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Cella

The cella (Latin for "small chamber") is the inner sanctuary of an ancient Greek or Roman temple, comprising the enclosed rectangular core that houses the cult statue of the deity to whom the temple is dedicated.^[1]^[2] In Greek architecture, known alternatively as the naos, it forms the primary structural element around which the temple's colonnade (peristyle) is arranged, with front and rear porches (pronaos and opisthodomos) extending from its walls.^[3] Access to the cella was typically restricted to priests, who maintained its sacred purity as a space for divine signs, votive offerings, and ritual; public worship occurred in the surrounding temple precinct (temenos).^[1] Roman temples adopted and adapted the Greek cella design, often featuring a deeper and more axially oriented chamber to accommodate multiple statues or an altar positioned before them, with the divine images facing the entrance for illumination from above or through doorways.^[4] Unlike many Greek temples oriented eastward for solar alignment, Roman examples frequently faced westward, integrating the cella into broader urban podiums raised on steps and emphasizing frontality with a deep portico of columns.^[4] This evolution reflected Rome's Etruscan influences and practical adaptations, such as multi-cellae structures for housing several deities, as seen in the Temple of Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva on the Capitoline Hill.^[4] The cella's design standardized by the Archaic period in Greece (circa 6th century BCE), evolving from simpler Geometric-era plans to the canonical peripteral form with proportional column arrangements (e.g., six across the front and thirteen along the flanks) by the 5th century BCE Classical era.^[2] Architectural orders like Doric (prevalent on the mainland) or Ionic (common in eastern regions) influenced its stylistic execution, with the cella walls often adorned with friezes or metopes depicting mythological scenes tied to the deity.^[2] In both cultures, the cella symbolized the deity's earthly dwelling, bridging the profane world and the divine, though its mystical aura was heightened by limited visibility—darkened interiors and exclusion of lay visitors fostering reverence through absence and implication.^[1]

Definition and Terminology

Definition

The cella, from the Latin cella meaning "chamber" or "room," is the enclosed inner room of an ancient temple that houses the cult statue of the deity, functioning as the sacred core of the structure and typically inaccessible to ordinary worshippers.^[5]^[6] This central chamber represents the temple's holiest space, where the divine presence was believed to reside.^[7] The cella is distinct from surrounding architectural elements, such as the pronaos (the front porch providing entry), the opisthodomos (the rear chamber, often used for storage or secondary rituals), and the peristyle (the outer colonnade encircling the building).^[8] In Greek equivalents, it aligns with the naos (temple interior) or adyton (innermost sanctum).^[9] Its primary role involved ritual veneration and offerings conducted exclusively by priests, underscoring its sanctity, while the cella's dimensions varied proportionally with the temple's overall scale—from modest enclosures in small shrines to expansive halls in grand complexes.^[10] The cella emerged around the 8th century BCE in Mediterranean temple architecture, marking an evolution from rudimentary open-air altars to enclosed sanctuaries that centralized worship.^[11]^[12]

Etymology

The term cella derives from Latin, where it originally signified a storeroom, small room, or chamber.^[13] This meaning evolved in architectural usage during the late Roman Republic, with the architect Vitruvius employing it in his treatise De Architectura (c. 30–15 BCE) to describe the enclosed inner sanctum of a temple, housing the deity's cult statue and distinct from surrounding colonnades or porches.^[14] In ancient Greek architecture, the direct equivalent to cella is naos (ναός), referring to the temple's interior chamber or dwelling place of the god, a term first attested in Homer's Iliad (c. 8th century BCE) as a poetic designation for sacred enclosures.^[15] Complementing naos, the Greek adyton (ἄδυτον, literally "not to be entered") denoted the most secluded, innermost portion of the sanctuary, often reserved for oracular pronouncements or priestly rites and inaccessible to the public.^[16] Romans borrowed the conceptual framework of the Greek naos and adyton during their cultural exchanges in the Mediterranean, adapting cella as the standard Latin term for this temple core from the Republican period (c. 509–27 BCE) onward; it appears in architectural treatises and dedicatory inscriptions on temples like those in the Forum Holitorium.^[17] Linguistically, cella stems from the Proto-Indo-European root *ḱel- ("to cover, conceal, or protect"), which underlies related terms across Indo-European languages, including English cell (a small enclosed space) and Old Irish ceilt (act of hiding, from Proto-Celtic *kelo-, denoting concealment or hidden areas).^[18]^[19]

