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Cena

In ancient Roman culture, the cena (also spelled coena) was the principal meal of the day, typically consumed in the late afternoon or evening and serving as a central social and cultural event.^[1] It evolved from simpler early Roman repasts to elaborate banquets in the Republic and Empire periods, reflecting changes in society, economy, and cuisine. The term derives from Classical Latin cēna, from Old Latin cesna, ultimately from Proto-Indo-European *kért-sneh₂ meaning "portion" or "cut," alluding to the division of food.^[1] The cena usually consisted of three courses: the gustatio (appetizer with eggs, vegetables, and wine), the main prima mensa featuring dishes like meats, fish, and grains, and the secunda mensa with desserts and fruits. Dining customs involved reclining on couches, using basic utensils, and emphasizing conversation and entertainment, particularly among the elite. Socially, it integrated family life, reinforced status through lavish displays, and held symbolic importance in religious and funerary contexts. Variations existed between elite and commoner practices, as well as across regions and eras, from the porridge-based meals of early Rome to the opulent feasts of the imperial age.^[2]^[3]

Definition and Etymology

Definition

In ancient Roman culture, the cena was the principal meal of the day, serving as the most substantial and socially important repast, typically consumed in the evening after the completion of work and a visit to the baths.^[4] Originally held around midday during the early Republic, it evolved to a later timing by the late Republic and into the Imperial period, allowing for a more leisurely and extended dining experience.^[5] This shift distinguished the cena from the lighter morning ientaculum, which consisted of simple fare like bread and cheese, and the modest midday prandium, often a quick snack of leftovers or cold items.^[2] Unlike these earlier meals, the cena emphasized hospitality, hierarchy, and social bonding, reflecting the host's status and the guests' relationships through its formality and etiquette.^[4] The cena followed a standard three-part structure that progressed through distinct courses, enhancing its ritualistic nature. It began with the gustatio, an appetizer course featuring small bites to stimulate the appetite; transitioned to the prima mensa, the main course with heartier dishes; and concluded with the secunda mensa, dedicated to desserts and fruits.^[2] This progression, often enjoyed in the triclinium while reclining on couches, underscored the meal's role as a cultural centerpiece beyond mere sustenance.^[2]

Etymology

The Latin noun cēna, referring to the main meal or supper, originates from Old Latin cesna (also spelled caesna or caena), inherited through Proto-Italic kertsnā from the Proto-Indo-European form kért-sneh₂, meaning "portion" or a cut-off share, likely alluding to the primary allotment of food in a daily repast.^[6] This etymology connects to the PIE root *ker-/*sker- ("to cut"), emphasizing division or allocation rather than mere consumption. Cognates appear in other Italic languages, including Umbrian śesna (a similar meal term) and Oscan kersnu (denoting a portion or supper), reflecting shared prehistoric linguistic heritage across the Italic branch.^[6] In Latin orthography, variant spellings like coēna occasionally occur, influenced by Greek transliteration practices in bilingual contexts, though cēna remains the standard form.^[7] In Roman literature, cēna consistently denotes the evening or principal repast; for instance, Plautus employs it in his comedy Aulularia (lines 470–471) to describe a communal dinner scene central to the plot's intrigue.^[8] Similarly, Cicero uses cēna in In Pisonem (67) to critique a lavish dinner hosted by Piso, highlighting its social connotations in oratorical invective.^[9] Over time, the cēna shifted from a primarily midday meal in early Roman custom to a later afternoon or evening affair.^[7]

