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Calends

The Calends (Latin: kalendae), also known as the Kalends, designated the first day of each month in the ancient Roman calendar, serving as a primary reference point for dating events. The English word "calendar" derives from this term, rooted in the Latin calare ("to call out" or "proclaim"), referring to the public announcement of the month's start.^[1]^[2] Originating in the lunar-based calendar attributed to Romulus, the legendary founder of Rome around the 8th century BCE, the Calends initially aligned with the sighting of the new moon, announced publicly by priests to inform the populace of the month's start and forthcoming festivals.^[1] This proclamation held religious significance, tying the calendar to agricultural cycles and lunar phases, though the system was rudimentary with only ten months totaling 304 days.^[1] Under King Numa Pompilius in the 7th century BCE, the calendar expanded to twelve months and approximately 355 days, with the Calends retaining its role as the monthly anchor, but intercalary months were periodically added to reconcile lunar and solar years, leading to frequent misalignment.^[1]^[2] By the late Republic, the calendar's inaccuracies—drifting by up to three months from the seasons—prompted Julius Caesar's comprehensive reform in 46 BCE, advised by the astronomer Sosigenes of Alexandria, which introduced the Julian calendar with 365.25 days per year and fixed the Calends as the unchanging first day of each month, eliminating reliance on lunar observations.^[1]^[2] In Roman dating conventions, days were reckoned inclusively backward from the Calends (to the previous month's end), the Nones (5th or 7th), and the Ides (13th or 15th), as in "ante diem VIII Kalendas Ianuarias" for December 25.^[2] The Calends also carried practical and cultural weight: debts were often due on the calends, particularly the Kalends of January, and this inspired the idiom "on the Greek Calends" (meaning "never," as the Greeks had no calends); it further influenced medieval Christian calendars' "red-letter days," where the Kalends of January was marked in red.^[1]^[2] This system persisted into the Julian era and influenced subsequent Western calendars, though the Gregorian reform of 1582 CE further refined the solar alignment without altering the Calends' conceptual legacy.^[1]

Etymology and Definition

Origin of the Term

The term "calends" derives from the Latin kalendae, which originates from the verb calare, meaning "to call out" or "to proclaim." This etymology reflects the ancient Roman practice of publicly announcing the start of each month, a duty performed by the pontifices, the college of Roman priests responsible for religious and calendrical matters.^[3]^[4] In the early Roman Republic, a pontifex minor would observe the appearance of the new moon from the Regia, the official residence of the pontifex maximus in the Roman Forum, and report it to the rex sacrorum. The pontifex maximus or a designated priest would then conduct a sacrifice and proclaim the kalendae to the assembled people near the Curia Calabra, adjacent to the Regia, marking the month's beginning and aligning it with lunar phases. This announcement, often accompanied by the chant "Jana novella" to the moon goddess Juno, ensured communal awareness of the calendar's progression.^[4]^[5] The term's evolution into the English word "calendar" occurred through the Latin kalendarium, referring to the account books or ledgers in which debts and interest payments were recorded and updated on the kalends, when such transactions were due. Over time, kalendarium broadened to denote a register of days and months, influencing modern calendrical terminology. This linguistic development is attested in ancient sources, including Varro's De Lingua Latina, where he explains kalendae as the days when the nones are "called out" (calantur) by the pontiffs, and Ovid's Fasti, which describes the kalendae as divinely overseen occasions for auspicious proclamations.^[4]^[6]^[7] The kalendae's roots in lunar observation underscore the Roman calendar's initial alignment with the moon's cycles.^[4]

Meaning in the Roman Calendar

In the Roman calendar, the calends (Latin: kalendae) denoted the first day of every month, functioning as the primary reference point for dating events and transactions throughout the month.^[1] This fixed position on the 1st established it as the foundational marker, from which days were reckoned forward or backward depending on the calendrical method.^[8] Unlike the nones, which fell on the 5th day in shorter months or the 7th in longer ones, and the ides, which occurred on the 13th or 15th respectively, the calends remained consistently the initial day without variation across months.^[1] These distinctions highlighted the calends' unique role as the month's commencement, separate from the mid-month anchors provided by the nones and ides.^[8] Symbolically, the calends were associated with the new moon, marking the onset of the lunar cycle in the original Roman calendrical system and signaling renewal for the ensuing month.^[1] This lunar tie reflected the calendar's early astronomical foundations, where the calends' priestly announcement—derived from the Latin calare, meaning "to proclaim"—publicly declared the month's start.^[8] Examples of calends nomenclature include Kalendae Ianuariae for January 1, which often featured religious observances, and Kalendae Aprilis for April 1, linked to rites honoring Fortuna Virilis.^[1] Such naming conventions emphasized the calends' integral place in Roman temporal organization.^[8]