Architectural Features

Layout and Design

The cella was typically rectangular in plan. In Greek temples, it was aligned along an east-west axis with the primary entrance at the eastern end, accessed from the pronaos, to orient toward the rising sun; a secondary rear door often led to the opisthodomos.^[20] Roman cellas were frequently oriented westward and integrated into a raised podium. Its dimensions were determined by the scale required to accommodate the cult statue, often ranging from 5 by 3 meters in small shrines to around 30 by 20 meters in major temples like the Parthenon (29.8 by 19.2 meters), ensuring space while supporting surrounding colonnades.^[21] Proportional systems governed the cella's design to achieve harmonic symmetry in Doric and Ionic orders, influencing the temple's overall footprint and elevation for visual balance. The pronaos provided a transitional space before the cella entrance, with access controlled through single or double doors, often wooden in Greek temples and sometimes adorned with metal for prestige, or bronze in Roman examples like the Pantheon; these were elevated above the stylobate.^[22] Variations in scale reflected the temple's status and location, from modest rural shrines to expansive urban examples, influencing the peristyle and integration with the landscape.

Materials and Furnishings

The cella was constructed using durable local stone materials, such as limestone or marble in Greek temples (e.g., Pentelic marble in the Parthenon) and tufa or travertine in Roman ones, transitioning from earlier wood and mudbrick for permanence.^[4] Foundations were on bedrock or reinforced stone blocks for stability in seismic areas. Roofs were wooden, supported by internal elements and covered in terracotta tiles (Greek) or marble (some larger temples), though vulnerable to fire, as in the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus; no full shift to stone roofs occurred in Greek architecture.^[23] Interior furnishings centered on a pedestal (basis) for the cult statue, often chryselephantine (gold and ivory), like Pheidias's Athena Parthenos. Stone altars for offerings, oil lamps, and niches for votives were nearby, with priestly access prioritized. Flooring consisted of polished stone slabs.^[24]^[4]^[23] Decorative elements were restrained, with limited interior wall paintings depicting mythological scenes, as in the Erechtheion. Ceilings were flat timber in Greek temples or coffered/vaulted in some Roman ones, aiding ritual acoustics.^[23]^[4]

Cella in Classical Antiquity

Greek Temples

The cella, known in Greek as the naos, originated in the earliest peripteral temples of the 8th and 7th centuries BCE, such as those at Thermon in Aetolia, where it functioned as a simple rectangular room housing the cult image within a surrounding colonnade.^[12] These early structures, often constructed of wood and mudbrick, marked the transition from prehistoric megaron plans to formalized temple architecture amid the rise of Greek city-states, evolving into more complex naoi by the Archaic period (c. 600–480 BCE) with added antechambers for votive offerings and treasuries.^[7] By the Classical period (c. 480–323 BCE), the cella had become a sophisticated inner sanctum, emphasizing symmetry and proportion, as seen in the shift to stone materials and refined layouts that supported expansive roofs without compromising the centrality of the deity's statue.^[7] This development continued into the Hellenistic period (c. 323–31 BCE), where cellae in temples like those at Pergamon incorporated larger scales and eclectic orders to reflect the era's cultural fusion.^[25] Prominent examples illustrate the cella's prominence in Greek religious architecture. The Parthenon in Athens (447–432 BCE), a Doric temple dedicated to Athena, featured a cella divided into eastern and western chambers, with the eastern naos housing Phidias's colossal chryselephantine statue of Athena Parthenos, approximately 11.5 meters tall and crafted from gold, ivory, and precious metals over a wooden core.^[26] Similarly, the Temple of Zeus at Olympia (470–456 BCE), a Doric peripteral structure, contained a cella with a 13-meter-high seated cult statue of Zeus by Phidias, adorned in gold and ivory and enthroned amid elaborate reliefs, symbolizing pan-Hellenic unity during the Olympic Games.^[27] Architecturally, the cella integrated seamlessly with the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian orders, its walls and proportions aligning with the temple's exterior colonnades to achieve optical harmony. In Doric temples like the Parthenon, internal colonnades—such as the two tiers of 23 Doric columns surrounding the statue—provided structural support for the roof while framing views of the cult image without obstruction.^[28] Ionic examples, like the Temple of Athena Nike (c. 425 BCE), featured narrower cellae with volute capitals enhancing interior elegance, while emerging Corinthian designs in Hellenistic contexts added acanthus-leaf ornamentation for grandeur.^[7] This alignment ensured the cella remained the focal point, its design prioritizing the deity's presence over utilitarian space. In ritual practice, the cella served as the god's symbolic "house," accessible exclusively to priests who performed daily offerings and maintenance before the cult statue, while public processions approached via the pronaos (front porch) without entering the naos.^[29] At pan-Hellenic sanctuaries like Olympia, these rites underscored communal devotion, with the cella's seclusion heightening its sanctity and reinforcing the temple's role in civic and religious identity.^[27]

