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Chedorlaomer

Chedorlaomer is the name given in the Hebrew Bible to an ancient king of Elam who led a coalition of four eastern rulers in a military campaign against five rebellious kings of the Cities of the Plain in the Jordan Valley, as recounted in Genesis 14.^[1] According to the narrative, after serving as suzerain for twelve years, Chedorlaomer and his allies—Amraphel of Shinar, Arioch of Ellasar, and Tidal of Goiim—launched a punitive expedition in the thirteenth year, defeating the vassal kings of Sodom, Gomorrah, Admah, Zeboiim, and Bela (Zoar) in the fourteenth year, and capturing Abraham's nephew Lot along with goods and people from Sodom.^[2] Abraham then mobilized 318 trained men from his household, pursued the invaders to Dan and Hobah north of Damascus, defeated Chedorlaomer's forces, recovered Lot and the spoils, and was blessed by Melchizedek, king of Salem.^[1] The historicity of Chedorlaomer remains debated among scholars, with his name featuring Elamite elements such as kudur (meaning "servant" or "vassal") and Lagamar (referring to a high Elamite goddess), suggesting possible roots in ancient Near Eastern onomastics akin to kings like Kudur-Nahhunte.^[1] A minority of researchers, using revised chronologies, propose identification with an Elamite ruler named Kudur-Lagamar from the Awan dynasty (c. 2700–2100 BCE), linking the Genesis 14 campaign to events referenced in the Spartoli tablets and Egyptian Execration Texts.^[3] However, the scholarly consensus views the chapter as a later composition from the Persian or post-exilic period (5th–2nd century BCE), reflecting Achaemenid imperial ideology where Elam symbolized Persian hegemony, and Abraham's victory served as a theological motif of divine protection against eastern overlords rather than a literal historical event.^[2] No direct archaeological confirmation of Chedorlaomer as an individual exists, though the narrative's geopolitical details align with known Mesopotamian and Elamite interactions in the late 3rd millennium BCE.^[4] See the "Scholarly Identification" section for further discussion. In broader biblical and cultural significance, Chedorlaomer's story underscores themes of covenant loyalty, the establishment of Abraham's territorial claims in Canaan, and the prioritization of priestly over royal authority through figures like Melchizedek, influencing later Jewish, Christian, and Islamic interpretations of patriarchal history.^[4] The account also highlights early interregional trade routes and conflicts in the ancient Near East, from the Persian Gulf to the Dead Sea, paralleling Assyrian models of "four quarters" world domination.^[2]

Biblical Account

Role in Genesis 14

In the narrative of Genesis 14, Chedorlaomer is introduced as the king of Elam, positioned as the central antagonist leading a coalition of four kings against five rebellious city-states in the Jordan Valley. These allied rulers include Amraphel of Shinar, Arioch of Ellasar, and Tidal of Goiim, who collectively oppose the kings of Sodom, Gomorrah, Admah, Zeboiim, and Bela (also known as Zoar).^[5] The biblical account frames the conflict within a timeline of subjugation, noting that the five kings had served Chedorlaomer for twelve years before rebelling in the thirteenth year of his rule. This period of suzerainty highlights his established dominance over these Canaanite polities in the region around the Dead Sea.^[6] Chedorlaomer's depiction as a foreign monarch from Elam—an ancient kingdom east of Mesopotamia in southwestern Iran—emphasizes his imperial stature, as he imposes tribute and exerts control over distant territories during the patriarchal age. Scholars interpret this portrayal as evoking the archetype of an eastern overlord, underscoring themes of hegemony in the early biblical tradition.^[7]^[2]

Coalition and Campaigns

Chedorlaomer, king of Elam, formed a military coalition with three subordinate kings to maintain regional dominance: Amraphel of Shinar, Arioch of Ellasar, and Tidal of Goiim.^[8] These allies joined forces under Chedorlaomer's leadership to enforce vassalage over cities in Canaan and Transjordan, reflecting a hierarchical alliance where Elam exerted suzerainty over Mesopotamian and other eastern rulers.^[2] The five kings of the cities of the plain—Bera of Sodom, Birsha of Gomorrah, Shinab of Admah, Shemeber of Zeboiim, and the king of Bela (Zoar)—had served Chedorlaomer as vassals for twelve years but rebelled in the thirteenth year.^[9] In response, during the fourteenth year, Chedorlaomer and his coalition launched a punitive expedition, first subduing potential threats in Transjordan to secure their advance. They defeated the Rephaim at Ashteroth-karnaim, the Zuzim at Ham, the Emim at Shaveh-kiriathaim, and the Horites from their hill country of Seir to El-paran on the wilderness border, then turned to En-mishpat (Kadesh) where they overcame the Amalekites and the Amorites dwelling in Hazazon-tamar.^[10] This sequence of victories reasserted control over these groups, who may have been prior subjects or allies of the rebels.^[2] The campaign followed a strategic route through Transjordan, aligning with the ancient trade and military path later known as the King's Highway, which connected Mesopotamia to Canaan via key oases and passes.^[11] By traversing this corridor, the coalition aimed to quash the rebellion efficiently while consolidating power over intermediate territories before reaching the Valley of Siddim.^[2]

