the Eucharist, tracing roots to the second-century Apostolic Tradition. Eastern Orthodox Divine Liturgy, such as St. John Chrysostom's from the fourth century, incorporates icons, incense, and processions to evoke heavenly worship.[133] These forms prioritize ritual actions like the sign of the cross and genuflection as physical expressions of faith.[134] In contrast, non-liturgical worship, common in Baptist, Pentecostal, and many evangelical Protestant churches, eschews fixed rituals for spontaneous, Scripture-centered services emphasizing preaching, congregational singing, and personal testimony. Services typically feature extended sermons expositing Bible passages, contemporary worship songs, free prayers, and occasional altar calls, allowing flexibility to address immediate congregational needs without prescribed orders.[135][136] This approach, accelerated post-Reformation, aligns with sola scriptura by minimizing traditions not explicitly biblical, though it may incorporate creeds or responsive readings variably.[129][137] Across denominations, hymns and psalms remain integral, with early Christian worship adapting Jewish psalms and composing Christ-centered songs evident in New Testament texts like Philippians 2:6-11. Prayer forms, including the Lord's Prayer from Matthew 6:9-13, are universally recited, underscoring dependence on God. The Eucharist, symbolizing Christ's body and blood, is central in liturgical settings as a weekly or frequent rite, while observed less regularly in some non-liturgical contexts as a memorial.[138][139] Historical divergences, such as East-West schisms by 1054 influencing rite developments, highlight how liturgy preserves apostolic patterns amid cultural adaptations, with Reformation critiques targeting perceived excesses in medieval practices to refocus on biblical simplicity.[140][141]Baptism, Eucharist, and Other Rites
Baptism constitutes the initiatory rite in Christianity, commanded by Jesus in the Great Commission as recorded in Matthew 28:19, where believers are instructed to baptize disciples "in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit."[142] Early Christian practice, as depicted in the New Testament accounts in Acts, involved immersion in water, symbolizing the believer's identification with Christ's death, burial, and resurrection, as elaborated in Romans 6:3-4.[143] This mode persisted as the norm through the first centuries, with immersion reflecting the Greek term baptizo meaning to dip or submerge.[144] By the third century, affusion (pouring) and aspersion (sprinkling) emerged for cases of illness or water scarcity, though immersion remained predominant until practical shifts in medieval church architecture and infant baptism practices favored pouring or sprinkling. Denominational variances persist: many Protestant groups, particularly Baptists and evangelicals, mandate believer's baptism by full immersion for those professing faith, viewing it as an ordinance of obedience rather than salvific in itself, while Catholic and Orthodox traditions administer infant baptism via pouring or sprinkling, interpreting it as conferring original sin's remission and incorporation into the covenant community.[143][145] The Eucharist, also termed the Lord's Supper or Holy Communion, originates from Jesus' institution during the Last Supper, as detailed in 1 Corinthians 11:23-26, where he directed followers to partake of bread and wine "in remembrance" of his body and blood, signifying the new covenant.[146] Catholics affirm the doctrine of transubstantiation, wherein the substance of bread and wine converts to Christ's actual body and blood while retaining outward appearances, effecting a real presence that nourishes the soul and re-presents Calvary's sacrifice.[147] This contrasts with predominant Protestant interpretations, which regard the elements as symbolic memorials of Christ's atoning death, fostering spiritual communion without physical transformation, though Lutherans posit a sacramental union where Christ is truly present "in, with, and under" the forms.[146][148] Early church fathers like Ignatius of Antioch (c. 110 AD) evidenced belief in a substantial presence, but Reformation critiques, emphasizing scriptural literalism over tradition, shifted many toward memorialism to avoid perceived idolatry.[149] Frequency varies: weekly in liturgical traditions, monthly or quarterly in others, always tied to communal worship. Beyond baptism and Eucharist, Christian rites diverge by tradition. Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches recognize seven sacraments instituted by Christ: confirmation (strengthening by the Holy Spirit), penance (absolution of post-baptismal sins), anointing of the sick (healing and preparation for death), holy orders (ordination of clergy), and matrimony (sacramental union of man and woman).[150] These convey grace ex opere operato (by the act itself, when validly administered), rooted in biblical precedents like laying on of hands (Acts 8:17) and marital imagery in Ephesians 5:25-32, though their full sacramental status developed patristically rather than explicitly in Scripture.[151] Protestants generally limit ordinances to baptism and the Lord's Supper as biblically mandated, treating others—such as marriage (a civil-religious covenant), ordination (church office commissioning), or funeral rites (commemoration and burial)—as non-sacramental ceremonies symbolizing covenantal commitments without inherent grace-conferring power.[145] Common across denominations are rites like foot-washing in some Anabaptist groups (echoing John 13:1-17) and dedication services replacing infant baptism in paedobaptist-hesitant evangelicals.[152] These practices underscore Christianity's emphasis on ritual as obedient response to divine commands, varying by interpretive fidelity to New Testament patterns over later ecclesiastical accretions.Moral and Ethical Guidelines