Historical Development

Origins in Early Rome

The cena first emerged during the Roman Kingdom (c. 753–509 BCE), when Rome was under the rule of Etruscan kings, as a straightforward communal meal centered on family and household members in an agrarian context. Influenced by Etruscan customs, which emphasized shared banqueting rituals often depicted in tomb frescoes showing reclining figures and prepared foods, the early cena incorporated basic elements of social gathering around food, though adapted to the modest resources of early Roman settlers.^[10] These Etruscan practices, in turn, drew from broader Mediterranean traditions, including Greek symposia-like elements transmitted through southern Italian colonies, where meals served as occasions for discussion and bonding among kin. In the agrarian society of early Rome, the cena functioned primarily as a midday repast to sustain farmers and their households after morning fieldwork, reflecting the self-sufficient rural economy dominated by small family farms or villae rusticae, with a lighter evening meal known as vesperna. Basic staples formed its core: puls, a porridge made from emmer wheat or spelt boiled with water and sometimes flavored with olive oil or salt, accompanied by coarse bread, fresh cheese from sheep or goat milk, and seasonal vegetables such as onions, leeks, or cabbage grown in household plots. Cato the Elder, in his De Agri Cultura (c. 160 BCE), describes preparations akin to these early meals, including recipes for porridge-like dishes using groats softened in water and mixed with cheese and honey, underscoring the reliance on locally produced grains and dairy for nourishment in rural settings. This simplicity contrasted with later elaborations, prioritizing sustenance over luxury in a period when most Romans lived as subsistence farmers. Early literary references highlight the cena's communal role in fostering household unity within rural villas, where the meal brought together family, slaves, and laborers under the overseer's direction. Varro, in De Re Rustica (37 BCE), details farmstead layouts with dedicated kitchens for preparing and consuming food before dawn or after harvest, emphasizing equitable distribution to prevent hunger and maintain productivity among the familia rustica.^[11] Cato similarly stresses the vilicus's duty to ensure servants are "well provided for" with provisions like wine and staples, portraying the cena as a shared ritual that reinforced social hierarchies while promoting collective well-being in isolated agrarian communities.^[12] These accounts, though written in the Republic, preserve traditions from the Kingdom era, illustrating how the cena integrated daily labor rhythms with familial solidarity.

Evolution Through the Republic and Empire

During the Roman Republic, the cena transitioned from a midday meal to an evening event by the late period (c. 2nd–1st century BCE), reflecting changes in daily routines and social practices. The grammarian Sextus Pompeius Festus noted in his De verborum significatu that among the ancients, the cena was the first meal of the day, but it was later postponed to the evening, with the prandium taking over as the midday repast. This shift accommodated longer work hours for the laboring classes and allowed the elite more time for afternoon bathing and leisure pursuits, integrating the meal more deeply into evening social life.^[13] As a result, the cena became a central venue for conversation and networking, often extending late into the night. With the advent of the Empire in 27 BCE, the cena evolved into a grander spectacle, heavily influenced by Hellenistic customs introduced through conquests and cultural exchange. Greek symposia inspired more elaborate structures, including multiple courses and entertainment, transforming the meal from a simple family affair into a display of wealth and status. Emperors exemplified this opulence; Nero (r. 54–68 CE), for instance, hosted lavish banquets in his Domus Aurea, featuring a rotating dining hall that mimicked the movement of the stars and served exotic dishes on gold-embossed tables.^[14] Such extravagance, drawing on Eastern luxuries like spices and silks, underscored the emperor's power but also highlighted growing disparities between social classes, where the cena served as a brief reference to status displays in elite society. In the late Empire (c. 3rd–5th centuries CE), economic pressures from inflation, invasions, and the Crisis of the Third Century led to a simplification of the cena, reverting it toward more basic, frugal forms across society. Amid these shifts, the rise of Christianity promoted ideals of moderation and temperance, as articulated by Church Fathers like Tertullian, who condemned pagan excesses in banqueting as moral corruption. This ethical influence, combined with resource scarcity, encouraged simpler meals focused on sustenance rather than indulgence, marking a cultural pivot toward restraint by the time of the Western Empire's fall in 476 CE.