Historical Development

Early Roman Calendar

The early Roman calendar is traditionally attributed to Romulus, the legendary founder of Rome around 753 BCE, who established a lunar system consisting of ten months totaling 304 days.^[1] This calendar began in spring with March (Martius) and ended in December, aligning the months with key agricultural cycles such as planting and harvesting, while leaving the winter period as an unassigned span of approximately 61 days without named months.^[9] The months were Martius, Aprilis, Maius, Junius, Quintilis, Sextilis, September, October, November, and December, with the latter six named numerically to reflect their positions in the year.^[10] The calendar's lunar basis meant that each month started on the calends, which corresponded to the observation of the new moon's crescent, signaling the beginning of a new lunar cycle of approximately 29 or 30 days.^[1] Priests would announce the sighting publicly, giving rise to the term "calends" from the practice of proclamation.^[10] This observational method ensured the months followed the moon's phases, but the fixed 304-day structure drifted from the solar year, necessitating adjustments to maintain seasonal alignment for agriculture.^[11]

Reforms and Changes

The reforms attributed to Numa Pompilius around 713 BCE marked a significant evolution from the earlier ten-month lunar calendar, introducing January and February to create a 12-month year of 355 days and to better align with the solar year through an intercalary month known as Mercedonius (or Intercalaris). This intercalary month, added periodically after February and consisting of 27 days, occurred roughly every two years to accommodate the discrepancy between the lunar and solar years and support the agrarian society's reliance on predictable planting and harvest times. The calends retained their role as consistent monthly markers beginning on the first day of each month. This adjustment aimed to better approximate the lunar cycle while providing a more structured framework, though the calendar remained lunisolar with periodic intercalations.^[1]^[12] During the Roman Republic, the pontifices, as high priests responsible for intercalation, frequently manipulated the insertion of the extra month Mercedonius for political advantage, such as extending office terms or delaying elections, which resulted in substantial calendar drift and misalignment with the seasons over centuries.^[1] This irregular practice exacerbated the discrepancies inherited from Numa's system, leading to a civil year that could deviate by up to three months from the solar year by the late Republic.^[13] The Julian reform of 46 BCE, initiated by Julius Caesar with astronomical input from Sosigenes of Alexandria, replaced the lunisolar model with a purely solar calendar averaging 365.25 days through leap years every fourth year, thereby fixing the calends definitively on the first of each month without altering their nomenclature or primary function as debt due dates.^[14] This shift eliminated intercalation manipulations and restored seasonal synchronization, with the reformed year beginning on January 1 to align agricultural and religious cycles more reliably.^[1] In 1582 CE, Pope Gregory XIII's reform refined the Julian calendar by adjusting the leap year rule to skip centurial leap years not divisible by 400, shortening the average year to 365.2425 days and correcting accumulated drift, while preserving the calends' position on the first of the month but severing any remaining nominal ties to the original lunar basis of the ancient Roman system.^[15] The reform omitted ten days in October 1582 to realign the calendar with the vernal equinox, ensuring long-term stability without impacting the monthly structure.^[16]

Structure and Computation

Position in the Month

In the Roman calendar, the Calends marked the first day of every month, establishing it as the foundational point from which all other dates within the month were oriented.^[1]^[10] This positioning allowed for backward references to dates, such as denoting a day as occurring a specified number of days before the Calends of the following month.^[1]^[10] Month lengths influenced the structure around the Calends, with March, May, July, and October comprising 31 days, resulting in a span of 15 days from Calends to Ides.^[10] The remaining months contained either 29 or 30 days, adjusting the positions of subsequent markers relative to the Calends.^[1]^[10] The intercalary month known as Mercedonius lacked its own Calends and was inserted immediately after February, effectively postponing the Calends of March and all ensuing months in years requiring adjustment.^[1]^[10] Roman fasti, the official calendars inscribed on stone or painted on walls for public display, highlighted the Calends prominently, typically abbreviating it as "K" followed by the month's initial letters to denote its significance as the month's commencement.^[1]^[10] The Julian reform of 46 BCE maintained this fixed placement of the Calends as the first day across all months.^[17]

