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Builder's Old Measurement

Builder's Old Measurement (BOM), also abbreviated as bm, OM, or o.m., was a historical system employed in England from approximately 1650 to 1849 for estimating the cargo-carrying capacity of wooden sailing ships, primarily to determine tonnage for taxation, port duties, and regulatory purposes.^[1] This method calculated tonnage in "tons burthen," where each ton approximated 100 cubic feet of internal volume available for cargo, assuming the ship's burden was about three-fifths of its total displacement.^[2] Unlike modern gross tonnage, which measures total enclosed volume, BOM focused on an estimated cargo space and was applied to vessels afloat, often without precise depth measurements.^[3] The origins of Builder's Old Measurement trace back to informal practices among Thames shipbuilders in the mid-17th century, evolving from earlier medieval tax systems like those under King Edward I in 1303 for wool cargoes and Edward III for wine in 1353, which used crude volume estimates.^[1] It gained legal footing through a 1720 British parliamentary act aimed at curbing smuggling by standardizing vessel sizes under 30 tons, but the system was refined and formally mandated by the Act of Parliament 13 George III in 1773, which specified measurement protocols to improve accuracy.^[3] This act replaced vaguer "burthen" estimates of the prior century, making BOM the official standard for British merchant shipping until the advent of steam vessels highlighted its limitations.^[4] At its core, the formula for Builder's Old Measurement was T = \frac{(L - 0.6B) \times B^2}{188}, where T is tonnage in tons burthen, L is the length in feet measured along the deck from the fore side of the stem to the after side of the stern post (or keel length in earlier variants), and B is the maximum beam (breadth) in feet from outside plank to outside plank.^[1] The deduction of 0.6B from the length accounted for the tapering bow and stern, reducing effective cargo length, while substituting half the beam for unmeasured depth reflected practical challenges in assessing laden vessels; an earlier, simpler version used T = \frac{L \times B \times D}{94} or \frac{L \times B \times (B/2)}{94}, but the 1773 refinements standardized the squared beam approach.^[2] Measurements were taken in feet, and the divisor of 188 (derived from 94 × 2) effectively halved the beam contribution to mimic depth. Despite its widespread use, Builder's Old Measurement encouraged inefficient ship designs, as builders maximized tonnage by making vessels long and narrow with excessive depth—since depth was not directly factored—resulting in unseaworthy, "apple-cheeked" hulls prone to instability.^[2] It was gradually supplanted in the 1830s by proposals for more accurate systems, ultimately replaced in 1854 by the Moorsom Commission rules (later gross and net tonnage), which incorporated moulded depth and closed-in spaces for a fairer volume-based assessment applicable to iron and steam ships.^[3] The legacy of BOM persisted in American tonnage calculations until 1865 and influenced early yacht rating rules, underscoring its role in shaping maritime economics and design for over two centuries.^[1]

Overview

Definition

Builder's Old Measurement was a historical system used to estimate the cargo-carrying capacity of ships through a volumetric assessment expressed in "tons burthen." This term, derived from the Old English "byrthen" meaning a load or something carried, referred to the internal volume of a vessel rather than its weight, approximating the space that could accommodate tuns of wine or other cargo.^[5] The term originated from the capacity to carry tuns of wine (each about 34 cubic feet), but in early usage, one ton burthen was standardized to approximately 100 cubic feet of capacity to reflect general cargo space.^[5] Employed primarily in England from circa 1650 to 1849, Builder's Old Measurement applied to wooden sailing ships and served as a standardized method for gauging a vessel's potential freight volume before the advent of more precise modern metrics.^[3] Unlike weight-based tonnage, which measures a ship's displacement or actual load in mass, tons burthen focused on enclosed cubic capacity to infer how much merchandise the hull could contain, providing a proxy for commercial utility without weighing the vessel.^[5] The system's primary purposes included evaluating ships for taxation, calculating port and harbor dues, and enforcing regulations to curb smuggling, as formalized in the British Act of 1720 that restricted spirit imports to vessels exceeding 30 tons burthen.^[3] This legislation built on earlier medieval taxation practices, such as those introduced by King Edward I in 1303, which levied fees based on a ship's estimated tun capacity.^[5]