Physical Setting and Customs

Dining Arrangements

The cena was typically held in the triclinium, a dedicated dining room featuring three couches known as lecti, arranged in a U-shape around a central table to facilitate conversation and service.^[15] This layout accommodated up to nine diners, with three individuals per couch, reflecting the standard capacity for intimate social gatherings in Roman homes.^[15] The couches, often portable and cushioned or built-in with angled cement bases, were positioned to face inward, allowing guests to recline while slaves served food and wine from the open side.^[16] Diners adopted a reclining posture, propping themselves on their left elbows with legs extended to the right, a convention borrowed from Greek symposia and symbolizing leisure and status.^[15] Positioning followed a strict hierarchy: the host occupied the place of honor at the head of the lectus imus (the lowest couch), with the most esteemed guest at the head of the lectus medius (middle couch), and less prominent attendees on the lectus summus (highest couch).^[16] Women, if present at the cena, generally sat upright or reclined separately from men, adhering to norms of decorum that varied by era and social context.^[2] Seasonal adaptations influenced the venue, with winter cenas held in enclosed indoor triclinia oriented westward for warmth and afternoon light, as prescribed by Vitruvius in De Architectura.^[17] In summer, dining shifted to open-air settings in peristyles or gardens to capture cool northern breezes, a practice evidenced by excavations at Pompeii, such as the House of the Cryptoporticus, where U-shaped masonry couches overlooked verdant spaces.^[16]

Utensils and Service

In ancient Roman cena, utensils varied significantly by social class, reflecting both technological capabilities and status hierarchies. Elite diners employed luxurious tableware crafted from silver or gold, often featuring intricate engravings or repoussé designs, while bronze vessels were common among the upper classes for durability and shine.^[2] For serving larger portions, patellae—shallow, wide platters—were used to present communal dishes, allowing guests to portion food directly from the vessel.^[18] In contrast, lower-class households relied on more modest materials like terracotta or plain bronze for plates and bowls, which were functional yet prone to breakage.^[2] Spoons known as cochlearia, typically made of bronze, silver, or bone with pointed tips for extracting snails from shells or scooping liquids, served as the primary eating implement; forks were unknown, so diners used their hands—specifically the right thumb, index, and middle fingers—or pieces of bread to convey solid foods to the mouth.^[19]^[20] Wine service during the cena emphasized ritual and hospitality, beginning with mulsum, a sweetened aperitif made by mixing honey into white wine, which was offered to whet the appetite before the main courses.^[21] This was poured by household slaves into individual drinking cups, such as calices or skyphoi—stemmed or handled vessels often of glass, silver, or pottery—facilitating toasts and conversation among reclining guests.^[22] Slaves managed the flow of wine throughout the meal, diluting it with water in a crater (mixing bowl) to suit the host's preferences and prevent overconsumption. A staple condiment accompanying these services was garum, a pungent fermented fish sauce derived from anchovies or mackerel viscera, salt, and herbs, which added umami to dishes and was drizzled from small amphorae or poured from dedicated vessels.^[23] Serving protocols for the cena were highly structured, underscoring the host's authority and the meal's social order. The host or a designated slave announced the progression of courses—typically the gustatio (appetizers), prima mensa (main dishes), and secunda mensa (desserts)—ensuring a deliberate pace that allowed for discourse.^[2] Between these mensae, hygiene was maintained through handwashing rituals, where manservī (hand slaves) circulated with ewers of scented water and linen towels to cleanse guests' fingers soiled from eating.^[24]^[25] Among the elite, overindulgence occasionally prompted induced vomiting as a medical practice to alleviate discomfort from heavy eating and drinking, though contrary to popular misconception, this did not occur in dedicated "vomitoria" rooms but rather in private spaces or as advised by physicians like Celsus.^[26] These customs reinforced hierarchies, with slaves performing all service unobtrusively to preserve the diners' focus on refinement and interaction.

