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Ballets Russes

The Ballets Russes was a pioneering ballet company founded by the Russian impresario Sergei Diaghilev in Paris in 1909, which operated until his death in 1929 and revolutionized early 20th-century performing arts through its integration of innovative choreography, music, design, and storytelling.^[1]^[2] The company rejected traditional ballet conventions, instead commissioning original works that blended avant-garde elements from multiple disciplines, drawing on collaborations with renowned figures such as composers Igor Stravinsky and Claude Debussy, choreographers like Mikhail Fokine and Vaslav Nijinsky, and designers including Léon Bakst and Pablo Picasso.^[1]^[3] Its debut season at the Théâtre du Châtelet in 1909 featured Russian-themed ballets like Les Sylphides and Cléopâtre, captivating European audiences and establishing Diaghilev's troupe as a cultural phenomenon that toured extensively across Europe and beyond.^[2] Over its two decades, the Ballets Russes produced landmark works that pushed artistic boundaries, including Stravinsky's The Rite of Spring (1913), which premiered to a notorious riot in Paris due to its radical rhythms and primal themes, and Parade (1917), featuring designs by Picasso and a score by Erik Satie that satirized popular entertainment.^[1]^[3] Diaghilev's approach emphasized the total artwork (Gesamtkunstwerk), where costumes, sets, and music were created in tandem with choreography, influencing not only ballet but also fashion, theatre, and visual arts—evident in the exotic, colorful aesthetics inspired by Russian folklore and modernism.^[1]^[3] The company's permanent establishment in 1911 allowed for annual seasons of new productions, fostering talents like Nijinsky, who both danced and choreographed, and later George Balanchine, who joined in 1925 and carried forward its legacy to American ballet.^[2] The Ballets Russes' enduring impact lies in its role as a bridge between Russian artistic traditions and Western modernism, producing more than 60 ballets and inspiring countless revivals, with scores like The Firebird and Petrushka remaining staples of the classical repertoire.^[2]^[1] Despite financial struggles and the disruptions of World War I, which forced tours to neutral countries like Spain and the Americas, Diaghilev's vision democratized ballet by making it a vibrant, interdisciplinary spectacle that challenged social norms through sensual and experimental performances.^[3] Upon Diaghilev's death on August 19, 1929, in Venice, the original company disbanded, but its innovations profoundly shaped 20th-century dance and continue to influence global arts.^[2]

Introduction and Context

Nomenclature

The name Ballets Russes, meaning "Russian Ballets" in French, was coined by Sergei Diaghilev for the ballet company he established in Paris in 1909, deliberately evoking the exotic allure of Russian culture to captivate Western audiences amid the city's fascination with Orientalism and novelty in the arts.^[1] Despite its titular emphasis on Russian heritage, the ensemble quickly evolved beyond its initial roots, incorporating performers and collaborators from diverse nationalities, including French, Italian, and British artists, which underscored its role as a cosmopolitan venture rather than a strictly national one.^[2] Following its debut, the Ballets Russes distanced itself from the Russian Imperial Ballet, severing formal ties after 1909 and operating independently without state sponsorship from Russia, thus distinguishing it from the official "Imperial Russian Ballet" or broader "Russian Ballet" traditions tied to St. Petersburg's Maryinsky Theatre.^[4] This independence marked a shift from a temporary exhibition of imperial talent to a self-sustaining, innovative troupe that toured globally, free from governmental oversight or the rigid structures of Russian court ballet.^[1] In early usage, the name appeared in variations such as Les Ballets Russes de Diaghileff on programs from the 1910s, reflecting Diaghilev's personal branding and the French linguistic context of its Paris base, where seasons were presented at venues like the Théâtre du Châtelet.^[2] Over time, it standardized to Ballets Russes, symbolizing the company's enduring identity as a migratory artistic force. A common misconception portrays the Ballets Russes as a fixed, homogeneous Russian troupe directly affiliated with imperial institutions, whereas it functioned as an itinerant ensemble that reassembled seasonally with fluid rosters, never establishing a permanent home or performing in Russia itself after its formation.^[4] This nomadic structure allowed for creative experimentation but also fueled assumptions of continuity with pre-revolutionary Russian ballet traditions that did not fully align with its post-1909 reality.^[5]

Historical Background

Sergei Diaghilev (1872–1929), born into a noble family in Novgorod province, pursued a career in the arts after studying law in St. Petersburg, where he immersed himself in the cultural scene and befriended key figures in the progressive "World of Art" movement, including Alexandre Benois and Léon Bakst.^[6] In 1899, he co-founded and served as editor of the influential art journal Mir iskusstva (The World of Art), published until 1904, which championed modern Western visual arts in Russia and critiqued the conservative dominance of the Imperial Academy of Arts, fostering a new generation of artists focused on aesthetic innovation over ideological realism.^[6] Appointed as a special artistic adviser to the Imperial Theaters in St. Petersburg in 1899, Diaghilev produced operas and ballets but faced conflicts with conservative management over budgets and artistic control, leading to his dismissal in 1901; undeterred, he turned to independent ventures, organizing exhibitions that revived interest in 18th-century Russian portraiture and icons while showcasing contemporary European influences.^[6] Diaghilev's international ambitions crystallized in the mid-1900s amid a broader European cultural shift toward modernism, characterized by experimentation in form and rejection of 19th-century romanticism, as well as rising political tensions that portrayed Russia as exotic yet backward in Western eyes.^[7] To counter these perceptions and elevate Russian culture abroad, he organized a landmark exhibition of Russian historical portraits at the Grand Palais in Paris in 1906, earning acclaim from French critics for revealing Russia's artistic depth.^[8] This success paved the way for further presentations: in 1907, he curated five concerts of Russian music at the Paris Opéra, featuring works by composers like Rimsky-Korsakov and performed by leading Russian musicians, which introduced Western audiences to the vibrancy of Russian symphonic traditions.^[8] The following year, in 1908, Diaghilev staged six performances of Modest Mussorgsky's opera Boris Godunov at the Paris Opéra, starring the renowned basso Fyodor Chaliapin, whose dramatic intensity captivated audiences and highlighted the theatrical potential of Russian opera, setting a precedent for integrating dance with music and drama.^[9] At the same time, the Russian Imperial Ballet, centered at the Maryinsky Theatre in St. Petersburg and the Bolshoi in Moscow, was navigating a transitional phase following the retirement of ballet master Marius Petipa in 1903, marked by debates over innovation versus tradition and a perceived stagnation in choreography amid the broader renaissance of Russian arts.^[10] Diaghilev envisioned a touring ensemble to showcase this heritage internationally, but early planning encountered substantial financial and logistical hurdles; he operated on limited personal funds and sponsorships, often incurring debts, while securing dancers required negotiating short-term leaves from the state-controlled Imperial theaters, whose directors resisted releasing top talent due to contractual obligations and fears of defection.^[1] These efforts, culminating in the recruitment of principal performers from both venues, underscored Diaghilev's determination to bridge Russian artistry with European modernism in the volatile pre-World War I era.^[2]