Calculation Formula

The Builder's Old Measurement tonnage T is calculated using the formula

T = \frac{\left( L - \left( B \times \frac{3}{5} \right) \right) \times B \times \frac{B}{2}}{94},

where L is the length of the keel in feet and B is the beam (maximum breadth) in feet, with the result expressed in tons burthen.^[3]^[2] This formula derives from empirical adjustments to estimate the internal cargo volume of wooden sailing vessels. The term L - (B \times 3/5) subtracts an allowance for the tapering of the hull at the bow and stern, reducing the effective length to better approximate the parallel body amidships where the full beam is maintained. The product B \times (B/2) serves as a proxy for the cross-sectional area, with B/2 substituting for the depth of the hold, reflecting typical proportions in 18th-century merchant ships where depth was roughly half the beam. The entire expression is then divided by 94 to convert the volumetric proxy into tons burthen, a standardization originating from the 1694 British parliamentary act that first formalized tonnage duties using a similar divisor for length, beam, and depth measurements.^[3]^[2] All measurements are taken in feet, with length along the keel from the sternpost to the stem and beam as the extreme width outside the planking. The resulting tonnage represents capacity in "old tons" or tons burthen, each representing approximately 100 cubic feet of internal capacity for estimating cargo such as wine, goods, or ballast.^[3] To illustrate, consider a hypothetical vessel with L = 100 ft and B = 25 ft. First, compute the adjusted length: $100 - (25 \times 3/5) = 100 - 15 = 85 ft. Next, calculate the cross-sectional proxy: $25 \times (25/2) = 25 \times 12.5 = 312.5 sq ft. Multiply by the adjusted length: $85 \times 312.5 = 26,562.5 cu ft (proxy volume). Finally, divide by 94: $26,562.5 / 94 \approx 283 tons burthen. This step-by-step process avoids direct depth measurement, relying instead on the beam-based approximation.^[3]

Historical Development

Origins in Medieval Taxation

The origins of ship measurement systems that eventually contributed to Builder's Old Measurement trace back to medieval England's fiscal policies, where assessing a vessel's capacity was essential for levying taxes on trade. In 1303, King Edward I introduced the first recorded tax on ships in England, known as tonnage, which was applied to imports transported by sea and calculated based on the ship's burthen, or carrying capacity in tuns, using a rudimentary volumetric formula: (length × beam × depth) / 100, with measurements taken in feet to approximate the number of tuns the vessel could carry.^[6]^[1] This levy marked the beginning of systematic efforts to quantify ship size for revenue purposes, initially focusing on the volume of cargo the vessel could hold rather than precise structural dimensions.^[1] By the mid-14th century, these practices evolved under King Edward III to address growing concerns over smuggling and to bolster royal finances for naval expansion during conflicts like the Hundred Years' War. In 1347, Edward III levied a tax known as tunnage of three shillings on each tun of imported wine, tying taxation directly to the ship's estimated cargo space and thereby discouraging underreporting of capacity to evade fees.^[6]^[1] The tun itself served as the foundational unit, representing a large cask for wine with a capacity of approximately 252 wine gallons, equivalent to about 34 cubic feet, which became the benchmark for all tonnage assessments.^[7] Prior to more formalized regulations in the 17th century, ship measurements remained largely informal and localized, conducted by harbor officials who relied on basic tools such as ropes for gauging length and wooden rules or spans for beam width. These ad hoc evaluations, often performed at ports like London or Southampton, were prone to inconsistency but effectively supported customs enforcement and port dues collection based on perceived wine-carrying potential.^[1] Such practices underscored the dual role of early tonnage systems in revenue generation and maritime administration, laying the groundwork for later refinements without yet establishing a uniform national standard.