Defeat by Abraham

In the biblical narrative, the rebellion against Chedorlaomer's coalition culminates in a battle in the Valley of Siddim, also known as the Salt Sea, where the forces of the five kings of the Jordan plain—including Sodom and Gomorrah—clash with the invading alliance led by Chedorlaomer. During the conflict, the kings of Sodom and Gomorrah fall into the tar pits abundant in the valley, while their forces are routed. The victorious coalition plunders the goods and provisions of the defeated cities and captures Abram's nephew Lot, along with his possessions, as they reside in Sodom.^[12] Upon learning of Lot's capture, Abram (later Abraham) mobilizes 318 trained men born in his household and pursues the retreating kings northward as far as Dan. Dividing his forces for a nighttime ambush, Abram attacks the coalition near Dan, routing them decisively and pursuing the remnants to Hobah, north of Damascus. This swift counterattack allows Abram to recover all the captured goods, Lot, the other captives, and their possessions without loss.^[13] Following the victory, as Abram returns with the recovered spoils, he encounters Melchizedek, king of Salem and priest of God Most High, who brings out bread and wine to bless Abram in the name of God Most High, creator of heaven and earth. Abram gives Melchizedek a tenth of everything as an offering. The king of Sodom then meets Abram in the Valley of Shaveh and offers to let him keep the goods in exchange for the people, but Abram refuses, swearing by God Most High that he will accept nothing—from a thread to a sandal thong—to avoid any claim of enriching the king of Sodom. Abram allows only the portions consumed by his allies and their men.^[14]

Name and Etymology

Linguistic Origins

The name Chedorlaomer originates from the Elamite compound Kudur-Lagamar (or Kudur-Lagamal), comprising two distinct elements: kudur (also spelled kutir), meaning "servant" or "border servant," and Lagamar (variant Lagamal), the name of an Elamite deity, likely an underworld goddess equated with the Mesopotamian god Nergal.^[15]^[16] This etymology interprets the full name as "servant of Lagamar," reflecting a theophoric structure common in ancient Near Eastern royal nomenclature.^[2] While the name appears authentically Elamite, some scholars argue it may be a Persian-period invention to evoke eastern imperial threats, given the narrative's possible composition in the 5th–2nd century BCE.^[2] Such naming patterns align with broader Elamite conventions, where kudur frequently prefixes the name of a deity to denote devotion or service, as exemplified in the name Kudur-Mabuk ("servant of Mabuk" or "(The god) Mabuk is a protector"), borne by an Elamite ruler who influenced Mesopotamian politics around the early 19th century BCE.^[17] Similar constructions appear in other Elamite kingly titles, like Kudur-Nahhunte, underscoring the element's role in expressing hierarchical allegiance to divine authority.^[16] In biblical transmission, the name exhibits spelling variations across ancient manuscripts. The Hebrew Masoretic Text vocalizes it as Kedorlaomer (כְּדָרְלָעֹמֶר), emphasizing a smoother consonantal flow, while the Greek Septuagint renders it as Chodollogomor (Χοδολλογομόρ), incorporating assimilation of the "r" to "l" and altered vocalization, likely to adapt the foreign term for Greek phonology.^[15]

Interpretations in Ancient Sources

In the first-century CE work Antiquities of the Jews, Flavius Josephus recounts the biblical narrative of Genesis 14, portraying Chedorlaomer (rendered as Chodorlaomer) as one of four eastern kings leading a powerful coalition against the kings of Sodom and their allies. Josephus describes how, after twelve years of tribute from the Sodomites, the coalition—under Amraphel, Arioch, Chodorlaomer, and Tidal—invaded Syria, overthrew the offspring of giants, and decisively defeated the Sodomite forces at the Slime Pits, capturing Lot among the prisoners, thus emphasizing Chodorlaomer's role as a formidable eastern conqueror enforcing imperial dominance. Rabbinic interpretations in the Targums and Midrash further elaborate on Chedorlaomer's figure, often highlighting his tyrannical rule and the subsequent divine orchestration of his defeat. In Targum Pseudo-Jonathan and Targum Jonathan to Genesis 14, the name is transliterated as Kedarlaomer or similar, with expansions depicting the coalition's campaign as a ruthless suppression of rebellion, including the smiting of giants (Rephaim) in regions like Ashteroth Karnaim, underscoring the overwhelming might of his eastern forces. Midrashic texts, such as Genesis Rabbah 42, amplify this by associating the kings with figures of oppression and interpreting Abraham's victory as a direct intervention by God, who empowered the patriarch's small force to rout the tyrants, symbolizing divine justice against imperial hubris. