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Cal Madow

Cal Madow, also known as the Golis Mountains, is a prominent mountain range in northern Somalia, situated in the Sanaag region of Somaliland and extending approximately 1 million hectares from the Ethiopian border in the northwest to Cape Guardafui in the northeast.^[1] This range runs parallel to the Gulf of Aden, forming a narrow coastal escarpment that rises abruptly from the surrounding arid lowlands, with elevations averaging 1,800–2,100 meters and reaching a maximum of 2,460 meters at Mount Shimbiris, located 19 kilometers northwest of Erigavo.^[1]^[2] The geography of Cal Madow is characterized by steep slopes, plateaus, and fault scarps that mark the ancient separation of the Arabian and Somalian plates, creating a diverse topography of rocky hillsides, shallow valleys, and stream-fed wadis.^[2] Benefiting from higher annual rainfall of over 700 millimeters—primarily from seasonal monsoons and orographic mist—the range supports a cooler climate with average temperatures of 20–22°C, contrasting sharply with the hot, dry deserts of northern Somalia.^[1] This elevational gradient fosters vegetation zones, from sparse desert scrub at lower altitudes (above 800 meters) to dense montane forests on upper slopes and plateaus, where moisture from fog and streams sustains contour-like bands of greenery.^[2] Ecologically, Cal Madow stands out as a biodiversity hotspot in an otherwise ecologically impoverished region, hosting over 1,000 plant species, including approximately 200 endemics such as Boswellia sacra (frankincense) and Commiphora myrrha (myrrh) trees, as well as Juniperus procera, Olea africana, and various Acacia species.^[2]^[1] The area is dominated by closed and open shrublands interspersed with woodlands, providing habitat for rare and endemic animals, including the Warsangli linnet bird and other species adapted to rocky, high-altitude environments.^[3] Despite its richness, the range faces significant threats from deforestation for charcoal production, overgrazing by livestock, agricultural expansion, and human settlement, which have led to a decline in forest cover since the 1990s, underscoring the urgent need for conservation efforts.^[1]

Geography

Location and extent

Cal Madow is a prominent mountain range situated in the Sanaag region of Somaliland, forming an integral part of the broader Ogo Mountains (also known as the Golis Mountains) system in the Horn of Africa. It lies along the northern edge of the country, extending eastward from near the town of Erigavo toward the border areas with Puntland, encompassing a rugged terrain that marks the transition between the Somali Peninsula's interior highlands and its coastal zones. Representative coordinates for the range place it at approximately 10°44′09″N 47°14′42″E, near key features such as the Lamadaya waterfalls.^[1]^[4] The range runs parallel to the Gulf of Aden as a narrow coastal escarpment, spanning approximately 100 km in length and varying in width from a few kilometers to about 10-20 km. Its boundaries are defined to the north by a fault line separating it from the Gulf of Aden by a narrow coastal plain (often less than 1 km wide in eastern sections and up to 60 km in the west), while to the south it merges into the sub-coastal hills and the broader Ogo plateau. This positioning creates a dramatic elevational gradient, with the range rising sharply from sea level to its crestline averaging 1,800-2,100 m.^[1] The highest elevations in Cal Madow reach up to 2,460 m at Mount Shimbiris, located about 19 km northwest of Erigavo, which stands as Somaliland's loftiest peak and contributes to the range's overall maximum height of around 2,410-2,500 m across its summits.^[1]^[2] The surrounding landscape transitions from arid coastal plains dominated by scrub vegetation at lower altitudes to steeper sub-coastal hills and the montane plateaus of the range itself, influencing local ecological zonation through altitudinal variation.^[1]