Standardization in 18th-Century Britain

The standardization of Builder's Old Measurement in Britain began with the Tonnage Act of 1694, which introduced a volumetric formula for assessing ship capacity to promote uniformity in levying tonnage duties on seagoing and coasting vessels.^[2] This act addressed inconsistencies in earlier assessments, particularly frauds in coal-carrying keels at ports like Newcastle, by mandating measurements of length of keel (L), breadth at midship beam (B), and depth from keelson to upper deck (D), calculated as tonnage = (L × B × D) / 94.^[3] The formula provided a standardized basis for duties, replacing ad hoc methods and ensuring consistent taxation across merchant shipping.^[2] Further refinements came with the 1720 Act, which legalized a builders' tonnage rule primarily to combat smuggling by prohibiting the carriage of spirits in vessels under 30 tons, thereby necessitating accurate capacity estimates.^[2] This legislation adjusted the prior formula to better account for hull shape, substituting half the beam (B/2) for depth as a proxy for hold volume and applying it to internal measurements, which laid the groundwork for the deduction term (L - (3/5)B) in subsequent calculations to correct for bow and stern rake.^[3] These changes, drawn from Thames shipbuilders' practices, aimed to prevent under-measurement that facilitated illicit trade.^[2] The 1773 Act (13 George III) established Builder's Old Measurement as the official method for all merchant vessels, mandating measurements taken with the vessel afloat at the deck level for greater consistency and resolving ongoing disputes in port assessments.^[8] This act minimally modified the 1720 rule by refining length measurement along the keel rabbet line and excluding specific trades like coal and herring carriers, while adopting external breadth for breadth.^[3] Influenced by earlier shipbuilding treatises, such as Anthony Deane's Doctrine of Naval Architecture (1670), which advanced methods for estimating displacement and internal volume through proportional calculations, the standardization emphasized practical refinements to volume-based assessments.^[2] Overall, these acts reduced assessment disputes and provided a reliable framework for duties, remaining in use for all British merchant vessels until replaced by the Moorsom system in 1854.^[8]^[3]

Measurement Components

Length Measurement

In Builder's Old Measurement, the length (L) is defined as the length measured along the rabbet of the keel from the rabbet of the stem to the rabbet of the sternpost.^[9] The rabbet refers to the groove along the edge of the keel, stem, and sternpost where the outer planking is joined, ensuring the measurement captures the effective hull length along the keel.^[10] This approach focuses on the structural backbone of the vessel, excluding any extensions beyond these points. The technique involved laying a measuring chain or steel tape along the rabbet of the keel, often using a plumb line for vertical alignment if the ship was afloat at its load water mark.^[11] For sailing ships, the measurement could alternatively follow the upper deck or gunwale line to approximate the keel path, while deliberately excluding bow and stern overhangs that projected beyond the stem and sternpost.^[2] All dimensions were recorded in feet and inches, reflecting the imperial standards of 18th- and 19th-century British shipbuilding.^[9] Challenges arose from variations in ship design, such as the pronounced rake of clipper bows compared to the more perpendicular stems of traditional merchant vessels, which necessitated adjustments such as subtracting three inches per foot of load draft for aft rake during afloat measurements to approximate the keel length, while the overall formula later deducts three-fifths of the beam to account for the tapered bow and stern.^[2] These design differences could lead to inconsistencies in measured length, particularly for vessels with sharp entry lines or transom sterns, complicating standardization across hull types.^[11] As the primary longitudinal dimension in the system, L provides the foundational scale for volume estimation, later adjusted in the tonnage formula by subtracting three-fifths of the beam to compensate for the tapered ends of the hull and better reflect internal capacity.^[10]