Roman Temples

Roman temple architecture adopted the cella from Etruscan precedents as early as the 6th century BCE, evolving through influences like the high podium and frontal emphasis seen in structures such as the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus on the Capitoline Hill.^[30] This early adoption integrated Etruscan craftsmanship, including terra-cotta decorations by artists like Vulca of Veii, marking a departure from Greek peripteral forms toward more robust, civic-oriented designs.^[30] By the late Republic and early Empire, Roman architects refined these elements according to Vitruvian principles outlined in De Architectura, emphasizing proportional harmony in cella dimensions relative to the overall temple facade and columnar orders.^[31] A key innovation was the pseudoperipteral layout, where cella walls directly abutted engaged columns along the sides and rear, freeing interior space while maintaining an illusion of a surrounding colonnade; this design, evident in temples like the Maison Carrée in Nîmes (c. 4–7 CE), allowed for wider cellae and emphasized the frontal portico for processional access.^[32] Prominent examples illustrate the cella's role in Roman religious and political life. The Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus, founded in 509 BCE, was destroyed by fire in 83 BCE and rebuilt in the 60s BCE; it was further destroyed in 69 CE and rebuilt by Vespasian in the 70s CE, and again after a fire in 80 CE under Domitian (81–96 CE). It featured a distinctive triple cella arrangement to house the Capitoline Triad—Jupiter in the central chamber, flanked by Juno and Minerva—each with its own cult statue, underscoring the temple's function as a state sanctuary.^[30]^[33] In contrast, the Pantheon, completed around 126 CE under Hadrian, radically redefined the cella as a vast domed rotunda dedicated to all gods (pan theon), blending traditional temple form with innovative circular interior space that symbolized universal imperial dominion.^[34] Engineering advancements, particularly the use of opus caementicium (Roman concrete composed of lime mortar, volcanic ash, and aggregate), enabled taller cella walls and vaulted ceilings that supported unprecedented spans.^[35] This material's hydraulic properties allowed for monolithic construction, as in the Pantheon's rotunda walls—up to 6 meters thick at the base—supporting a dome with a 43-meter diameter, the largest unreinforced concrete span in antiquity and a testament to Roman structural ingenuity.^[34]^[35] Cellae in Roman temples served as potent spaces for imperial propaganda, often housing colossal statues to glorify rulers and deities alike. Unlike isolated Greek sanctuaries, Roman cellae were frequently positioned on podiums overlooking public forums, enhancing accessibility for rituals, triumphs, and civic gatherings, as seen in the Temple of Jupiter's prominence above the Roman Forum, where processions culminated in offerings viewable by assembled crowds.^[30] This integration contrasted with more secluded Greek models, transforming the cella into a visible nexus of state religion and popular devotion.^[36]

Cella in Other Ancient Cultures

Etruscan Temples

In Etruscan temple architecture, the cella served as the sacred core, often configured in a triple arrangement to accommodate multiple deities, as described by the Roman architect Vitruvius in his treatise De Architectura. This layout featured three parallel cellae side by side, with the central one typically larger and dedicated to the primary god, flanked by smaller ones for associated divinities, reflecting the polytheistic nature of Etruscan worship. These cellae were housed within temples elevated on substantial podiums, which created a dramatic visual prominence and facilitated ritual processions up broad frontal staircases.^[37]^[38] The temples themselves emphasized frontality, with cella entrances accessible only from the front porch rather than encircling columns, distinguishing them from the more ambulatory Greek peripteral designs. Construction relied on wooden frameworks for roofs and columns, combined with walls of mud-brick or tufa (a local volcanic stone that hardens upon exposure), often coated in stucco for protection and decoration. Wide-spreading roofs, supported by these wooden elements, were adorned with elaborate terracotta plaques, friezes, and acroteria depicting mythological scenes, which protected the perishable materials while adding vibrant, painted ornamentation to the cellae's enclosure.^[39]^[40] A prime example is the Portonaccio Temple at Veii, constructed around 510 BCE, which featured a triple cella dedicated to Apollo (Aplu), Minerva (Menrva), and possibly Hercules (Hercle), with the central cella housing a monumental terracotta statue of Apollo crafted by the sculptor Vulca. This temple, perched on a high podium with wide stairs leading to the frontal entrance, exemplified the processional focus of Etruscan rites, where worshippers approached the cellae for offerings and divination, underscoring the architectural adaptation for state-sponsored cults.^[37]^[38] Etruscan cellae were integral to religious practices centered on augury and state religion, where priests interpreted omens within or near the temple precincts to guide civic decisions. The conquest of Veii by Rome in 396 BCE facilitated the transfer of these architectural and ritual elements, influencing early Roman podium temples.^[41]^[42]