History

Formation and Debut

The Ballets Russes was established in Paris under the direction of Sergei Diaghilev in May 1909, marking the culmination of his efforts to showcase Russian performing arts abroad following earlier exhibitions of Russian art and music in the city. The company's debut season opened on May 19 at the Théâtre du Châtelet, featuring a troupe of approximately 50 dancers primarily recruited from the Russian Imperial Ballet schools in St. Petersburg and Moscow, including prominent talents on leave from those institutions.^[2]^[1]^[11] The inaugural program consisted of five ballets, all choreographed by Michel Fokine to emphasize expressive movement and narrative depth over classical rigidity. Key works included Le Pavillon d'Armide (music by Nikolai Tcherepnin), Cléopâtre (music by Alexander Glazunov and others), and the Polovtsian Dances from Alexander Borodin's opera Prince Igor, alongside Le Festin and Les Sylphides. These pieces highlighted Fokine's innovative approach, blending Russian folk elements with dramatic storytelling, and starred dancers such as Anna Pavlova and Vaslav Nijinsky, whose virtuosic performances electrified the audience.^[2]^[12]^[13] The debut season garnered widespread critical acclaim for its exotic allure, vibrant energy, and departure from Western ballet conventions, though its sensual and unconventional elements provoked some scandal among conservative viewers. Despite the withdrawal of Russian imperial funding earlier that year, the performances achieved immediate artistic and popular success, drawing full houses and enabling Diaghilev to sustain the company through private patronage and box-office receipts. Diaghilev functioned as the central impresario, managing artistic, financial, and logistical aspects, with key early input from Alexandre Benois as artistic advisor on design and conceptualization.^[14]^[2]^[15]

Major Productions and Tours

The Ballets Russes established its reputation through a series of annual seasons in Paris, beginning with performances at the Théâtre du Châtelet in 1910 and shifting to the Théâtre des Champs-Élysées from 1913 onward, where the company presented innovative programs blending music, dance, and visual arts. These Paris seasons served as the core of its operations, complemented by winter residencies in Monte Carlo starting in 1914 and extensive European tours that reached major cities like London and Rome. The company's international reach expanded significantly with its North American debut in 1916, including premieres in New York, followed by tours across the United States and Canada until 1919; South American visits in 1913 and 1917 further demonstrated its global ambition, with performances in Buenos Aires and Rio de Janeiro drawing large audiences despite the logistical demands of transatlantic travel.^[2]^[1] Among the most iconic productions were The Firebird in 1910, which premiered Stravinsky's score and Fokine's choreography evoking Russian folklore at the Paris season, and Petrushka in 1911, another Stravinsky-Fokine collaboration that explored urban carnival themes with Benois's vivid sets. The 1913 Paris premiere of The Rite of Spring, choreographed by Nijinsky with Stravinsky's revolutionary music and Roerich's primal designs, provoked a notorious audience riot, underscoring the company's provocative interdisciplinary approach that integrated narrative, score, and spectacle. Later highlights included Parade in 1917, featuring Cocteau's circus scenario, Satie's score, Massine's choreography, and Picasso's cubist costumes and sets during a Paris season, and Apollo in 1928, Balanchine's neoclassical work with Stravinsky's music and Picasso's influences, closing the company's active years on a note of refined modernism. These works exemplified the Ballets Russes' hallmark fusion of elements, where choreography, music, and design were conceived as a unified whole.^[2] World War I severely disrupted operations from 1914 to 1918, forcing the company to relocate to neutral Spain and Switzerland for performances in cities like Madrid and Geneva, as travel restrictions and hostilities halted continental tours and isolated the Russian expatriates. Financial instability plagued the troupe throughout, with early seasons incurring losses equivalent to over £350,000 in modern terms and post-1917 Russian Revolution upheavals exacerbating funding shortages, often requiring Diaghilev to negotiate loans or rely on patrons amid constant debt. Logistical challenges were immense, including the transport of elaborate sets, costumes, and scenery across continents—such as shipping Picasso's massive Parade backdrops for the 1916 U.S. tour—yet these feats enabled the company's survival and artistic continuity.^[1]^[2] The repertoire evolved markedly over the years, shifting from early Russian folk-inspired works like The Firebird and Petrushka to avant-garde modernism after 1917, incorporating surrealism and neoclassicism in pieces such as Parade and Apollo that reflected contemporary European artistic currents. This progression was evident in annual premieres, with post-war seasons introducing diverse influences—from flamenco in 1921's Cuadro Flamenco to machine-age themes in 1927's Le Pas d'Acier—while maintaining the company's commitment to innovation amid touring demands.^[2]^[1]

Dissolution and Successors

The death of Sergei Diaghilev on August 19, 1929, in Venice, Italy, marked the immediate end of the Ballets Russes, as the company disbanded without his irreplaceable leadership.^[16] Diaghilev's passing from diabetes complications left the troupe in disarray, unable to sustain operations amid the absence of a central figure to coordinate its complex artistic and logistical demands.^[17] The Ballets Russes had long operated without institutional support, relying instead on private patrons such as Misia Sert and Coco Chanel to cover mounting debts and production costs. Sert, a prominent arts benefactor, frequently intervened with financial aid during crises, while Chanel provided substantial funding, including costumes and direct loans, to keep seasons afloat; this precarious model, vulnerable to economic shifts like the impending Great Depression, contributed to the swift collapse upon Diaghilev's death.^[18] In the years immediately following, several splinter groups emerged, drawing directly from the original company's repertoire, dancers, and ethos. The Ballets Russes de Monte Carlo, founded in 1932 by René Blum—director of the Monte Carlo Opera Ballet—and Colonel Wassily de Basil, revived key works like The Rite of Spring and employed many former Ballets Russes artists.^[19] This ensemble, initially sponsored by Monaco's Société des Bains de Mer, marked the first major successor effort to preserve Diaghilev's legacy.^[19] Concurrently, Boris Kochno, Diaghilev's former secretary and librettist, co-founded the short-lived Les Ballets 1933 with George Balanchine in 1933, staging avant-garde productions that echoed the original's interdisciplinary style with contributions from composers and designers linked to the Ballets Russes.^[20] Tensions soon arose among the successors, leading to a split in the Monte Carlo company; in 1933, Colonel Wassily de Basil assumed control, forming Colonel de Basil's Ballets Russes de Monte Carlo, which toured extensively until 1952 and featured revivals of Diaghilev-era ballets alongside new creations by Massine.^[17] Unlike the original's avant-garde focus, these groups emphasized commercial viability through long international tours, particularly in the United States under promoter Sol Hurok, resulting in a more accessible, less experimental approach that gradually incorporated American influences.^[17]^[21]