Beam Measurement

In Builder's Old Measurement, the beam, denoted as B, represents the maximum width of the hull at its broadest point, typically midships. This dimension was taken as the extreme breadth from the outside of the outside plank on one side to the corresponding point on the other side, excluding any doubling planks along the sides.^[3] The measurement technique involved taking a perpendicular line across the vessel at the widest section, usually within the hold or at deck level, to capture the full transverse extent. For merchant ships, this was conducted externally from plank to plank at the midship position, ensuring accuracy in approximating the hull's volumetric capacity. In the case of warships, the beam was similarly assessed but often referenced at the main deck level to align with structural features like gun ports.^[3]^[2] This approach inherently accounted for tumblehome, the inward curvature of the hull sides above the waterline, by selecting the absolute maximum width, which occurred below the tumblehome region in traditional designs. All dimensions, including beam, were recorded in feet as per English customary units, facilitating standardized calculations under the 1773 Act (13 George III).^[3]^[2] The beam's prominence in the tonnage formula—where it was effectively squared as B × (B/2) to proxy for depth—made it pivotal for estimating internal volume, as wider beams disproportionately increased the computed cargo capacity and thus influenced ship design toward broader hulls for tax advantages.^[2]

Depth Measurement

In Builder's Old Measurement, the depth (D) refers to the vertical internal dimension of the ship's hull, measured from the lowest point of the hold—specifically, the plank below the kelson—to the under part of the deck planking or the upper edge of the deck beams.^[2] This measurement captured the usable height for cargo within the hold, providing a key indicator of volumetric capacity despite its eventual simplification in the overall formula. Two primary variants existed: "depth in hold," which emphasized the internal space available for cargo storage from the bilge area to the deck, and "depth to deck," which extended to the overall hull height including upper structural elements. In standard merchant vessel designs of the era, depth closely correlated with half the beam width and was thus approximated as B/2 in refined tonnage calculations to streamline assessments.^[2] The technique for measuring depth involved a precise vertical assessment within the hull's interior, taken amidships to account for the greatest hold dimension, while excluding the thickness of ceiling planking to focus on navigable cargo space rather than structural lining.^[2] This ensured the figure reflected practical internal volume without incorporating non-usable planking layers. Originally incorporated as a direct multiplier in the 1694 English tonnage act's formula (length × beam × depth / 94), the depth measurement was substituted with the B/2 approximation by the 1773 act to simplify computations, as empirical observations showed a reliable proportionality between depth and beam in typical British ship constructions.^[2]^[12] Measuring depth presented challenges, especially in multi-deck ships where the reference point shifted—for single-deck vessels to the main deck and for two-deck ones to the upper deck—resulting in variability and potential inconsistencies across vessel types; all such dimensions were recorded in feet.^[2]

National Variations

American Tons Burthen

The American Tons Burthen system was adopted by the United States in 1789 through "An Act for Registering and Clearing Vessels, Regulating the Coasting Trade, and for other Purposes," which mirrored the British Builder's Old Measurement for calculating vessel capacity to facilitate customs administration and domestic trade regulation.^[13] This legislation required admeasurement of ships for enrollment and licensing, applying the tonnage to determine duties on imports and exports as well as light money fees.^[13] The formula prescribed in the 1789 act was T = \frac{(L - B \times \frac{3}{5}) \times B \times D}{95}, where L is the length measured from the fore part of the main stem to the after part of the stern post (above the deck for double-decked vessels), B is the breadth at the broadest part above the main wales, and D is the depth (half the breadth for double-decked vessels or measured from the deck underside to the hold ceiling for single-decked ones).^[13] This volumetric approach estimated internal cargo space in tons of 100 cubic feet, with deductions for non-cargo areas like crew quarters excluded in practice.^[2] A key distinction from the British formula lay in the divisor of 95 rather than 94, yielding marginally lower tonnage figures that reduced fiscal burdens on American vessel owners by minimizing calculated capacity for duty assessments. Combined with subtle variations in measuring length and breadth—such as taking external dimensions in some cases—the U.S. system produced tonnages approximately 6% lower overall for equivalent ships, providing a competitive edge in international trade by lowering port fees and tonnage-based taxes.^[2] The system was employed for registering merchant vessels, assessing customs duties, and even rating naval ships until the Act of July 29, 1864, shifted to a register tonnage based on gross volume without deductions.^[14] For instance, the frigate USS President measured 1533 \frac{7}{94} British tons burthen upon its capture in 1815 but only 1444 tons under the American method, illustrating how the discrepancy influenced naval comparisons and trade economics by understating capacity for lower charges. This adaptation supported early U.S. maritime growth by favoring domestic builders and operators in a protectionist framework.^[2]