Composition and Foods

Courses of the Meal

The cena, the principal meal of the ancient Romans, was structured around three sequential courses designed to progress from light fare to more substantial dishes and finally to a sweet conclusion, reflecting both practical digestion and social ritual.^[2] This tripartite division—gustatio, prima mensa, and secunda mensa—emerged during the late Republic and became standard by the Imperial period, influenced by Greek symposia traditions.^[27] Wine was served throughout the meal to accompany the courses and facilitate conversation.^[2] The gustatio served as the opening course, intended to stimulate the appetite and prepare the diners for the heavier elements to follow. Typically presented on small tables placed before the guests, it featured a selection of simple, minimally prepared items arranged for visual appeal and ease of consumption. This stage emphasized variety and restraint, allowing the meal to unfold gradually without overwhelming the participants early on.^[27]^[2] The progression from gustatio marked a transition to the core of the dining experience, with tables cleared to make way for the next phase.^[28] Following the gustatio, the prima mensa constituted the heart of the cena, comprising the primary savory offerings that showcased the host's resources and culinary prowess. This course involved multiple "removes," where dishes were successively brought and replaced on the mensa (table), enabling a sustained focus on hearty, flavorful items without fixed portions dominating the entire sitting. The structure allowed for flexibility in pacing, often extending the duration as guests savored the progression of flavors and textures.^[2]^[27] Upon completion, the tables were again cleared—a ritual act symbolizing the shift to closure—paving the way for the final course.^[28] The secunda mensa brought the cena to a close with lighter, more digestible selections aimed at refreshing the palate and aiding post-meal comfort. Positioned as the dessert phase, it typically included items that balanced the preceding richness, often served in a relaxed manner to wind down the gathering. This concluding structure underscored the meal's holistic design, ensuring a satisfying end that complemented the earlier indulgence.^[27]^[2] The entire sequence could span several hours, varying by the occasion's formality and the diners' status.^[28]

Typical Ingredients and Dishes

The cena featured a variety of proteins, with pork being the most common and versatile meat, utilized in forms such as sausages, roasts, and the elaborate porcus Troianus (Troy pig), a stuffed suckling pig dish.^[5] Other proteins included exotic options like dormice, which were fattened in special enclosures and often roasted whole or stuffed with nuts and honey, and game birds such as peacocks, prized for their rarity and served on special occasions.^[29]^[30] These choices reflected Roman preferences for both everyday staples and status symbols in elite settings. Vegetables formed a foundational element of the meal, with leeks, cabbage, and lettuce commonly prepared boiled, stewed, or in salads to balance richer proteins.^[5] Staples like bread, made from emmer wheat or barley in flat loaves, and olives, often paired with cheese or dipped in oil, provided bulk and were ubiquitous across social classes.^[5] A universal flavoring was garum, a fermented fish sauce derived from mackerel or anchovy viscera, used to season nearly every savory dish for its umami depth.^[23] For elites, imported ingredients elevated the cena, including African dates for sweetness in desserts or accompaniments, and Indian spices like pepper, which appeared in about 75% of surviving recipes to add heat and complexity.^[31]^[30] Beverages centered on wine, served undiluted for ceremonial toasts but typically mixed with water, sometimes flavored as mulsum (honeyed wine). Posca, a vinegar-water mix sometimes with herbs, was a staple for lower classes and soldiers.^[5] In the secunda mensa course, seasonal fruits such as grapes, figs, and pomegranates were presented fresh or preserved to conclude the meal.^[5]

Integration into Daily Life

The cena served as the principal meal in the ancient Roman daily routine, typically consumed after the afternoon bath (post balneum), which marked the transition from work and public activities to private family time. In the Roman Republic, it was generally eaten around 3–4 PM, following baths taken about two o'clock, allowing for a structured end to the day's labors before evening rest.^[32] This timing aligned with the Roman division of the day, where the main meal followed the midday rest (meridiatio) and bathing, integrating cena into a rhythm of hygiene, relaxation, and nourishment that sustained household productivity.^[32] During the Empire, the cena gradually shifted to later hours, often extending into the evening near sunset, as social customs evolved toward more leisurely pacing influenced by imperial lifestyles.^[32] Family cennae typically lasted 1–3 hours, providing a dedicated period for communal eating that reinforced domestic bonds without encroaching on sleep. This duration accommodated conversation and the pacing of courses, embedding the meal firmly within the household's evening wind-down. Within the family, the paterfamilias presided over the cena, directing the proceedings from his position of authority and using the occasion to instill etiquette and social norms in his children, who sometimes dined separately to observe adult customs. Children learned table manners, deference, and conversational restraint during these meals, preparing them for public life under the watchful eye of the household head. In stricter households, women might be excluded from the main dining area or seated upright while men reclined, upholding patriarchal separation during formal family routines.^[32] Physicians like Galen emphasized moderation during cena to aid digestion, advising against overindulgence to prevent indigestion from excess phlegm accumulation and to counter contemporary critiques of gluttony as a moral failing.^[33] Galen's recommendations promoted balanced portions tailored to individual constitutions, viewing the meal as essential for health maintenance rather than mere satisfaction, thus integrating medical principles into everyday Roman eating practices.^[34]