Artistic Innovations

Choreography

The Ballets Russes fundamentally challenged the rigidity of classical ballet, which emphasized technical virtuosity and symmetrical formations, by prioritizing expressive, narrative-driven movement that drew from folk dance traditions, symbolic imagery, and modernist aesthetics.^[22]^[2] This core philosophy sought to integrate drama and emotion into dance, transforming ballet into a holistic art form where movement served the story and music rather than adhering to 19th-century conventions.^[23] Influenced by Russian folk elements and contemporary European symbolism, the company's approach emphasized fluidity and psychological depth over ornamental steps.^[24] Key innovations included the seamless integration of mime for character development, heightened athleticism in group dynamics, and deliberate asymmetry to evoke tension and primitivism, marking a departure from ballet's traditional poise.^[2] Michel Fokine, the company's inaugural choreographer, exemplified this "evocative" style in works like Scheherazade (1910), where sensual, narrative movements blended exotic mime and fluid partnering to convey adulterous intrigue and emotional intensity, diverging from the score's original intent.^[25]^[26] The choreography evolved progressively, with Vaslav Nijinsky introducing angular, primitive forms in The Rite of Spring (1913), incorporating folk-inspired rhythms, stark asymmetry, and strenuous athleticism to depict ritualistic sacrifice and modernist fragmentation.^[2]^[24] Léonide Massine advanced this trajectory in symphonic ballets such as La Boutique Fantasque (1919), fusing character-driven mime, ethnic folk motifs, and dynamic ensemble athleticism to create whimsical yet dramatic narratives.^[2] Bronislava Nijinska further innovated with feminist undertones in Les Noces (1923), merging classical technique with modernist abstraction, symbolic group formations, and ritualistic folk influences to explore communal and gendered themes.^[2]^[22] This choreographic shift propelled ballet from 19th-century romanticism toward 20th-century abstraction, establishing new global standards for expressive integration of movement, music, and narrative that continue to influence contemporary dance practices.^[24]^[22]

Scenic Design

The Ballets Russes pioneered a holistic approach to theatrical production, embodying the concept of Gesamtkunstwerk—the "total work of art"—through seamless integration of choreography, music, visual design, and performance to create immersive environments.^[27] Under Sergei Diaghilev's direction, collaborations among renowned artists, choreographers, and composers elevated scenic elements beyond mere backdrop, treating sets and costumes as active participants in the narrative.^[22] This interdisciplinary synergy, inspired by Richard Wagner's ideals but adapted to modernist sensibilities, transformed ballet into a multimedia spectacle that blurred boundaries between disciplines.^[28] Early productions emphasized Orientalism and exoticism, drawing on vibrant colors and opulent motifs to evoke fantastical worlds. Léon Bakst's designs for Scheherazade (1910) exemplified this style, featuring lush, jewel-toned sets and costumes with intricate patterns of turquoise, crimson, and gold that captured the ballet's harem intrigue and sensuality. These elements not only enhanced the dramatic tension but also influenced contemporary fashion with their bold palettes and flowing silhouettes.^[29] As the company evolved, scenic design shifted toward abstraction and modernism, incorporating cubist influences in Pablo Picasso's angular, geometric sets and costumes for Parade (1917), which depicted a circus parade with fragmented forms and bold primary colors to satirize popular entertainment.^[30] Picasso's drop curtain, a massive canvas evoking a harlequin figure, further underscored the production's innovative fusion of fine art and theater.^[31] Innovations in scenic technology marked significant advancements, including the use of movable scenery to facilitate dynamic scene changes and enhance spatial storytelling. Alexandre Benois's designs for Petrushka (1911) introduced historical realism through detailed, three-dimensional sets depicting a Russian carnival, augmented by innovative lighting effects that created atmospheric depth and highlighted the puppet-like movements of the characters.^[32] These lighting techniques, employing colored gels and spotlights, added emotional layers to the narrative, simulating the chaos of a Shrovetide fair.^[33] Additionally, the integration of contemporary fashion into costumes represented a departure from traditional ballet attire; Coco Chanel's practical, sporty designs for Le Train Bleu (1924)—featuring knitted swimsuits, belted tunics, and beachwear-inspired ensembles—reflected the Roaring Twenties' modernity and emphasized athleticism over ornamentation.^[34] The company's extensive international tours posed logistical challenges in transporting elaborate sets and costumes, necessitating adaptations that spurred portable modernism in design. Diaghilev's productions required disassembly and shipping across Europe and beyond, leading to lighter, modular scenery that prioritized functionality without sacrificing artistic impact, as seen in adapted posters and backdrops for the 1916 North American tour.^[26] These constraints influenced a shift toward more abstract, transportable aesthetics in later works, ensuring the visual spectacle remained viable on global stages.^[22]