Geology and topography

The Cal Madow mountain range, part of the broader Golis Mountains, is underlain by a Precambrian basement complex consisting of metamorphic rocks such as schists, gneisses, and quartzites, along with igneous intrusions including granites and gabbros. Overlying this basement are thick sequences of sedimentary rocks deposited from the Jurassic to the Recent periods, including Lower to Middle Jurassic continental sandstones and conglomerates of the Adigrat Formation, Upper Jurassic marine carbonates and shales of the Bihendula Group, Cretaceous fluvio-deltaic sandstones of the Nubian and Jesomma Formations, and Paleogene carbonates and evaporites such as the cherty Auradu limestones (up to 380 m thick), Taleh Formation anhydrites and gypsums, and Karkar limestones. These sedimentary layers reflect a history of shallow marine, deltaic, and evaporitic environments influenced by regional sea-level changes and sedimentation patterns.^[5]^[6] The geological formation of Cal Madow is tied to tectonic processes in the Horn of Africa, beginning with Precambrian orogenic events that folded and metamorphosed the basement rocks, followed by Mesozoic marine transgressions and depositions. Significant uplift occurred during the Late Cretaceous to Paleogene, associated with the initial rifting of the Somali Plate from the Arabian Plate, and intensified in the Oligocene-Miocene with the opening of the Gulf of Aden, which produced half-graben structures and normal faulting along northwest-southeast trends. This rifting led to the elevation of the range as a fault-bounded horst block, with neotectonic activity causing further differential uplift and the development of escarpments through faulting and erosional downcutting. The northern margin is marked by a prominent fault zone that separates the uplifted plateau from the adjacent coastal plain of the Gulf of Aden.^[5]^[6]^[1] Topographically, Cal Madow exhibits steep escarpments, including the Daallo and Al Madow escarpments that form dramatic north-facing cliffs sloping toward the Gulf of Aden, narrow fault-controlled ridges, and deeply incised valleys carved by seasonal streams (toggas). The range rises from lower elevations of 700–800 meters along its southern foothills, supporting transitional zones, to high plateaus at 1,200–1,900 meters and rugged peaks exceeding 2,400 meters, with Mount Shimbiris reaching 2,460 meters as the highest point.^[2] These features create a dissected landscape with karstified limestone plateaus in the north and more rolling hills in the east, where the range meets the coast near Cape Guardafui. The varied topography influences local microclimates by trapping moisture on windward slopes.^[5]^[1] Cal Madow harbors unexploited mineral deposits with potential for metals such as gold and iron, as well as gems, linked to greenstone belts and associated shear zones in the Precambrian basement exposed in the Daallo and Cal Madow areas. The region is also a prospective area for oil exploration, owing to its Mesozoic rift basins and petroleum systems that extend from and mirror those in Yemen's Marib and Shabwa basins, including shared Jurassic source rocks like the Bihendula shales and Cretaceous reservoir sandstones, separated by the Gulf of Aden rift but with analogous tectono-stratigraphic evolution. Historical surveys from the mid-20th century identified hydrocarbon shows, underscoring the basin's underexplored potential.^[7]^[6]^[8]

Climate

Weather patterns

The weather patterns of Cal Madow are shaped by its coastal position and elevation, resulting in a mild semi-arid climate distinct from the surrounding arid lowlands.^[9] The region experiences two primary rainy periods influenced by monsoon winds from the Indian Ocean: the Gu season from April to June and the Deyr season from October to December, interspersed with dry intervals.^[10] Winters from November to February are characterized by cool, foggy conditions under the northeast monsoon, which delivers relatively dry air but promotes persistent coastal fog that enhances humidity.^[9] Summers, from July to September, are predominantly dry and warmer, with occasional gusty winds during the southwest monsoon transition. Prevailing wind systems play a key role in moisture distribution, as the northeast monsoon dominates the cooler months, carrying ocean air that condenses into fog along the slopes.^[10] This fog, common in the dry season, interacts with the terrain to sustain elevated humidity levels, particularly near the coast.^[4] The southwest monsoon in summer introduces stronger winds that can bring sporadic moisture but often result in drier overall conditions inland. Microclimate variations arise from the range's topography, with higher elevations above 1,500 meters featuring cooler temperatures and more consistent cloud cover due to orographic lift.^[9] In contrast, lower coastal areas experience warmer, more variable conditions influenced directly by sea breezes.^[4] These elevation-driven differences create localized atmospheric pockets that moderate extremes compared to the broader northern Somali coast.^[9] As a topographic barrier parallel to the coast, Cal Madow influences regional weather by channeling moist ocean air to its windward slopes, fostering wetter microclimates there while contributing to drier conditions on the leeward inland side.^[2] This dynamic enhances the range's role in creating contrasting atmospheric conditions across short distances.^[9]

Precipitation and temperature

The Cal Madow mountain range receives annual precipitation ranging from 750 to 850 mm, primarily driven by winter rains and monsoon activity, with higher totals occurring at altitudes of 700–800 m where lush forests are sustained.^[4]^[11] Fog and mist from the adjacent Gulf of Aden provide additional moisture, contributing significantly to the overall hydrological balance, though exact quantification remains limited in available studies.^[1] This precipitation regime is notably higher than in the surrounding Somali lowlands and deserts, which typically receive less than 200 mm annually.^[12] Temperatures in the Cal Madow vary markedly with altitude, maintaining a relatively stable profile overall but cooling progressively toward higher elevations. The average annual temperature across the range is 20–22°C.^[1] In contrast, warmer conditions prevail at the coastal bases, where daytime temperatures can reach up to 30°C.^[10] These patterns are influenced by the range's topography, which moderates extremes compared to the arid lowlands.^[2]