Christian moral and ethical guidelines are primarily derived from the Bible, which serves as the authoritative source for discerning God's will on human conduct, emphasizing obedience to divine commands as the foundation for righteous living.[153] The core directive is the Greatest Commandment: to love God with all one's heart, soul, and mind, and to love one's neighbor as oneself, as articulated by Jesus in Matthew 22:37-40.[154] This dual love informs all ethical decisions, integrating vertical devotion to God with horizontal responsibilities toward others, and is supplemented by principles like the Golden Rule—"Do to others as you would have them do to you"—found in Matthew 7:12.[155] Unlike relativistic systems, Christian ethics posits an objective moral order rooted in God's unchanging character, where actions are evaluated by their alignment with scriptural revelation rather than subjective feelings or cultural norms.[156] The Ten Commandments, delivered to Moses on Mount Sinai as recorded in Exodus 20:1-17, form the bedrock of Christian moral law, prohibiting idolatry, blasphemy, murder, adultery, theft, false witness, and covetousness while mandating honor for parents and observance of the Sabbath.[157] These directives establish absolute prohibitions against harming God, others, or self, reflecting the inherent dignity of persons created in God's image (Genesis 1:27).[158] Jesus affirmed and intensified these in the Sermon on the Mount (Matthew 5-7), extending external behaviors to internal dispositions—for instance, equating anger with murder and lust with adultery—thus demanding heart-level purity over mere legal compliance.[159] This ethic of the kingdom prioritizes humility, mercy, peacemaking, and persecution endurance, challenging believers to exceed pharisaical righteousness through transformative grace.[160] Central to Christian ethics is the sanctity of human life, affirmed from conception to natural death, as life bears God's image and premeditated killing violates divine order (Genesis 9:6).[161] Biblical texts like Psalm 139:13-16 underscore fetal personhood, grounding opposition to abortion and euthanasia in the conviction that only God gives and takes life.[162] Similarly, sexual ethics confine intercourse to lifelong, monogamous marriage between one man and one woman, as designed in creation (Genesis 2:24) and reiterated by Paul in prohibiting fornication, adultery, and homosexual acts (1 Corinthians 6:9-10).[163] Marriage is honored as undefiled when the bed remains pure, with divorce restricted to cases of sexual immorality or abandonment (Matthew 19:9; 1 Corinthians 7:15).[164] Natural law complements scripture by revealing self-evident moral truths through creation and reason, such as the wrongness of injustice, accessible even to non-believers but fully illuminated by revelation.[165] Ethical guidelines extend to social domains, mandating honest labor (Ephesians 4:28), care for the poor without enabling dependency (2 Thessalonians 3:10), and truthful speech, as lying erodes communal trust.[154] Stewardship of resources reflects God's ownership, promoting generosity while decrying greed, as in the parable of the rich fool (Luke 12:16-21). While denominations vary in application—Catholics emphasizing natural law traditions and Protestants sola scriptura—consensus holds that ethics flow from regeneration by the Holy Spirit, enabling obedience amid human sinfulness.[166] Empirical patterns, such as lower divorce rates among committed Christians (around 25-30% versus 50% general U.S. rates as of 2020 data), suggest adherence correlates with relational stability, though correlation does not imply causation absent confounding factors.[167]Demographics and Global Presence
Current Numbers and Growth Trends
As of 2025, the global Christian population stands at 2,645,317,000 adherents, comprising 32.3% of the world's total population of approximately 8.19 billion.[1] This figure reflects steady absolute growth, with Christianity expanding by roughly 122 million adherents between 2010 and 2020 alone, reaching 2.3 billion by the latter year.[168] However, the religion's share of global population dipped from 30.6% in 2010 to 28.8% in 2020, trailing the 15% rise in non-Christian populations due to factors including higher fertility rates and conversions in other faiths, particularly Islam.[168] Christianity's annual growth rate from 2020 to 2025 averaged 0.98%, outpacing neither global population growth (around 1%) nor the faster expansion of unaffiliated individuals in some regions but sustained by natural increase and evangelism.[1] Projections from the Center for the Study of Global Christianity forecast the adherent count rising to 3,312,204,000 by 2050, maintaining a share near 33% amid demographic shifts.[1] Key drivers include high birth rates and adult conversions in developing regions, offsetting losses from disaffiliation and low fertility in the West, where secularization—evidenced by rising "nones"—has accelerated departures from nominal affiliation.[168] Growth patterns vary sharply by geography, with the Global South hosting 68.9% of Christians in 2025 (1,821,603,000), a proportion expected to climb to 78% by 2050 as the Global North's share erodes.[1] Sub-Saharan Africa leads with 754,229,000 Christians and a 2.59% annual growth rate, fueled by Pentecostal and evangelical expansions alongside demographic booms.[1] Asia follows with 416,786,000 adherents at 1.60% growth, driven by missions in China and India.[1] In contrast, Europe counts 551,934,000 Christians with a -0.54% annual decline, reflecting aging populations and widespread apostasy.[1]| Region | Christians (millions, 2025) | Annual Growth Rate (2020–2025) |
|---|---|---|
| Africa | 754.2 | +2.59% [1] |
| Asia | 416.8 | +1.60% [1] |
| Europe | 551.9 | -0.54% [1] |
| Latin America | 620.1 | +0.64% [1] |
| Northern America | 243.0 | +0.11% [1] |
Geographic Distributions and Shifts
As of 2025, approximately 2.645 billion people identify as Christians, representing 32.3% of the global population.[1] The largest concentrations are in Africa (754 million, 28.5% of all Christians), Latin America (620 million, 23.5%), and Europe (552 million, 20.9%).[1] Asia hosts 417 million Christians (15.8%), Northern America 272 million (10.3%), and Oceania 30 million (1.2%).[1]| Region | Christian Population (2025) | Share of Global Christians |
|---|---|---|
| Africa | 754,229,000 | 28.5% |
| Latin America | 620,116,000 | 23.5% |
| Europe | 551,934,000 | 20.9% |
| Asia | 416,786,000 | 15.8% |
| Northern America | 271,779,000 | 10.3% |
| Oceania | 30,472,000 | 1.2% |