Music and Composition

The Ballets Russes, under Sergei Diaghilev's direction, marked a pivotal shift in ballet music by prioritizing commissions of original contemporary scores over traditional classical repertoire, emphasizing innovative elements such as complex rhythms, dissonant harmonies, and rich orchestration to complement the visual and dramatic intensity of the productions.^[8] This approach transformed music from mere accompaniment into an integral dramatic force, drawing on modernist composers to create works that pushed orchestral boundaries and synchronized with the company's avant-garde aesthetics.^[1] Among the most influential commissions were Igor Stravinsky's early ballets for the company: The Firebird (1910), which blended Russian folk elements with lush orchestration; Petrushka (1911), featuring biting dissonance and rhythmic vitality; and The Rite of Spring (1913), renowned for its primal rhythms and polytonal clashes that depicted ancient rituals.^[8] Maurice Ravel's Daphnis et Chloé (1912) followed, with its impressionistic soundscapes, wordless chorus, and innovative use of the orchestra to evoke sensual Greek mythology.^[35] Later, Sergei Prokofiev contributed Chout (1921), a satirical tale infused with sharp wit, angular melodies, and percussive drive that reflected the company's evolving neoclassical leanings.^[36] Pierre Monteux served as the principal conductor for the Ballets Russes from 1911 to 1916 and again from 1924 to 1929, masterfully navigating the challenges of these premieres, including the notorious audience riots at The Rite of Spring in 1913, where he maintained composure amid the chaos of protesting spectators and protesting musicians unaccustomed to Stravinsky's radical score.^[37] Monteux also implemented technical innovations, such as off-stage effects in The Rite of Spring to enhance spatial drama, and conducted other landmark debuts like Petrushka and Daphnis et Chloé, ensuring precise synchronization between orchestra and dancers.^[38] This emphasis on groundbreaking music elevated ballet's auditory dimension to a co-equal artistic partner, revitalizing the genre and profoundly influencing the rise of neoclassicism by integrating modernist techniques with classical forms, as seen in later Stravinsky works and the broader evolution of 20th-century ballet scores.^[1]^[39]

Key Figures

Principal Dancers

The principal dancers of the Ballets Russes were largely recruited from prestigious Russian institutions such as the Imperial Ballet School in St. Petersburg, which emphasized rigorous classical training focused on virtuosity, technical precision, and expressive storytelling.^[1] Notable early recruits included Anna Pavlova and Tamara Karsavina, both graduates of the Maryinsky Theatre Ballet School, who brought the refined technique and dramatic flair of Russian imperial ballet to the company upon joining in 1909.^[40] Vaslav Nijinsky, also trained at the Imperial Ballet School, debuted with the Ballets Russes that same year, exemplifying the company's pursuit of dancers capable of groundbreaking athleticism and emotional depth.^[1] This recruitment strategy underscored Diaghilev's vision for a troupe that blended elite Russian heritage with innovative performance styles.^[41] The Ballets Russes cultivated a star system that elevated individual dancers as icons, revolutionizing ballet's public image through their distinctive interpretations. Nijinsky became the quintessential male star, renowned for his phenomenal leaps—such as the famed grand jeté through an open window in Le Spectre de la Rose (1911)—and his androgynous grace, which blurred gender boundaries in ethereal roles.^[1]^[42] Pavlova, meanwhile, defined the dramatic soloist archetype with her poignant, bird-like expressiveness in pieces that highlighted personal vulnerability and artistry.^[1] Later, British dancers Alicia Markova and Anton Dolin emerged as key stars in the 1920s, with Markova's luminous technique and Dolin's noble partnering adding fresh dynamism to the repertory.^[43] These performers not only headlined productions but also shaped the company's reputation for pushing physical and interpretive limits.^[1] Under Sergei Diaghilev's exacting regime, the ensemble underwent intensive training that fostered cohesion while encouraging bold experimentation, including gender fluidity in casting to enhance dramatic effect. Nijinsky's androgynous performances, such as the Faun in L'Après-midi d'un faune, embodied fluid identities that challenged traditional ballet conventions and enriched narrative complexity.^[1] This approach, combined with daily rehearsals emphasizing stamina and artistry, created a tight-knit corps where principals like Karsavina supported collective innovation.^[10] However, the demanding schedule took a toll, leading to injuries and early retirements; Nijinsky's career ended abruptly in 1917 following his dismissal, with his mental health declining sharply by 1919, rendering him unable to perform thereafter.^[44]^[45] Following World War I, the Ballets Russes broadened its appeal by incorporating non-Russian dancers, reflecting wartime disruptions in Europe and a shift toward international talent. Markova, a young British prodigy, joined in 1925 after auditioning for Diaghilev, becoming one of the first English principals and infusing the company with youthful precision.^[46] Dolin, also British, joined in 1921 as a soloist, his classical poise helping to sustain the troupe's vitality amid logistical challenges.^[43] This diversification not only replenished the ensemble but also expanded the company's global resonance, drawing diverse audiences through varied cultural perspectives.^[1]

Leading Choreographers

Michel Fokine, born Mikhail Mikhailovich Fokin on April 23, 1880, in St. Petersburg, Russia, trained at the Imperial Ballet School and became a leading figure in the early Ballets Russes as its principal choreographer from 1909 to 1914, with returns in the 1920s.^[2] He advocated for a more expressive and realistic approach to ballet, moving away from rigid classical traditions toward integrated movement, drama, and narrative that unified dance with music and decor.^[47] Fokine's key works for the company included Les Sylphides (1909), a romantic ballet to Chopin's music that premiered as part of the Ballets Russes' debut season in Paris, emphasizing atmospheric mood over plot; The Firebird (1910), drawing on Russian folklore with dynamic group scenes; and Petrushka (1911), which incorporated folk elements and psychological depth.^[48] His innovations influenced subsequent generations by prioritizing emotional authenticity and thematic coherence in choreography.^[2] Vaslav Nijinsky, born in 1889 in Kiev, Ukraine, transitioned from principal dancer to choreographer for the Ballets Russes during 1912–1913 and briefly in 1916–1917, creating highly experimental works that challenged classical norms amid his personal life marked by scandal and eventual exile due to mental health issues.^[49] His debut as choreographer, L'Après-midi d'un faune (1912), to Debussy's music, featured angular, two-dimensional movements and overt sexuality, sparking controversy for its departure from pointe work and ethereal ideals.^[50] Nijinsky's most notorious piece, The Rite of Spring (1913), with Stravinsky's score, depicted primal rituals through stomping, clustered formations, and asymmetric poses, inciting a riot at its premiere due to its rhythmic intensity and modernist aesthetics.^[49] Later, Till Eulenspiegel (1916), based on Richard Strauss's tone poem, portrayed the trickster figure with satirical, gestural choreography that further explored narrative fragmentation before Nijinsky's dismissal and withdrawal from the company.^[2] Léonide Massine, born Leonid Fyodorovich Miassin in 1896 in Moscow, joined the Ballets Russes as a dancer in 1914 and emerged as its leading choreographer through the 1920s, known for developing symphonic ballets that interpreted classical music symphonies through abstract, character-driven movement.^[51] His early works included The Three-Cornered Hat (1919), a vibrant Spanish-inflected narrative ballet to de Falla's music, blending folk dance with dramatic storytelling and humor.^[52] Massine pioneered the symphonic ballet form with pieces like Les Présages (1933, post-Diaghilev but rooted in Ballets Russes style), using Tchaikovsky's Fifth Symphony to evoke fate through dynamic corps patterns and emotional contrasts, though created for successor companies, it extended his Ballets Russes legacy of longevity and innovation.^[53] His choreography emphasized rhythmic vitality and ensemble precision, sustaining the company's evolution into the 1920s.^[51] Bronislava Nijinska, born in 1891 in Minsk, Belarus, and sister to Vaslav Nijinsky, served as choreographer for the Ballets Russes from 1921 to 1924, with additional works in the 1920s, becoming the company's first prominent female choreographer and exploring gender dynamics and modernist abstraction.^[54] Her seminal ballet Les Biches (1924), to Poulenc's music, depicted a hedonistic house party with androgynous roles, including women in tuxedos performing athletic, flirtatious duets that subverted traditional femininity and reflected 1920s social freedoms.^[55] Nijinska's choreography featured bold spatial designs and ensemble interactions, as seen in Les Noces (1923), a ritualistic work with Stravinsky's score emphasizing communal strength over individual virtuosity, though her Ballets Russes tenure focused on innovative female perspectives amid the post-war era.^[54] George Balanchine, born Georgiy Balanchivadze in 1904 in St. Petersburg, Russia, joined the Ballets Russes in 1924 and choreographed for it until 1929, marking his early neoclassical phase before transitioning to American ballet.^[56] His debut work, Barabau (1925), a one-act ballet to Gounod's music, introduced witty, plotless divertissements with sharp, musical phrasing that hinted at his future abstract style.^[57] Balanchine created ten major pieces for the company, including Apollon Musagète (1928), to Stravinsky's score, which balanced classical poise with modern simplicity through elegant lifts and processional lines, establishing his emphasis on musicality and economy of movement.^[58] These early contributions laid the groundwork for his neoclassical innovations, influencing the Ballets Russes' shift toward streamlined aesthetics in the late 1920s.^[56]