Inclusive Counting System

The Roman system for numbering days employed backward counting from one of three fixed points in the month: the calends (the first day), the nones (typically the fifth or seventh), or the ides (typically the thirteenth or fifteenth).^[17] Days preceding these points were denoted using the phrase "ante diem" (abbreviated A.D.), followed by a Roman numeral indicating the inclusive count to the reference day, with "pridie" specifically used for the single day immediately before.^[17] For instance, "pridie Kalendas Martias" referred to the last day of February, which was the day before the calends of March.^[17] This method relied on inclusive reckoning, where the reference day itself was counted as the first day in the tally.^[17] Thus, a date described as "ante diem III Kalendas" signified three days inclusive to the calends: the current day, the following day, and the calends.^[17] In a pre-Julian calendar where February had 28 days, February 27 was thus "ante diem III Kalendas Martias," encompassing February 27, 28, and March 1 (the calends).^[17] In longer months, such as a 31-day January, the counts before the February calends extended higher to accommodate the additional days; for instance, January 26 was "ante diem VII Kalendas Februarias," reflecting seven inclusive days to February 1 (January 26 through 31 and February 1).^[17] The calends served as the primary fixed point for reckoning the final days of each month, ensuring consistency across varying month lengths.^[17]

Cultural and Practical Uses

Religious Observances

In ancient Roman religion, the calends marked the beginning of each month and were generally classified as dies fasti, days on which public religious and legal business could be conducted without impiety.^[18] These days typically involved sacred announcements and offerings to secure favorable auspices for the coming month. The Pontifex Maximus or a subordinate pontifex would observe the new moon and publicly proclaim the start of the month from the Capitol, followed by sacrifices to invoke divine protection; this ritual, known as calare, ensured the community's alignment with the gods' will.^[19] The calends of January held particular prominence due to its association with the new year and the god Janus, deity of beginnings, gates, and transitions. On this day, priests offered sacrifices, including unyoked heifers, at Janus's temple, symbolizing renewal and the opening of the year's peaceful pathways.^[20] Ovid describes the ceremony as a heralding of fortune, with the Rex Sacrorum and pontifices leading invocations to Janus alongside Juno, emphasizing themes of prosperity and divine favor for the consuls and populace.^[20] Monthly calends also featured household rituals centered on the lares, the protective spirits of the home and family. Families performed offerings of incense, wine, and small sacrifices at the lararium, the domestic shrine, to honor the lares familiares alongside the household's genius and penates; these acts, conducted by the paterfamilias, aimed to purify the home and seek blessings for the month's endeavors. Cleaning the hearth and invoking the lares underscored the calends' role in domestic renewal, integrating personal piety with the broader civic calendar. A notable exception was the calends of March, which coincided with the Matronalia, a festival dedicated to Juno Lucina, goddess of childbirth and women. Matrons visited her temple on the Capitoline, adorned with flowers, unbound their hair as a gesture of fertility, and offered prayers for safe deliveries and family well-being; husbands and children presented gifts to honor the mothers, reinforcing Juno's protective role at the year's ancient start.^[21] This observance, tracing to the temple's dedication in 375 BCE, blended public procession with intimate familial devotion.^[21]

Economic and Legal Roles

In ancient Rome, the calends marked the primary date for debt repayments and interest calculations, serving as a cornerstone of financial transactions. Creditors maintained records of outstanding loans and interest in a ledger known as the kalendarium, so named because payments were conventionally due on the first day of each month.^[22] This practice stemmed from the custom of accruing and settling interest monthly on the kalends. The kalendarium thus functioned as both a practical accounting tool and a symbol of periodic financial reckoning, influencing the development of early bookkeeping methods.^[23] The calends also played a significant role in Roman legal practices, where deadlines for contracts, court sessions, and public announcements were frequently established relative to this date using the inclusive counting system. Legal agreements, particularly those involving financial obligations, often stipulated performance "ad kalendas" of a specified month, ensuring synchronized enforcement across the empire. Court proceedings and official edicts similarly referenced the calends to define temporal limits, providing a standardized framework for judicial and administrative efficiency. Evidence from Cicero's extensive correspondence underscores this, as he repeatedly alludes to payments and settlements tied to the kalends in discussions of personal and public finances.^[24] In trade and market customs, the calends facilitated the settlement of vendor accounts and the timing of commercial activities, with many merchants aligning payments and inventories to this monthly benchmark. This integration of the calends into daily commerce reinforced its status as a pivotal administrative anchor in Roman society.