Egyptian Temples

In ancient Egyptian temple architecture, the naos served as the functional equivalent to the classical cella, functioning as the innermost sanctuary or shrine room within expansive temple complexes, where sacred barque shrines or cult statues of deities were housed to embody the divine presence.^[43] This sacred space evolved significantly from the Old Kingdom (c. 2686–2181 BCE), where early temples featured rudimentary sanctuaries integrated into pyramid complexes, to the more elaborate structures of the Middle and New Kingdoms, and culminating in the Ptolemaic era (305–30 BCE), when Greco-Egyptian rulers embellished existing temples with refined naoi that maintained traditional forms while incorporating Hellenistic elements.^[44] Unlike the more isolated cellae of Mediterranean temples, the Egyptian naos was deeply embedded in a ritual landscape, symbolizing the god's eternal renewal and the temple's role as a microcosm of creation.^[45] Architecturally, the naos was reached via a profound axial progression that guided processions from monumental entrance pylons—massive, trapezoidal gateways symbolizing the horizon—through open courtyards and vast hypostyle halls supported by columns mimicking papyrus or lotus stalks, creating a transition from public to sacred realms.^[46] Obelisks, often paired at temple entrances or courts, framed access and invoked solar symbolism, while the naos itself was typically lined with durable granite for symbolic permanence, protecting the divine image from profane view and evoking the stone's association with eternity.^[46] This linear depth, spanning up to several hundred meters in major complexes, contrasted with the compact form of classical cellae, emphasizing procession and hierarchical access restricted to pharaohs and high priests.^[47] Prominent examples illustrate the naos's centrality. At the Karnak Temple complex in Thebes, construction began around 2055 BCE during the Middle Kingdom and expanded over centuries, with Amun's naos located in the sanctuary at the temple's core, housing the god's barque and statue amid granite elements added by rulers like Thutmose III.^[48] Similarly, the rock-cut Great Temple at Abu Simbel, commissioned by Ramesses II around 1264 BCE, features a naos-like inner sanctuary hewn directly into the cliff, containing four colossal seated statues of deified Ramesses II alongside Amun, Ra-Horakhty, and Ptah, illuminated dramatically by solar alignments on key dates.^[49] The naos held profound ritual significance, serving as the focal point for daily ceremonies that reenacted creation myths, such as the emergence from primordial chaos, with priests performing ablutions, offerings, and invocations before the divine image to sustain cosmic order (ma'at).^[50] The naos doors, sealed with clay, were opened only during these rites or major festivals like Opet, allowing symbolic access to the god and preventing unauthorized intrusion, while the sanctuary itself represented the benben—the primordial mound from which Atum initiated creation in Heliopolitan theology, reborn each dawn through ritual.^[51] This symbolism underscored the naos as a liminal space bridging the divine and earthly realms, essential to Egypt's theological worldview.^[52]