Prominent Designers and Composers

The Ballets Russes benefited from the talents of several prominent designers whose innovative sets and costumes shaped its visual identity. Alexandre Benois, a Russian artist and art critic born in 1870, played a pivotal role in the company's early productions, particularly as co-librettist and designer for Petrushka in 1911. His sets and costumes emphasized historical accuracy, drawing on his deep knowledge of 19th-century Russian fashion and folk traditions to evoke the St. Petersburg carnival atmosphere with meticulous detail in puppet-like figures and urban backdrops.^[26] Benois's approach merged narrative authenticity with theatrical flair, influencing the ballet's storytelling through visual elements that grounded Stravinsky's score in Russian cultural heritage.^[59] Léon Bakst, born Lev Rosenberg in 1866, brought a vibrant orientalist aesthetic to the Ballets Russes, most notably in his designs for Scheherazade (1910). His costumes and sets featured bold, saturated colors—turquoises, crimsons, and golds—along with intricate patterns inspired by Persian and Islamic art, creating an exotic, sensual atmosphere that captivated audiences and influenced contemporary fashion trends.^[29] Bakst's use of luminous fabrics and dynamic compositions amplified the ballet's dramatic intensity, marking a departure from traditional European ballet decor toward a more immersive, colorful orientalism.^[60] Pablo Picasso, the Spanish cubist painter born in 1881, contributed to the company's post-World War I phase with his designs for Parade in 1917. His cubist-inspired sets and costumes fragmented forms into geometric planes, incorporating everyday circus motifs with abstract angularity, which challenged conventional stage realism and integrated fine art into performance.^[30] Picasso's drop curtain and mannequin-like figures for the characters exemplified this fusion, bridging avant-garde painting with theatrical spectacle during the ballet's Paris premiere.^[61] Natalia Goncharova (1881–1962) and her husband Mikhail Larionov (1881–1964), Russian avant-garde artists who pioneered rayonism—an abstract style emphasizing light rays and spatial intersections—designed the sets and costumes for La Boutique Fantasque in 1919. Their rayonist influences appeared in the vibrant, fragmented patterns of the shop's fantastical puppets and marionettes, infusing the production with a modern, dynamic energy that echoed their pre-war experiments in non-objective art.^[62] This collaboration marked one of their key contributions to Diaghilev's efforts to incorporate Russian futurism into ballet visuals.^[63] Among composers, Igor Stravinsky (1882–1971) was central to the Ballets Russes, providing scores for its foundational works from 1910 to 1913: The Firebird, Petrushka, and The Rite of Spring. These early ballets reflected his "Russianist" phase, characterized by lush orchestration, folk-inspired rhythms, and mythic narratives that propelled the company's reputation for musical innovation.^[64] By 1920, with Pulcinella, Stravinsky shifted toward neoclassicism, adapting 18th-century Pergolesi melodies through ironic harmonization and sparse textures, signaling his evolution from nationalist exuberance to classical restraint while still serving Diaghilev's vision. Other composers enriched the repertory, including Claude Debussy (1862–1918), whose impressionistic score for Jeux (1913) featured subtle, fragmented orchestration evoking a nocturnal tennis game, composed specifically for the Ballets Russes to accompany Nijinsky's abstract choreography.^[65] Similarly, Manuel de Falla (1876–1946) contributed El Amor Brujo in 1915, blending Spanish folk elements with modernist harmonies in a tale of love and the supernatural, tailored for the company's Spanish-inflected productions.^[66] Sergei Diaghilev curated these talents through deliberate collaborations, often drawing avant-garde artists and musicians into ballet for the first time, fostering interdisciplinary synergy that elevated productions beyond traditional forms.^[1] This process involved intense creative exchanges, as seen in the tensions between Stravinsky and Diaghilev during The Rite of Spring's development, where the composer made revisions to the score amid disputes over pacing and integration with choreography, yet the impresario's insistence preserved the work's radical essence.^[67]