Banquets and Symbolic Importance

The Roman convivium, or banquet, elevated the cena into a formal social event characterized by elaborate entertainment that enhanced the communal experience. These gatherings often featured recitations of poetry, such as passages from Virgil's Aeneid, performed by invited poets to stimulate intellectual discourse among guests.^[35] Musicians playing flutes, lyres, or water organs provided melodic accompaniment, while dancers, acrobats, and mime performers interjected between courses to maintain engagement and showcase the host's resources.^[2] In more opulent variants, trained animals added spectacle, transforming the banquet into a multisensory ritual that could extend late into the night.^[2] A vivid literary portrayal of such excess appears in Petronius' Satyricon, particularly the Cena Trimalchionis, where the fictional freedman Trimalchio hosts a decadent feast marked by ostentatious dishes like pastry eggs containing bird embryos and dormice in honey, satirizing the vulgarity of newly wealthy elites.^[36] This episode critiques the overindulgence of Roman banquets, depicting them as arenas of pretentious display rather than refined hospitality, with Trimalchio's interruptions and bizarre entertainments underscoring the erosion of traditional decorum.^[36] The Satyricon's fragmented narrative, written in the first century CE under Nero, remains a primary source for understanding the cultural excesses associated with elite convivia.^[36] Symbolically, the convivium embodied hospitium, the Roman equivalent of Greek xenia or guest-friendship, where hosts extended hospitality through gifts to departing guests, forging reciprocal bonds of trust and alliance.^[37] These exchanges reinforced social networks, as banquets served as venues for political maneuvering; Cicero, in his letters and orations, alluded to dinners as tools for diplomacy, where informal conversations at the table built coalitions amid Republican factionalism.^[38] Such gatherings thus symbolized not only generosity but also strategic power consolidation, with the host's largesse signaling influence and loyalty.^[39] Artistic representations of idealized cenae adorned villa frescoes, particularly in Pompeii, where scenes of reclining guests enjoying banquets amid lush gardens or mythological motifs evoked harmony and abundance.^[40] These wall paintings, such as those in the House of the Triclinium, depicted servants presenting dishes and entertainers, idealizing the convivium as a pinnacle of civilized leisure. This imagery influenced Renaissance artists, who revived Roman banquet motifs in works like Titian's Feast of the Gods, blending classical motifs with contemporary feasts to celebrate opulence and humanism.^[41]

Variations Across Society

Elite vs. Commoner Practices

In ancient Rome, the cena among the elite, particularly patricians and wealthy equestrians, was a grand affair characterized by multi-course extravagance designed to showcase wealth and social status. These dinners often featured imported rarities such as flamingo tongues, peacock tongues, and dormice, served in heavily spiced and sauced preparations, accompanied by exotic wines and entertainments like poetry recitals or animal displays.^[36] Lasting several hours, these banquets were held in triclinia with guests reclining on couches, attended by numerous slaves who managed the elaborate service of gustatio (appetizers), prima mensa (main courses), and secunda mensa (desserts).^[36] In stark contrast, the cena for commoners, including plebeians and lower-class urban dwellers, emphasized simplicity and affordability, typically consisting of one-pot meals prepared from local ingredients. A staple was puls, a porridge made from emmer wheat or spelt boiled with water, salt, and a small amount of fat like lard or olive oil, often supplemented with seasonal vegetables, legumes, or occasional cheese and eggs for those with modest means.^[3] These meals were consumed at home after work or in bustling tabernae (tavern-like eateries) where quick, communal dining occurred standing or on basic benches.^[3] Meat and fish were rare luxuries for this class, reserved for festivals or windfalls, highlighting the socioeconomic divide in daily sustenance.^[36] To mitigate the growing excesses of elite dining, Roman authorities enacted sumptuary laws, such as the Lex Orchia of 181 BCE, which restricted the number of guests at banquets to curb ostentatious displays of luxury.^[42] Proposed by the tribune C. Orchius and supported by figures like Cato the Elder, this legislation aimed to preserve traditional Roman frugality and social order but achieved limited success, as subsequent laws like the Lex Fannia (161 BCE) attempted further limits on expenditures and food varieties, only to be frequently evaded or repealed.^[43]^[42] These measures underscored the persistent tension between elite indulgence and the austere realities of commoner life, though they rarely altered entrenched practices.^[43]