Adaptations in Later Traditions

Christian Churches

In the 4th century CE, following the Edict of Milan in 313 CE, many pagan temples were converted into Christian churches, with the cella—the sacred inner chamber—repurposed as the primary altar space to accommodate liturgical needs.^[53] A prominent example is the Pantheon in Rome, transformed in 609 CE by Pope Boniface IV into Santa Maria ad Martyres, where the original circular cella was adapted to house Christian altars and relics of martyrs while preserving much of its structural integrity.^[53] Concurrently, newly constructed basilicas drew from Roman precedents by incorporating an apse at the eastern end, effectively replacing the naos or cella as the enclosed focal point for worship and clerical activities.^[54] Among key examples, Old St. Peter's Basilica in Rome, commissioned by Emperor Constantine and completed between 326 and 333 CE, positioned its high altar directly over the tomb of Saint Peter in the sanctuary area, transforming the space into a revered enclosure analogous to a temple cella.^[55] Similarly, Hagia Sophia in Constantinople, dedicated in 537 CE under Emperor Justinian I, featured a vast central dome spanning the nave and sanctuary, evoking the enclosed, dome-covered cella of Roman temples while integrating basilican elements for communal assembly.^[56] Architectural developments in these early basilicas included the addition of transepts, forming a cruciform layout that extended laterally from the nave to enhance spatial organization and symbolic cross imagery.^[57] Choirs and chancel areas emerged to physically separate the laity in the nave from the clergy in the sanctuary, fostering a hierarchical liturgical environment.^[58] Low lattice screens, precursors to the later iconostasis, were installed around the altar to barrier the sanctuary, mirroring the restricted access of pagan cella walls while allowing visual connection during rites.^[59] Theologically, the Christian sanctuary embodied the Holy of Holies from the Jewish Tabernacle, representing God's dwelling among the faithful, with the Eucharist celebrated at the altar as the pivotal rite of divine presence and communal sacrifice.^[60] This adaptation emphasized continuity with biblical precedents over direct pagan inheritance, positioning the sanctuary as a space of transcendent holiness where the faithful encountered the sacred through sacramental mystery.^[60]

Byzantine and Medieval Influences

In Byzantine architecture from the 6th to 15th centuries, the naos emerged as the central worship space within churches, functioning as a conceptual successor to the ancient cella by serving as an enclosed, sacred core for liturgical activities. This evolution emphasized centralized plans, particularly the cross-in-square layout, where the naos formed a square compartment under a central dome, braced by four piers or columns and surrounded by vaulted arms, allowing for a focused, hierarchical interior that prioritized the sanctuary. Unlike pagan temples, the naos integrated the entire congregation in worship while replacing cult statues with elaborate mosaics and icons depicting Christ and saints, symbolizing divine presence without anthropomorphic idols.^[61]^[62] A prime example is the Basilica of San Vitale in Ravenna, consecrated in 547 CE, which features an octagonal naos with eight inner piers supporting a dome, encircled by an ambulatory that echoes the processional paths around ancient cellae but adapts them for Christian processions. The eastern apse-sanctuary within this naos is adorned with mosaics illustrating imperial and sacrificial themes, such as the panels of Emperor Justinian and Empress Theodora, which supplanted the role of temple statues by visually affirming Orthodox theology under Byzantine rule. This design influenced later cross-in-square churches, like the Monastery of Hosios Loukas (early 11th century) in Greece, where the naos's domed core provided a luminous, enclosed space for prayer, blending ancient enclosure with Byzantine spiritual symbolism.^[63] In medieval Western Europe, Romanesque architecture revived elements of the cella through raised sanctuaries on platforms, reminiscent of ancient temple podia, to elevate the altar area as a distinct, sacred enclosure. Churches like the Abbey of Cluny (10th-12th centuries) featured such elevated choir platforms, creating a hierarchical separation between nave and sanctuary that evoked the cella's isolation for divine focus. In Gothic cathedrals, this legacy extended to elongated choirs, as seen in Chartres Cathedral (1194-1220 CE), where the choir's extended, screened space functioned as an amplified cella-like zone for clergy and relics, fostering intimate liturgical enclosure amid the vast nave. Monastic churches, such as those of the Cistercian order, symbolically employed enclosed prayer spaces in their simple, austere sanctuaries to mirror the cella's contemplative seclusion, prioritizing communal yet introspective devotion.^[64] The cella's influence persisted into the Renaissance through neoclassical revivals, notably Donato Bramante's Tempietto (1502 CE) in Rome, a circular chapel with a cylindrical cella enclosed by Doric columns, directly referencing ancient Roman round temples like the Temple of Vesta to symbolize Christian martyrdom at St. Peter's site. This continuity extended to 19th-century restorations of classical sites, such as the Temple of Aphaia on Aegina, where efforts preserved the cella's structural integrity to maintain its role as the temple's ritual heart, bridging ancient and modern architectural reverence.^[65]