Legacy and Influence

Long-term Impact on Ballet

The Ballets Russes played a pivotal role in modernizing ballet by championing neoclassicism, emphasizing streamlined forms and abstract movement over narrative-driven romanticism, and rejecting the exclusivity of pointe work in favor of diverse dance vocabularies that incorporated athleticism and partnering. This shift was exemplified in works like George Balanchine's Apollo (1928), which stripped ballet to its classical essentials while integrating modernist aesthetics, influencing subsequent generations of choreographers.^[68] The company's interdisciplinary approach—merging choreography with avant-garde music, visual art, and theater design—set a new standard for collaborative creation, as seen in partnerships with composers like Igor Stravinsky and artists such as Pablo Picasso, transforming ballet from a standalone genre into a multimedia spectacle.^[1] These innovations profoundly shaped Western ballet institutions, notably the New York City Ballet, founded by Balanchine after his tenure with Diaghilev, where neoclassical principles became foundational to American ballet's development.^[14] The cultural legacy of the Ballets Russes extended beyond dance, exporting Russian ballet technique to the West through extensive international tours that embedded imperial training methods in global repertoires and academies. This dissemination fostered a hybrid style that blended Russian precision with Western experimentation, inspiring theater productions and visual arts worldwide. In fashion, Léon Bakst's vibrant, exotic costumes for ballets like Scheherazade (1910) directly influenced designers such as Paul Poiret, who adapted Bakst's bold colors, geometric patterns, and Oriental motifs into haute couture garments, including tunic dresses and harem pants that revolutionized early 20th-century wardrobes.^[69] The company's role in spreading modernism was evident in its integration of non-Western elements, which both captivated and critiqued European audiences, contributing to ballet's evolution as a vehicle for cultural dialogue.^[1] Scholars recognize the Ballets Russes as a crucial bridge between 19th-century romanticism's emotive storytelling and 20th-century abstraction's focus on form and rhythm, with its repertory serving as a historiographical pivot in dance studies. Retrospective analyses, however, have critiqued the company's exoticism as reinforcing imperialist narratives, particularly in productions like The Firebird (1910) and Scheherazade, where Orientalist tropes portrayed Eastern figures as sensual or villainous to affirm Western superiority, echoing colonial fantasies in Russian and French imperial contexts.^[70] These elements, while commercially successful, have prompted modern reevaluations of the Ballets Russes' role in perpetuating cultural stereotypes under the guise of artistic innovation.^[71] The Ballets Russes' extensive touring model democratized ballet audiences by pioneering independent, global performances that reached beyond elite European theaters to diverse international venues, expanding access and embedding dance in popular culture. This approach not only grew audiences—from niche aristocrats to broad publics—but also initiated shifts in gender dynamics, elevating male dancers' visibility and physicality through stars like Vaslav Nijinsky, challenging the female-centric traditions of romantic ballet and complicating sexed roles in partnering and expression.^[72] Over time, this influence contributed to greater diversity in casting and roles, paving the way for inclusive practices in Western companies, though rooted in the company's early emphasis on multifaceted performer identities.^[73]

Successor Companies and Revivals

Following the dissolution of Serge Diaghilev's Ballets Russes in 1929, several successor companies emerged in the 1930s, evolving from the original Ballets Russes de Monte Carlo founded in 1932 by René Blum and Colonel Wassily de Basil. This company split in 1938 amid disputes, resulting in two rival groups: de Basil's Original Ballet Russe, which retained aspects of the original repertoire and toured extensively, and the Ballet Russe de Monte Carlo led by Blum and choreographer Léonide Massine. The Ballet Russe de Monte Carlo, active from 1938 to 1962, became a prominent mid-20th-century troupe under Massine's artistic direction, featuring innovative works like his symphonic ballets while occasionally reviving Diaghilev-era pieces; George Balanchine served as resident choreographer only for its inaugural 1932-1933 season before departing. De Basil's Original Ballet Russe undertook extensive international tours, including three extended visits to Australia from 1936 to 1940, which introduced Ballets Russes aesthetics to local audiences and directly inspired the formation of professional ballet companies there, such as the Borovansky Ballet that later contributed to the founding of The Australian Ballet in 1962. In the post-World War II era, major ballet institutions began reconstructing key Ballets Russes works to preserve their historical choreography and designs. The Sadler's Wells Ballet—predecessor to The Royal Ballet—revived Michel Fokine's The Firebird in 1954, using sets and costumes by Natalia Goncharova from the 1926 production, with Tamara Karsavina coaching Margot Fonteyn in the title role to ensure authenticity in movement and characterization.^[74] Similarly, the Joffrey Ballet premiered a landmark reconstruction of Vaslav Nijinsky's 1913 choreography for Igor Stravinsky's The Rite of Spring (Le Sacre du printemps) on September 30, 1987, in Los Angeles, using archival photographs, sketches by Nicholas Roerich, and eyewitness accounts pieced together by choreographer Millicent Hodson and designer Kenneth Archer; this production restored the ballet's angular, ritualistic style, previously thought lost, and marked the first full revival of Nijinsky's vision. Twenty-first-century revivals have built on these efforts, leveraging advanced archival research to stage complete Ballets Russes productions. Hodson and Archer's Rite of Spring reconstruction, first unveiled with the Joffrey Ballet, has been restaged internationally since 2007, including performances by companies like the Mariinsky Ballet and the National Ballet of Canada, emphasizing the original's primal group dynamics and Roerich's pagan costumes recreated from surviving fragments. More recently, the English National Ballet marked the centenary of Bronislava Nijinska's 1923 Les Noces with a new interpretation in September 2023 at Sadler's Wells, directed by Andrea Miller, which reimagined the work's folkloric wedding rituals using Stravinsky's choral score while incorporating diverse casting to address themes of community and identity. Reconstructing these Ballets Russes productions presents significant challenges, primarily due to the loss or deterioration of original scores, sets, and costumes during the companies' nomadic tours and wartime disruptions. Scholars and artists rely on fragmented archives—such as sketches, photographs, and notations held in collections like the New York Public Library for the Performing Arts and the Library of Congress—to approximate historical accuracy, often involving painstaking forensic analysis of visual records. Additionally, copyright restrictions from the Stravinsky estate have historically complicated revivals of his Ballets Russes commissions, requiring permissions for adaptations of scores like The Rite of Spring and Les Noces until entering the public domain in various jurisdictions, which has occasionally delayed or limited full stagings.