Idiomatic and Literary References

The Greek Calends

The Latin idiom ad Graecas calendas ("at the Greek Calends") denotes an event or action that will never occur, stemming from the Roman calendar's designation of the calendae as the first day of the month—a marker absent in ancient Greek calendars, which instead reckoned the start of the month from the new moon, or noumēnia.^[25] This difference allowed Romans to mock the Greek system by referencing a nonexistent date, implying perpetual postponement.^[26] The phrase's earliest attested use appears in Suetonius's biography De Vita Divi Augusti (87.1), where Emperor Augustus reportedly quipped that certain debtors who repeatedly delayed repayment would settle their loans "ad Graecas calendas," equating it to an impossibility. By the 4th century CE, the idiom had entered Christian Latin literature, with St. Jerome employing it in his Commentary on the Epistle to the Ephesians to emphasize something eternally deferred.^[27] Desiderius Erasmus preserved and analyzed the proverb in his influential Adagia (I.v.84, first published 1500), drawing on Suetonius and Jerome to explain its mechanics: the Greeks lacked calends, rendering the phrase a witty symbol of futility in Roman discourse.^[28] Medieval and Renaissance texts, such as those by Rabelais, echoed this usage to satirize empty promises or vain hopes. The expression permeated European languages, evolving into equivalents like the French aux calendes grecques ("to the Greek calends"), which similarly conveys indefinite delay and appears in literature from the 16th century onward to critique procrastination or illusionary expectations.^[29] Culturally, it embodies Roman cultural superiority over Greek practices, transforming a calendrical peculiarity into a timeless emblem of the unattainable.

Other Expressions

In medieval literature, Geoffrey Chaucer alluded to the calends as significant dates symbolizing new beginnings. In Troilus and Criseyde, the term "kalends" refers to the first day of the month in the Roman calendar, symbolizing renewal amid the narrative's themes of love and fate.^[30] Proverbs emphasizing timely debt repayment drew on the calends' role as a standard settlement day in Roman practice. The expression "to pay on the calends" highlighted promptness, contrasting with deferrals that implied avoidance, as the calends marked the monthly obligation for rents, taxes, and accounts.^[31] In Renaissance works, William Shakespeare evoked Roman dating conventions, integral to historical authenticity. Although not directly naming calends, Julius Caesar incorporates the Roman monthly structure—including nones and ides—to frame events like the assassination plot, underscoring the era's temporal rhythms.^[32] Modern historical fiction often nods to calends to immerse readers in Roman chronology. Authors use the term to date events precisely, as in depictions of ancient legal or economic scenes, preserving the calends' original connotation as the month's inaugural and accountable day.^[31]