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Ancient Egyptian Temple Elements Part IV: The Sanctuary and its ...
The most common form, known as a "naos" shrine, was completely closed on all sides with a double door that was oriented towards the temple entrance. In some ...
[48]
The Architectural Evolution of Egyptian Temples - Ancient Origins
Jul 22, 2024 · From the earliest structures in the Old Kingdom to the grandiose complexes of the Ptolemaic period, Egyptian temples evolved in complexity, ...
[49]
[PDF] evolution of egyptian religion reflected in temple architecture
Taken together, these two methods of change resulted in an evolution of religious practices in ancient Egypt. By comparing Egyptian temples from the New Kingdom ...
[50]
Egyptian art and architecture - Temples, Pyramids, Obelisks
Oct 2, 2025 · The temple itself contained two huge open courts, entered through towering pylons, which led to a lofty hypostyle hall and a smaller hall with ...
[51]
[PDF] Architectural Features | Digital Karnak
A hypostyle hall is a fl at-roofed room supported by a series of columns or pil- lars.16 In Egyptian temples, these columned halls usually stand perpendicular ...<|separator|>
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[PDF] Introduction to the Temple of Karnak
It is here, in the central-most part of the building, where the statue of the god Amun-Ra would have been housed and where the templeʼs “daily ritual” took ...
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Inside Rameses' Temple at Abu Simbel - Ascending Passage
The sanctuary of the great temple of Rameses II at Abu Simbel has four sitting gods. The Sanctuary of Ramesses II, two hundred feet deep in the rock, is ...<|separator|>
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### Summary of Daily Ritual in the Great Temple of Amun-Re at Karnak, Focusing on the Naos
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Creation myths and form(s) of the gods in ancient Egypt - Smarthistory
A lotus blossom grew from this mound, opened, and revealed the newborn sun god, which brought light to the cosmos and initiated creation. Within the primeval ...Missing: reenactments benben
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naos | British Museum
Description: Granite monolithic naos of Ptolemy VIII and Cleopatra II, rectangular, surmounted by a cornice of uraei with three winged solar-discs beneath, ...
[57]
LacusCurtius • Rodolfo Lanciani — Pagan and Christian Rome — Chapter 3
Summary of each segment:
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CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Apse - New Advent
The term apse was first used in reference to a Roman basilica, of which it was a characteristic feature. There was an apse in the temple of Mars Ultor. It is ...
[59]
Old St. Peter's Basilica | History & Architecture
Starting from €5.00 Rating 4.3 (55,572) During the fourth century, Emperor Constantine I felt the need for a church in Rome, to be built over the grave of Saint Peter. After a few years, the basilica ...
[60]
Hagia Sophia, Istanbul - Smarthistory
The golden dome of this vast building appears suspended from heaven. It has withstood quakes, conquest, and crusades.
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Transept | Gothic, Cross-Shaped, Cruciform - Britannica
Transept, the area of a cruciform church lying at right angles to the principal axis. The bay at which the transept intersects the main body of the church ...Missing: laity | Show results with:laity
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Breaking the Dividing Wall - Theopolis Institute
Jul 3, 2012 · Whereas through the fourteenth century, churches separated clergy and laity into two distinctive, self-contained areas—the chancel and the nave ...
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Eastern Churches Review: The Origins of the Iconostasis
Aug 19, 2011 · The low panels separating the clergy from the laity are a regular feature of the early Christian church whatever the shape of the sanctuary.
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Our Holy Sanctuary - The Priest
Mar 15, 2024 · It is the place of the 'Holy of Holies.' It is the tent of God, his throne. Here he is among us. His presence (Shekinah) really does now dwell ...
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Late Byzantine church architecture - Smarthistory
Sep 18, 2020 · Integrating a highly attenuated cross-in-square naos with a pi-shaped ambulatory, the whole is topped by five domes.
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https://smarthistory.org/middle-byzantine-church-architecture/
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San Vitale and the Justinian and Theodora Mosaics - Smarthistory
San Vitale is one of the most important surviving examples of Eastern Roman “Byzantine” Empire architecture and mosaic work. It was begun in 526 or 527 ...
[68]
Middle Byzantine church architecture (article) - Khan Academy
The cross-in-square church ... had profound effects on church design, in terms of the development of a standardized program of decoration and a concomitant ...
[69]
The Layout of a Medieval Abbey - World History Encyclopedia
Oct 10, 2023 · Many features of abbeys became standard, such as the main church, cloister, chapter house, refectory, library, calefectory, and dormitories.The Growth Of Abbeys · Architectural Layout · The Church
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Donato Bramante, Tempietto, Rome - Smarthistory
Both the ancient Greeks and the ancient Romans employed this circular plan, and so Bramante is very consciously going back to the ancient Roman writer Vitruvius ...