Exhibitions and Modern Celebrations

The centennial of the Ballets Russes in 2009 prompted a series of major exhibitions worldwide, highlighting the company's groundbreaking integration of dance, music, and visual arts. In the United States, the Library of Congress presented "A Centennial Celebration of Diaghilev's Ballets Russes, 1909–1929" from June 4 to October 10, featuring rare materials such as posters, programs, photographs, and scores that illustrated the company's influence on twentieth-century performing arts.^[75] Similarly, the New York Public Library for the Performing Arts mounted "Diaghilev's Theater of Marvels: The Ballets Russes and Its Aftermath," showcasing scores, designs, and ephemera to emphasize the collaborative innovations of Sergei Diaghilev and his collaborators.^[76] These exhibitions focused on costumes, set designs, and archival documents, underscoring the Ballets Russes' role in bridging traditional ballet with modernist aesthetics. Following the centennial, institutions continued to explore the company's legacy through targeted displays. The Morgan Library & Museum's "Crafting the Ballets Russes: The Robert Owen Lehman Collection," held from June 28 to September 22, 2024, centered on music manuscripts by composers like Igor Stravinsky, Claude Debussy, and Maurice Ravel, revealing the creative processes behind key productions and their interdisciplinary synergies.^[77] In San Antonio, the McNay Art Museum's "Women Artists of the Ballets Russes: Designing the Legacy," on view from September 28, 2024, to January 12, 2025, spotlighted female contributors such as Sonia Delaunay, Alexandra Exter, and Natalia Goncharova, featuring costumes, set pieces, and designs that highlighted their pivotal yet often underrepresented roles in shaping the company's visual identity and influencing American ballet.^[78] Scholarly commemorations have also addressed the Ballets Russes' global reach. A 2023 article in Dance Research, "Diaghilev's Ballets Russes in Spain and its Legacy," examined the company's tours in Spain from the 1910s to 1920s, analyzing why these visits failed to foster a national Spanish ballet tradition despite introducing innovative choreography and designs that resonated with local flamenco and folk elements.^[79] The Ballets Russes Arts Initiative, a nonprofit organization active in the 2020s, has organized events such as concerts and performances blending Eastern and Western artistic traditions, including tributes to Diaghilev's era through jazz-infused dance and vocal programs in Boston and beyond.^[80] In the mid-2020s, exhibitions and discussions have increasingly emphasized cross-cultural and fashion intersections. The New-York Historical Society maintains an ongoing installation of Pablo Picasso's drop curtain for Le Tricorne (1919), installed since 2015 in its American Wing, which draws on Ballets Russes artifacts to explore the company's impact on New York City's cultural scene during its 1916 U.S. tour.^[81] The Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden hosted the concert "Igor and Coco" on February 1, 2025, featuring a four-hands piano rendition of Stravinsky's The Rite of Spring (1913) and exploring Coco Chanel's costume designs for Ballets Russes productions, bridging modernist ballet with contemporary fashion narratives.^[82] In 2024, discussions around reconstructions like the Joffrey's Rite of Spring continued, with performances and analyses emphasizing its enduring influence.^[83] These efforts, often incorporating digital archives for broader access, prioritize themes of underrepresented women artists and international influences, ensuring the Ballets Russes' enduring conceptual relevance without staging full revivals.

Documentation and Media

Surviving Films and Records

The surviving visual and audio documentation of the Ballets Russes' live performances is exceedingly scarce, primarily due to Sergei Diaghilev's strong opposition to recording his company's work. He viewed film and audio captures as incapable of conveying the ephemeral magic and athletic vitality of his dancers, fearing they would demystify the troupe's allure and make it accessible in ways that diluted its exclusivity. As a result, few attempts were made to document performances during the company's active years from 1909 to 1929, and most that occurred were unauthorized or limited in scope.^[84] The earliest known surviving film footage of a Ballets Russes performance dates to 1928, consisting of brief Pathé newsreel clips depicting the ballet Les Sylphides, choreographed by Mikhail Fokine. This silent, black-and-white material, lasting just over a minute with about 30 seconds of actual dance, shows principal dancer Serge Lifar alongside corps members and was likely filmed covertly during a European tour, evading Diaghilev's prohibitions. Earlier footage from 1924, such as Gaumont recordings of Barabau—another Balanchine-choreographed work featuring Anton Dolin—has been referenced in historical accounts but remains unlocated or unverified in public archives, underscoring the fragility of these early cinematic efforts.^[85]^[86] Notable audio records are similarly limited, with one key example being a 1929 BBC broadcast capturing the orchestral score for Zéphyre et Flore, a revival of Charles-Louis Didelot's pre-romantic ballet adapted by Léonide Massine with music by Vladimir Dukelsky and designs by Georges Braque. This radio performance, conducted by the BBC Wireless Orchestra under G. Leslie Heward, preserves the evocative strains of the music but lacks the dancers' voices or movements. An attempt to film Les Noces in 1929, shortly before Diaghilev's death, resulted in incomplete footage that was subsequently lost, though elements have been reconstructed in later scholarly efforts using photographs, notations, and witness descriptions.^[87] These records, while grainy, distant, and silent in the case of films—with no complete ballets preserved—offer invaluable glimpses into the company's neoclassical precision, dynamic partnering, and innovative style. The 1928 Les Sylphides clips, for instance, reveal the lithe athleticism of Lifar and the ensemble's synchronized flow, informing contemporary reconstructions by companies like the Mariinsky Ballet and the Royal Ballet. Such fragments not only authenticate the Ballets Russes' revolutionary impact but also aid choreographers and historians in reviving lost nuances of Diaghilev's vision.^[84]^[88]