Regional and Temporal Differences

In the provinces of the Roman Empire, the cena adapted to local resources and culinary traditions, creating regional variations while retaining core Roman structures such as the three-course format. In Gaul, dairy products like milk, cheese, and butter—abundant due to the region's pastoral economy—were frequently incorporated into meals, contrasting with the olive oil-based preparations dominant in Italy; ancient geographer Strabo described Gallic meals as featuring large portions of milk and meat, influencing Romano-Gallic banquets to include cheese-based dishes alongside imported wines.^[44] In Roman Egypt, Nile River fish such as tilapia and mullet served as staples, often salted or pickled for preservation and integrated into the gustatio or prima mensa courses; documentary papyri from the province confirm salted fish as a common food across social classes, reflecting the Nile's role in sustaining local Roman dining practices.^[45] Further east, in Hellenistic-influenced provinces like Syria and Asia Minor, post-Alexander trade routes introduced Eastern spices such as pepper, cumin, and ginger from India and Arabia, which enhanced Roman dishes with exotic flavors; literary sources like Pliny the Elder note the influx of these spices, leading to spiced sauces and marinades that marked eastern provincial cenas as more aromatic than their Italic counterparts.^[46] Temporally, the cena evolved from Republican simplicity to Imperial extravagance, with further modifications under Christian influence. During the Roman Republic (c. 509–27 BCE), frugality defined elite and commoner meals alike, emphasizing local grains, vegetables, and modest portions to embody mos maiorum virtues, as advocated by figures like Cato the Elder in his writings on agriculture and household management.^[47] In contrast, the Imperial period (27 BCE–476 CE) saw increasing decadence, exemplified by Emperor Elagabalus (r. 218–222 CE), who, according to historian Cassius Dio, hosted banquets where ceilings released torrents of rose petals onto diners, sometimes causing suffocation.^[48] He was known for serving dishes with rare imports like camel heels and nightingale tongues to display opulence.^[49] Following Emperor Constantine's conversion (c. 312 CE) and the Edict of Milan (313 CE), Christian fasting practices began altering traditional cenas, introducing abstinences from meat and dairy on Wednesdays, Fridays, and during Lent, which reduced the scale of evening meals and shifted emphasis toward simpler, symbolic foods in line with ascetic ideals promoted by early Church fathers.^[50] Archaeological evidence from Romano-British villas illustrates these hybrid adaptations, blending Roman formality with local elements. Excavations at sites like Fishbourne Roman Palace (West Sussex, 1st century CE) reveal apsidal dining rooms (triclinia) with underfloor heating and mosaics depicting mythological scenes, suggesting seasonal banquets that incorporated British oysters and game alongside Roman-style reclining couches.^[51] Similarly, villas at North Leigh (Oxfordshire, 3rd–4th centuries CE) feature multiple dining suites with geometric mosaics and hearths for roasting local meats, evidencing temporal shifts toward more insular, post-Imperial hybridity as Roman influence waned.^[52]