Ecology

Flora

The flora of Cal Madow exhibits exceptional diversity, with approximately 1,000 vascular plant species recorded, around 200 of which are endemic to the range and not found elsewhere. This botanical richness surpasses that of much of the Horn of Africa, owing to the region's varied microclimates and isolation as a center of endemism within the Somalia-Masai hotspot.^[13]^[3] Prominent species include the pencil cedar (Juniperus procera), which forms remnant old-growth forests at higher elevations, and the boxwood (Buxus hildebrandtii), a key component of evergreen scrubs along the escarpment. Other notable plants are locust bean trees (Ceratonia oreothauma), linking the flora biogeographically to Mediterranean regions, and various lavender species (Lavandula spp.) that thrive in rocky, well-drained soils. Succulents such as Aloe eminens and Euphorbia mitriformis are also characteristic, with the former reaching up to 18 meters in height and featuring striking red inflorescences.^[3]^[13] Vegetation transitions across altitudinal zones, reflecting the influence of fog, seasonal rains, and topography that trap moisture to support forest growth despite the arid surroundings. At intermediate elevations of 700–800 m, lush montane woodlands dominated by Acacia and Commiphora species prevail, interspersed with Boswellia and Commiphora myrrh trees. Lower slopes feature arid scrub communities of sparse Acacia-Commiphora bushland, gradually giving way to semi-desert vegetation on the coastal plains. Higher escarpments host denser evergreen scrubs with Buxus hildebrandtii, Pistacia, Cadia, Olea, and Dracaena, culminating in Juniperus procera forests on plateaus and peaks.^[3]^[13] Distinctive elements include extensive frankincense groves of Boswellia frereana and B. sacra, which form critical habitats in sub-coastal and escarpment areas and support unique mycorrhizal associations. A botanical survey in 1995, led by Mats Thulin as part of the Flora of Somalia project, identified eight previously unknown plant species, highlighting ongoing discoveries in this under-explored area.^[14]^[13]

Fauna

The Cal Madow mountain range supports a notable diversity of fauna adapted to its montane and arid environments, including over 300 bird species, dozens of mammals, reptiles, and amphibians, many of which are rare or endemic due to the region's isolation.^[3] This fauna is richer than in much of the surrounding Horn of Africa, with species thriving in varied elevations from coastal escarpments to highland forests. The area's remoteness has preserved habitats for undiscovered endemics, contributing to its status as a regional biodiversity hotspot amid the ecologically arid Horn region.^[3] Key avian species include the Warsangli linnet (Linaria johannis), an endangered endemic finch restricted to the juniper forests of higher elevations, where it forages in the canopy.^[3] The Somali pigeon (Columba oliviae), also endemic to Somalia and classified as Data Deficient, inhabits the escarpments and sub-coastal hills, often near rocky outcrops.^[3] Another notable bird is the Somali golden-winged grosbeak (Rhynchostruthus louisae), a finch adapted to forested and shrubland areas in the range.^[15] Among mammals, the vulnerable beira antelope (Dorcatragus megalotis), a small arid-adapted species endemic to the Horn, occurs in the limestone hills and escarpments, with sightings of groups recorded in 2009.^[16] Reptiles in Cal Madow, part of the Somali montane xeric woodlands ecoregion, include endemics such as the snake Spalerosophis josephscorteccii, which favor the rocky, semi-arid slopes and plateaus. Forest-dwelling species, like certain birds and small mammals, rely on the higher-elevation juniper woodlands for shelter and food, while arid-adapted fauna such as antelopes and reptiles dominate the lower escarpments and coastal plains.^[3] The isolation of these habitats fosters high endemism rates, with at least four endemic birds and several vertebrate species unique to the area, underscoring its importance for regional wildlife conservation.^[3]