Archival Collections

The Harvard Theatre Collection at Harvard University holds significant materials related to the Ballets Russes, including costume and stage designs by Léon Bakst and papers associated with Serge Diaghilev, such as correspondence and production notes from the Howard D. Rothschild collection.^[89]^[90] The Victoria and Albert Museum (V&A) in London maintains one of the world's largest collections of Ballets Russes artifacts, encompassing over 300 theatre costumes, 40 costume designs, and additional items like photographs and drawings, totaling more than 500 objects.^[91] The Bibliothèque nationale de France preserves key musical scores from the company's repertoire, notably Igor Stravinsky's autograph manuscript of Le Sacre du printemps (The Rite of Spring), premiered by the Ballets Russes in 1913.^[92] The Jerome Robbins Dance Division at the New York Public Library houses extensive documentation, including Vaslav Nijinsky's personal diaries from 1919, which offer intimate insights into the dancer's experiences during his time with the company.^[93] Among the notable holdings across these repositories are Pablo Picasso's preparatory sketches for the 1917 ballet Parade, which illustrate the Cubist influences in the production's sets and costumes, preserved at the Musée Picasso in Paris.^[30] The V&A also safeguards Coco Chanel's 1924 costumes for Le Train bleu, including midnight blue stockinette bathing suits for the gigolos, exemplifying the integration of modern fashion into ballet attire.^[94] Incomplete documentation of the Mariinsky Theatre's exodus following the 1917 Russian Revolution—such as fragmented contracts and travel records for dancers who joined Diaghilev's émigré company—survives in scattered forms within the Harvard and NYPL collections, reflecting the chaotic dispersal of talent amid political upheaval.^[89]^[95] Digitization initiatives in the 2010s have enhanced accessibility to these materials, with platforms like Europeana providing online scans of designs, photographs, and ephemera from European institutions, including V&A and BnF holdings related to Nijinsky and Stravinsky.^[96] However, significant gaps persist in Soviet-era materials due to political suppression under the Bolshevik regime, which viewed the Ballets Russes as a symbol of pre-revolutionary excess and restricted access to related émigré artifacts in state archives.^[97] These archival collections hold immense research value, enabling scholarly reconstructions of lost productions through analysis of designs and correspondence, as seen in recent revivals of works like Parade. In the 2020s, acquisitions focusing on women designers—such as costumes by Nathalie Goncharova and Vera Soudeikina—have addressed previous oversights in documentation, highlighting their contributions to the company's aesthetic and supporting updated interpretations of its legacy.^[78]

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A Centennial Celebration of Diaghilev's Ballets Russes, 1909–1929
June 4, 2009–October 10, 2009. Features material concerning the Ballets Russes, one of the most influential dance companies of the twentieth century.Missing: V&A London
[75]
Ballets Russes Centennial - The Brooklyn Rail
Dancers of unprecedented virtuosity performed ballets with exotic, Orientalist themes that expressed seething passions and defied the stiff formalism of the ...Missing: V&A London
[76]
Crafting the Ballets Russes: The Robert Owen Lehman Collection
The exhibition opens with the dramatic arrival of Serge Diaghilev's Ballets Russes troupe in Paris in 1909 and goes on to trace its impact across the arts, ...Missing: major timeline
[77]
Women Artists of the Ballets Russes: Designing the Legacy
Women Artists of the Ballets Russes: Designing the Legacy is organized for the McNay Art Museum by Caroline Hamilton, Ph.D., costume and dance historian, Guest ...Missing: 2020-2021 | Show results with:2020-2021
[78]
Diaghilev's Ballets Russes in Spain and its Legacy | Dance Research
May 26, 2023 · This article considers the reasons that Spain was unsuccessful in establishing a national ballet company and school or in developing a ...
[79]
Ballets Russes Arts Initiative
Enjoy dance and voice performances, dancing to the Jason Benjamin Jazz Quintet and explore the meeting of art from East and West.Missing: 2020s | Show results with:2020s
[80]
Diaghilev and the Ballets Russes in America - The New York Historical
... 1909 by impresario and art patron Sergei Diaghilev (1872-1929), the Ballets Russes is recognized as the most influential and distinguished ballet company of ...
[81]
Hirshhorn Concert: 'Igor and Coco' | The Georgetowner
Jan 23, 2025 · “Igor and Coco” features a piano four-hands performance of Stravinsky's “Le Sacre du printemps (The Rite of Spring).” This landmark ballet's ...
[82]
Ballets Russes brought back to life on film - The Guardian
Jan 31, 2011 · 30 seconds of the Ballets Russes dancing in 1928, the only film ever found of a performance by one of the most influential and famous companies in dance ...Missing: earliest | Show results with:earliest
[83]
First film of Diaghilev's Ballets Russes discovered - The History Blog
Feb 4, 2011 · First film of Diaghilev's Ballets Russes discovered. February 4, 2011 ... To see the only known footage of Diaghilev's Ballets Russes, click here.Missing: earliest | Show results with:earliest
[84]
Rare 1928 Ballets Russes film footage found | arts•meme
Feb 3, 2011 · Balanchine choreographed “Apollo” and “The Prodigal Son” on Lifar. That's why it's interesting to see this footage. He's no technical wizard by ...
[85]
Music from the Russian Ballet - Broadcast - BBC Programme Index
Mon 1 Apr 1929, 21:35 on 2LO London. View in Radio Times. THE WIRELESS ORCHESTRA Conducted by G. LESLIE HEWARD THE Russian Ballet, which enjoys a unique ...
[86]
https://artsmeme.com/2011/02/03/rare-1928-ballets-russes-film-footage-found/
[87]
Russian Theatrical Designs | Harvard Library
The Art of Léon Bakst: For the Ballets Russes of Serge Diaghilev, Harvard Theatre Collection exhibition, 1999. Accessing These Materials. All material is ...Missing: papers | Show results with:papers
[88]
Howard D. Rothschild collection on Ballets Russes of Serge Diaghilev
The collection contains costume and stage designs for productions of Diaghilev's Ballets Russes, as well as portraits and caricatures of Serge Diaghilev, ...
[89]
https://library.harvard.edu/collections/russian-theatrical-designs
[90]
« Le Sacre du printemps », symbole de la modernité - BnF
Contenant vingt-trois feuillets de belle dimension, méticuleusement notés à l'encre noire par Stravinsky, peut-être aidé par sa première épouse, Catherine, le ...
[91]
Diary of Vaslav Nijinsky, pages 122-123 - NYPL Digital Collections
Jerome Robbins Dance Division, The New York Public Library. "Diary of Vaslav Nijinsky, pages 122-123" The New York Public Library Digital Collections. 1918 ...
[92]
Costume for a Gigolo in Le Train Bleu | Coco Chanel
Jul 1, 2009 · Midnight blue stockinette bathing costume designed by Chanel for one of the gigolos (the men of the corps de ballet) in Le Train Bleu (1924)
[93]
Jerome Robbins Dance Division program files
Program for the appearance of Diaghilev's Ballets Russes at the Nixon Theatre, March 20, 1916. Image. Ballets Russes (Diaghilev), American ...Missing: archival repositories Harvard V&A Museum Nationale France
[94]
Nijinsky | Europeana
Mar 12, 2013 · Nijinsky became the group's star male dancer, captivating audiences with every performance. His virtuosity, strength and characterisation were astounding.<|control11|><|separator|>
[95]
Angry Birds: Russian Censorship of the Arts - Yale University Press
Aug 19, 2014 · Russian censorship may be considered a vestige of the Soviet years and its use of a ballet to portend traumatic events may be dated, but this ...