French Port Tonneau

The French port tonneau, or tonneau de port, served as the primary measure of a ship's burthen capacity in France from the late 17th century onward, representing an internal volume equivalent to the space occupied by cargo or provisions. Standardized by the Ordonnance de la Marine of 1681, promulgated under the direction of Jean-Baptiste Colbert, minister to Louis XIV, this system defined one tonneau burthen as 42 cubic pieds du roi (royal feet) of hold capacity, roughly corresponding to the volume of four Bordeaux wine barriques and akin to the British tun in its focus on cask-based equivalents for trade assessment.^[15]^[12] This ordinance emerged as a cornerstone of France's mercantilist policies, aimed at bolstering naval power and regulating commerce by unifying disparate local measurement practices across ports and shipyards during Louis XIV's reign. The calculation of port tonnage under this system generally involved estimating the hold volume using length (longueur) at the deck, average beam (largeur) amidships, and average depth (creux or hold height, often measured at multiple points), in pieds du roi, adjusted by a form coefficient if needed (e.g., approximately 0.42 in 18th-century practices), then dividing by 42 to yield the number of tonneaux. Methods varied across French ports and over time; for example, post-1789 reforms refined the approach with adjusted divisors. Unlike contemporary British methods, it typically omitted deductions for hull taper or construction features.^[16] The pied du roi, measuring approximately 1.066 English feet (or 0.3248 meters), resulted in systematically larger volume estimates compared to British calculations for equivalent ships, reflecting regional variations in unit standards that complicated international trade comparisons. For instance, the flagship Soleil Royal, constructed in Brest between 1668 and 1670, was rated at around 2,500 port tonneaux, while the first-rate Royal Louis of 1692 achieved 2,600 port tonneaux, illustrating application in royal shipyards like those at Brest and Toulon.^[17] This measurement was applied to both naval vessels for military provisioning and assessments and merchant ships for port duties and harbor fees, ensuring consistent taxation and capacity evaluation under royal authority.^[12] Despite the advent of metric reforms in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, the port tonneau persisted in French maritime administration into the mid-19th century, as seen in ships like the 118-gun Louis XIV (launched 1854) rated at 2,794 to 2,930 port tonneaux, bridging pre-revolutionary traditions with modern naval needs.