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How the ancient Romans spiced up their lives — pepper!
May 13, 2019 · The Romans, on the other hand, adored spicing up their food. Pepper is called for in 75 percent of the 468 recipes found in the one-of-a-kind ...Missing: imports | Show results with:imports
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LacusCurtius • The Roman Meal (Smith's Dictionary, 1875)
### Summary of Roman Cena Timing, Baths, Changes, Family, and Health
[41]
Diet - The Empire's Physician
But no matter the food, moderation is important: Galen warned that eating too much causes indigestion (from a buildup of the humor phlegm), but this could be ...
[42]
Galen on Food and Diet - Bryn Mawr Classical Review
Apr 23, 2001 · Mark Grant has now turned his considerable skills as a translator and interpreter of ancient diet and cuisine to a number of Galen's treatises concerning food.Missing: cena | Show results with:cena
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Roman Banquets in Ancient Rome - Through Eternity Tours
Nov 30, 2022 · A Roman banquet would begin at around 5pm and include multiple courses. A typical menu might include cheese and salad as a starter, with a lot of meat or fish ...Missing: announced | Show results with:announced
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The Lavish Roman Banquet: A Calculated Display Of Debauchery ...
May 20, 2019 · The most legendary Roman banquet, says Strauss, is the fictional Cena Trimalchionis (Dinner of Trimalchio) in Petronius' satirical novel, ...
[45]
https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11457-018-9195-1
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https://www.academia.edu/74478083/Gold_spices_and_borders_literary_sources_and_roman_trade_with_East
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Roman Banquet - REMO Since 1988
Oct 21, 2024 · Prima Mensa (main course): The main dishes featured a variety of meats, seafood and other exotic fare. Roman cuisine was influenced by the ...Missing: cena structure
[48]
Roman Fresco of a Banquet Scene, Pompeii
Dec 21, 2022 · A fresco of the Fourth Pompeian Style depicting guests at a banquet. The guests are reclining at the table, and a young slave brings in dishes.
[49]
The Visual Banquet: Food and Festivity in Renaissance Art
Art historian Elaine Ruffolo delves into images of Renaissance feasts to explore their menus, ingredients, preparation, dining practices, and table settings.
[50]
Roman Meals - Cibi Antiquorum
Feb 9, 2023 · The Romans generally ate three times during the day. During the monarchy and at least the early republic, breakfast was called the ientaculum, lunch the cena, ...Missing: evolution | Show results with:evolution
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Lex Orchia | Roman law | Britannica
Other articles where Lex Orchia is discussed: ancient Rome: Culture and religion: …the dangers of luxury: the Orchian law (182) limited the lavishness of ...
[52]
LacusCurtius • Roman Law — Sumptuary Laws (Smith's Dictionary, 1875)
### Summary of Roman Sumptuary Laws Related to Banquets
[53]
Celtic and Romano British Foods from the Isles- a General Approach
Strabo notes that the Gauls had “large meals with milk and meat of all kinds, but most of all they loved pork, both fresh and salted. Their pigs run wild ...
[54]
Fish and Fishing in the Roman World
Jul 5, 2018 · Documentary evidence from Roman Egypt indicated that salted fish featured as a staple food on the tables of all social classes, from ordinary ...
[55]
Gold, spices and borders: literary sources and roman trade with East
Roman trade with the East involved annual transactions of 50 to 100 million sesterces. Luxury goods like pearls, spices, and silk were highly sought after ...
[56]
Decadence in Ancient Rome (Chapter 1)
The Romans had a difficult relationship with the kind of luxury and excess that we think of as indicators of moral and social decadence.
[57]
Alma Tadema--The Roses of Heliogabalus
Herodian (V.3.3ff) and Dio (Roman History, LXXIX.1ff) are the primary sources for the life of Elagabalus. All the more salacious details, many ...
[58]
Chapter 4: The Development Of Fasting From Monasticism Through ...
Jul 9, 2007 · This chapter traces the development of fasting from monasticism through the Reformation and Protestant traditions into the modern era.
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Seasonal Dining-Rooms in Romano-British Houses | Britannia
Nov 9, 2011 · It is known from ancient sources that high-status Roman villas and town-houses had winter and summer dining-rooms. But how far did this trend ...Missing: cena | Show results with:cena
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History of North Leigh Roman Villa - English Heritage
The villa has produced evidence for at least 19 mosaic floors, though only one remains visible today. Some were elaborate and others plainer, and most had ...Missing: cena | Show results with:cena