Conservation

Threats

The Cal Madow mountain range, also known as the Golis Mountains, faces significant environmental threats primarily from human activities that degrade its unique ecosystems. Deforestation driven by local wood harvesting for construction, fuel, and fodder, as well as charcoal production for export, has led to substantial vegetation loss, with unregulated cutting exposing slopes to further degradation.^[1] Overgrazing by livestock, intensified during droughts when pastoralists seek refuge in the range, compacts soils and prevents vegetation regeneration, exacerbating habitat fragmentation across the approximately 1 million hectares of historical forest cover.^[1]^[17] Additional risks include potential disruptions from oil and gas exploration activities in Somaliland, which could involve seismic surveys and infrastructure development that disturb sensitive habitats and increase pollution risks.^[17] Climate change further compounds these pressures by intensifying aridity in the surrounding lowlands, reducing overall water availability and pushing more livestock into the range, while altered rainfall patterns threaten the moisture-dependent biodiversity within it.^[17]^[1] In June-July 2025, a massive wildfire ravaged the Daallo Mountains within Cal Madow, burning approximately 60 square kilometers of pristine woodland and farmland, further threatening endemic species habitats and underscoring vulnerabilities to natural disasters amid ongoing human pressures.^[18]^[19] These threats result in the loss of habitats for endemic species, such as frankincense trees and unique shrublands, diminishing the range's role as a biodiversity refuge in an otherwise arid region. Soil erosion on steep slopes accelerates due to vegetation removal, leading to sedimentation in downstream areas and long-term land productivity decline.^[1]^[17] Habitat preservation in Cal Madow largely depends on local communities, who derive up to 90% of their benefits from the forest but face increasing extraction pressures. External factors, such as regional conflicts involving groups like Al-Shabaab that profit from the charcoal trade, heighten vulnerability by limiting governance and enforcement efforts.^[1]^[17]

Protection efforts

The local population in the Sanaag region has played a central role in preserving the habitats of the Cal Madow range through traditional practices, including customary management of frankincense trees by elders' councils that regulate harvesting to prevent overexploitation.^[17] These indigenous systems, rooted in the xeer customary law, emphasize sustainable resource use and have helped limit deforestation in key forest areas like Daallo.^[17] Community-based initiatives, such as the ECOTERRA International nature protection program since 1989 in the Juniper forests, further involve local Warsangeli clan leaders in promoting permaculture and drought-resistant farming to safeguard biodiversity.^[4] A pivotal 1995 botanical survey led by Dr. Mats Thulin of Uppsala University, in collaboration with the Flora of Somalia project, documented around 1,000 plant species in Cal Madow, including 200 endemics and eight new discoveries, significantly raising international awareness of the range's unique biodiversity and underscoring the need for conservation.^[4] This effort informed subsequent proposals, such as the 2006 Fauna & Flora International initiative recommending the re-establishment of Cal Madow as a national park to protect its forests, study endangered species, and address gully erosion and unsustainable practices like charcoal production.^[13] The Daallo Forest within the range has been recognized as a reserve, highlighting potential for broader protected area status to mitigate exploitation from timber cutting and mining.^[20] Modern initiatives build on these foundations, with projects like Save Frankincense focusing on research and sustainable frankincense economies to combat threats such as over-tapping and climate change, while engaging local communities in balancing tree health with livelihoods.^[21] The European Union-funded "Your Environment is Your Life" project (2013–2017) supported sustainable land management in Sanaag through village development committees, including regreening and grazing controls.^[17] Calls for international aid persist to strengthen anti-deforestation measures, including community dialogues on sustainable harvesting.^[22] These efforts have achieved partial success in maintaining forest cover through traditional oversight and targeted interventions, though formal policies remain essential to regulate emerging pressures from the minerals and oil sectors.^[23]

History

Exploration and surveys

Exploration of the Cal Madow range prior to the 20th century was minimal, with scant documented records reflecting the remote and rugged terrain that limited access. During the colonial period under British administration, the area formed part of broader surveys of the Ogo Mountains in British Somaliland, including geographical and topographical assessments conducted as part of protectorate mapping efforts.^[24] Ecological studies of Cal Madow in the late 20th century focused on vegetation patterns and contributed foundational knowledge to understanding the range's high levels of plant endemism within the Horn of Africa biodiversity hotspot. These investigations highlighted woodland associations on limestone substrates unique to the region, aiding later conservation assessments. A landmark botanical expedition took place in January 1995, when a team led by Dr. Mats Thulin of Uppsala University conducted a survey on behalf of the Flora of Somalia project. This effort documented the range's diverse flora, resulting in the documentation of numerous species and contributions to the Flora of Somalia, underscoring Cal Madow's role as a center of floral endemism, with findings integrated into subsequent volumes of the Flora of Somalia. In the 2000s, geological assessments targeted the range's potential mineral and hydrocarbon resources, building on earlier reconnaissance to evaluate deposits amid Somaliland's post-independence resource mapping. These activities identified prospects for oil exploration, given the range's geological continuity with Yemeni petroleum systems across the Gulf of Aden. Aerial and satellite imagery has further advanced documentation of Cal Madow's features, particularly its forested highlands. NASA's Landsat 8 captured detailed views in 2015, revealing deeply incised plateaus and vegetation contrasts against surrounding deserts. Similarly, the European Space Agency's analysis of ALOS data from 2014 emphasized the range's ecological diversity, including endemic plant habitats visible in darker vegetated patches. More recent assessments, such as the 2020 World Bank Country Environmental Analysis, have continued to document the range's ecological and resource challenges.^[2]^[25]^[17]