References

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Roman Calendar
Attributed to Romulus himself, the Roman calendar originally was determined by the cycles of the moon and the seasons of the agricultural year. Beginning in ...
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Notes on the Roman Calendar
### Summary of Calends (Kalends) in the Ancient Roman Calendar
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Calends - Etymology, Origin & Meaning
This is from calare "to announce solemnly, call out," as the priests did in proclaiming the new moon that marked the calends, which is reconstructed to be from ...Missing: pontifices announcement
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LacusCurtius • The Roman Calendar (Smith's Dictionary, 1875)
Dec 15, 2024 · CALENDA′RIUM, or rather KALENDA′RIUM, is the account-book, in which creditors entered the names of their debtors and the sums which they owed.
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https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/macrobius/sat1.shtml
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Marcus Terentius Varro, On the Latin Language (Books ... - ToposText
... Etymology. The considerations which might be raised against it, I have put ... The first days of the months are named the Kalendae, because on these ...
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Ovid: Fasti I
### Summary of Passages Related to Kalendae in Ovid’s Fasti I
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(PDF) Ancient Roman Calendar - Academia.edu
... The kalends, the nones, and the ides. The kalends is the ﬁrst day of the month. For months with 31 days the nones fall on the 7th and the ides the 15th.
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The new year once started in March—here's why
When the harvest ended, so did the calendar; the winter months were simply unnamed. Rome's lunar calendar. The 10-month calendar didn't last long, though. In ...
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Early Roman Calendar - Webexhibits
For centuries afterward, Romans referred to the first day of each month as Kalendae or Kalends from the Latin word calare (to announce solemnly, to call out).Missing: etymology | Show results with:etymology
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The 10 months, beginning in modern March, were named Martius, Aprilis, Maius, Junius, Quintilis, Sextilis, September, October, November, and December.
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To bring the lunar calendar into phase with the solar year, an additional month (Intercalaris or Mercedonius, from merces, "wages," which were paid then) of 27 ...Missing: early | Show results with:early
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May 15, 2014 · Intercalations were determined by the Pontifices, high-ranking state priests who often held political power as well. Because a Roman ...
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Sep 29, 2007 · The Julian Calendar (46 BC). Julius Caesar asked the Alexandrine astronomer Sosigenes to reform the Roman calendar. He started with the solar ...Missing: 45 BCE
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The reform altered the Julian, or Old Style, system of leap years and, by removing ten days from October 1582, adjusted the timing of the Easter observance so ...
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Calendars
The Roman Lunar Calendar. Our present calendar (called the Gregorian Calendar) is a basically solar calendar that grew from what was originally a Lunar calendar ...
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Varro thought that it derived from maiores, "elders," just as June did from iuniores, "younger men" (On the Latin Language, VI.33). May was a time for work in ...
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### Summary on Dies Fasti and Kalends
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What Ovid tells us about the Roman calendar*
Feb 15, 2021 · Etymology uncertain: either Etruscan (Ernout-Meillet) or Sabine (Varro). Many festivals to Jupiter fell on the Ides, and many to Juno on the ...
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OVID, FASTI BOOK 1 - Theoi Classical Texts Library
### Summary of Ovid, Fasti Book 1: Kalends of January, Sacrifices to Janus, Pontifex, and Announcements
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OVID, FASTI BOOK 3 - Theoi Classical Texts Library
### Summary of Kalends of March, Matronalia, and Juno Lucina Rituals from Ovid, Fasti Book 3
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[PDF] Roman Literal Contract and Double-entry Bookkeeping - eGrove
Apr 25, 2021 · name 'kalendarium' was due to the fact that, in Rome, interest was paid, as a rule, on the first day of every month, the 'kal- endae'), and ...
[24]
cicero letters to atticus - Project Gutenberg
CICERO LETTERS TO ATTICUS. WITH AN ENGLISH TRANSLATION BY. E. O. ... Senatum enim Kalendis velle se frequentem adesse etiam Formiis proscribi iussit.
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Markets and fairs, Roman | Oxford Classical Dictionary
A daily retail market existed in Rome by 210 bce (Livy 26. 27. 1–4) and later was joined by others; wholesaling took place at the riverine Emporium.Missing: vendors | Show results with:vendors
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See also at the Greek calends. From: calends in The Oxford Dictionary of Phrase and Fable ». Subjects: Related content in Oxford Reference. Reference entries ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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Oct 13, 2025 · Greek calendar, any of a variety of dating systems used by the several city-states in the time of classical Greece and differing in the names of their months.
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139 Ad Graecas Calendas / At the Greek Calends When we want to say that something will never happen, we say it will come about at the Greek Calends. The ...Missing: idiom | Show results with:idiom
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... ad Graecas Calendas de tempore, itidem hoc de loco dicatur, veluti si quis dicat ad hunc modum: 'Vbi gestum est illud• praeclarum facinus, quod iactas ...
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Apr 7, 2022 · Chaucer makes this grim invocation most fitly, since the Trojans ... The Roman kalends were the first day of the month, when a change ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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(historical, Ancient Rome) The first day of a month of the Roman calendar. (by extension) A day for settling debts and other accounts. 1644, J[ohn] M[ilton] ...
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Mar 15, 2016 · 1900. Folger Shakespeare Library. The Ides fell on March 15, signifying the middle of a Roman month, where the first day was the Kalends (hence ...