Legacy and Replacement

Applications in Regulation and Racing

Builder's Old Measurement (BOM) served as the primary basis for assessing harbor dues and customs duties on merchant vessels in Britain during the 18th and early 19th centuries, with port charges calculated directly from a ship's registered tonnage to fund maritime infrastructure and revenue collection.^[3] The system's volumetric formula provided a standardized proxy for cargo capacity, enabling consistent taxation across ports like London and Liverpool. A key regulatory application emerged in the 1720 Smuggling Act (7 George I, c. 21), which legalized BOM for vessel certification to curb illicit trade, prohibiting ships under 30 tons from carrying spirits or other restricted goods without bonds, thus requiring official measurement surveys for compliance.^[3] In naval contexts, BOM informed manning ratios for Royal Navy vessels until the mid-19th century, where crew complements were scaled to burthen tonnage to ensure operational efficiency; for instance, a typical 74-gun ship of approximately 1,700 tons required around 650 men, reflecting the system's role in allocating personnel based on estimated internal volume rather than displacement. This approach persisted for warships even as merchant practices evolved, providing a uniform metric for provisioning and quartering.^[18] For yacht racing, a variant known as Thames Measurement—adapted from BOM's core formula—emerged in the 1840s under the Royal Thames Yacht Club to establish handicaps, adjusting start times based on tonnage to promote fair competition among vessels of varying sizes and rigs.^[1] This system penalized broader-beamed yachts while favoring longer, narrower designs, influencing hull evolution until the 1854 Yacht Club rules refined it further for emerging schooner and cutter classes.^[19] Beyond governance, BOM underpinned ship registration in Lloyd's Register of Shipping from the 1760s, where tonnage entries determined classification and influenced insurance premiums by correlating with risk exposure and value; East India Company vessels exemplify this, with their BOM certifications essential for voyage approvals and underwriting at rates tied to cargo potential.^[5] However, adoption outside Britain remained patchy, with incomplete records limiting insights into continental European or colonial uses, and by the 1840s, the system's inaccuracies for iron-hulled and steam-powered ships—overestimating capacity in non-wooden designs—highlighted its growing obsolescence.^[19]

Transition to Moorsom System

As the 19th century progressed, Builder's Old Measurement (BOM) revealed significant limitations, particularly for emerging ship types like steamships and iron-hulled vessels. The formula, which relied on external dimensions and emphasized length and the square of the beam while neglecting depth, failed to account for the substantial internal space occupied by engines, boilers, and propellers in steamships, leading to inaccurate assessments of cargo capacity and earning potential.^[2] For iron-hulled ships, the system's assumptions about hull shape and volume were ill-suited, as these vessels often featured more streamlined designs that deviated from the boxy forms it favored. Additionally, BOM tended to overestimate tonnage for fine-lined vessels, such as clipper ships, by disproportionately weighting beam measurements, which penalized efficient, slender hulls designed for speed over bulk cargo.^[2] These shortcomings prompted the formation of a Royal Commission in 1849, chaired by Admiral George Moorsom and tasked by the British Board of Trade with developing a more equitable system. The commission proposed measuring a ship's total enclosed internal volume in cubic feet, dividing by 100 to yield gross tonnage (with 100 cubic feet equaling one register ton), thereby providing a direct indicator of capacity regardless of hull material or propulsion type. This approach addressed BOM's biases by incorporating all enclosed spaces while allowing deductions for non-revenue areas like machinery. The Moorsom System was formally adopted through the Merchant Shipping Act of 1854, marking a shift toward volume-based assessment that better suited modern shipping needs.^[20]^[2] The transition phased out BOM for new vessel registrations by 1854, though it lingered in some legacy applications, including for certain yachts into the early 20th century, where traditional formulas influenced racing handicaps and port fees. Early implementations of the Moorsom System encountered ambiguities, particularly regarding deck spaces; exemptions for "shelter-deck" areas—intended to exclude open or lightly enclosed upper decks—were vaguely defined, allowing manipulations that inflated or deflated tonnage and complicating international comparisons. These issues persisted until later clarifications, such as adjustments around 1867 for certain exemptions and engine space deductions (initially up to 32% for steamers).^[21]^[2] The Moorsom System's emphasis on standardized internal volume profoundly influenced global maritime practices, becoming a quasi-international benchmark by the 1880s as nations like the United States (1864) and Japan (1884) adopted variations. It laid the groundwork for modern conventions, including the 1969 International Convention on Tonnage Measurement of Ships by the International Maritime Organization (IMO), which harmonized gross and net tonnage calculations worldwide and resolved lingering ambiguities in enclosed space definitions to promote uniformity and safety. An illustrative example is HMS Warrior (1860, Britain's first iron-hulled armored frigate; under BOM, she was rated at 6,109 tons burthen, but her internal volume under Moorsom principles yielded a higher effective capacity closer to her 9,137-long-ton displacement, highlighting the old system's underestimation for complex, machinery-heavy designs.^[21]^[22]

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