Tourism and human use

Cal Madow's rugged terrain and diverse ecosystems have long attracted interest for tourism, particularly hiking and eco-tourism activities that highlight its unique montane forests and coastal escarpments. In the late 20th century, the range was promoted as a destination for nature enthusiasts, but tourism declined sharply due to the [Somali Civil War](/page/Somali Civil War) and ongoing regional instability, which disrupted access and safety. Recent efforts focus on its potential revival through small-scale, sustainable initiatives to diversify local incomes while protecting biodiversity.^[26] Human settlements in the Cal Madow range are sparse, primarily consisting of nomadic and semi-nomadic pastoralist communities in the Sanaag region who rely on the mountain slopes for seasonal grazing of livestock such as goats, sheep, and camels. These groups access natural water sources like springs and seasonal streams on the escarpments, supporting their traditional livelihoods amid the arid surroundings. The area's isolation and challenging topography limit permanent villages, with nearby towns like Erigavo and Badhan serving as hubs.^[25]^[17] Economic activities center on the traditional harvesting of frankincense resin from Boswellia trees, which grows wild in the Cal Madow forests and provides a vital income source for local harvesters, often comprising a significant portion of household revenue in the absence of other opportunities. Communities collect the resin through sustainable tapping methods passed down generations, exporting it globally for use in perfumes, incense, and medicine, though overharvesting poses risks to tree populations. Beyond resins, livestock rearing dominates, with potential for expanded non-timber products like honey production. Sustainable eco-tourism is seen as a complementary economic avenue, offering guided treks and cultural experiences to generate employment and reduce pressure on forest resources.^[26]^[27] Local clans, particularly the Warsangeli and elements of the Dhulbahante and Isaaq, regard Cal Madow as a cherished natural heritage site integral to their identity, with the mountains holding cultural and ancestral value reflected in oral traditions and community stewardship practices. These groups contribute to its preservation through customary resource management, viewing the range as a spiritual landscape tied to Somali heritage.^[13]

References

[1]
[PDF] Monitoring of the Golis Mountain Forest in Somalia - FAO SWALIM
Dec 18, 2010 · 1.2 Geographic Location. Golis Mountain range (Cal Madow range) extends from the border with Ethiopia in the northwest to Cape Guardafui (Ras ...
[2]
Forests of the Cal Madow - NASA Earth Observatory
Jul 25, 2015 · Sparsely-vegetated desert landscapes dominate most of northern Somalia. One notable exception is the Cal Madow Mountains, a narrow coastal range ...
[3]
ESA - Cal Madow mountain range, Somalia - European Space Agency
The ecologically diverse region is home to a number of endemic plants species, as well as many rare animals. Unfortunately, the area lacks proper conservation ...
[4]
Cal Madow - Mountain range in northern Somaliland
It's main range is Somaliland. This small antelope is known to do well in rocky environments, stony hillsides and slopes, and flat summits with steep sides.
[5]
None
Below is a merged and comprehensive summary of the geology and topography of the Golis Mountains and Cal Madow, incorporating all details from the provided segments. To ensure maximum density and clarity, I will use a table format in CSV style for key categories (e.g., Rock Types, Sedimentary Rocks, Formation/Uplift, etc.), followed by a narrative summary for additional context. This approach retains all information while making it concise and structured.
[6]
[PDF] petroleum geology of the nogal basin and surrounding area ...
basins in northern Somalia and Yemen. This trend lies along the Nogal ... Geology and oil prospects of Somalia, East. Africa. AAPG Bulletin, 60, 389-413 ...
[7]
Somalia-Country-Environmental-Analysis-Diagnostic-Study-on ...
... Cal Madow mountain ranges in Sanaag region of Somalia (photo credit ... climate change resilience across all the environmental sectors. This CEA is ...
[8]
(PDF) Geology and coal potential of Somaliland - ResearchGate
Aug 7, 2025 · and Bosellini (1992). Jurassic sedimentary rocks of Somaliland consist of a thick sequence of. conglomeratic continental deposits (basal ...
[9]
The Forests of Northern Somalia? - GeoCurrents
Dec 27, 2024 · According to the Wikipedia article on the range, annual totals run as high as 750–850 mm (30–33 in).Missing: length extent
[10]
The Climate of Somalia - Blue Green Atlas
Somalia has an arid or semiarid climate. In normal years there are four seasons, two with rain and two essentially without rain. December through March, the ...Missing: Cal Madow patterns
[11]
Al-Madow Mountain Forest - SATG
The mean annual rainfall in Al-Madow is high, ranging from 750 to 850 mm in addition to winter rains, fog and mist. As a result of favorable climatic conditions ...
[12]
[PDF] Somalia
The country faces a number of climatic risks, including but not limited to prolonged droughts and flash floods, erratic rainfall, rising temperatures, cyclones,.Missing: Cal Madow fog
[13]
[PDF] Protection of the Cal-Madow Range of Mountains, Somalia Proposal ...
Many endemic plants are found in Cal Madow, some examples from the escarpment are Renschia heterotypica (Lamiaceae, endemic genus), Aloe eminens (a tree Aloe) ...Missing: biodiversity | Show results with:biodiversity
[14]
Biodiversity - cal madow - Save Frankincense
CAL MADOW. Biodiversity. A ... At the highest elevations, along the top of the escarpment, the evergreen scrub transitions into old-growth Juniperus procera ...
[15]
https://www.bbc.com/travel/article/20120514-somaliland-africas-unofficial-country
[16]
Somaliland: Africa's unofficial country - BBC
May 14, 2012 · Energetic visitors can hike up into the thick forests in the Cal Madow ... golden-winged grosbeak and the beira antelope. But the main ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[17]
[PDF] Current Status of Antelopes in Somaliland - IUCN Portal
In Puntland 11 (7+4) Beira were seen in Cal Madow in 2009 and local people reported their presence between Eldohar village and Badgan district (A. Hersi, in ...
[18]
[PDF] Somalia Country Environmental Analysis - World Bank Document
Figure 9: An escarpment on the Cal Madow mountain ranges in Sanaag region of Somalia (photo ... Figure 39: NDVI time-series analysis for Somaliland region ...
[19]
[PDF] Working document for CITES CoP19
... Cal Madow and Golis mountains. (Somaliland Autonomous Region of Somalia) that get moisture from the seasonal monsoon. Even the newly described species B ...<|separator|>
[20]
The Project - Save Frankincense
Save Frankincense is a conservation and research project aiming to protect the Cal Madow forests and the frankincense economy.
[21]
[PDF] Restoring land and lives - The Yeheb Project
Issues of the Frankincense forests in Sanaag. The majority of Frankincense in Somaliland grows in Sanaag region, in the forests of Cal. Madow Mountains which ...
[22]
[PDF] FEDERAL GOVERNMENT OF SOMALIA AFRICAN DEVELOPMENT ...
Feb 6, 2025 · Some conservation efforts have started around the Cal Madow mountains and the marine areas. Hydrology: In Hirshabelle, hydrology is formed ...
[23]
The Oxford Survey Of The British Somaliland 1914
Mar 27, 2021 · The object of this series is to furnish a survey of the British Empire and its constituent parts in their geographical and allied aspects, ...
[24]
[PDF] An Ecological Assessment of the Coastal Plains of North Western ...
Acacia bushland is found along the base of the escarpment as well as on sandy soils with underlying ground water The vegetation of the coastal zone is well ...
[25]
[PDF] PC25 Doc. 25, Addendum – p. 1 Original language - CITES
Botanical Survey of India BSI, Centre for Middle Eastern Plants (Royal ... carterii tree in the Cal Madow. Page 28. Figure 5. Immature trees being ...
[26]
Alternative Economies - Save Frankincense
Many communities in the Cal Madow are largely dependent on frankincense harvesting, and this makes them vulnerable if the trees are in decline.
[27]
Disappearing frankincense forests – DW – 12/28/2016
Dec 28, 2016 · One of the species located in the area is endemic and cannot be found anywhere else in the world. Harvesting these trees is the second main ...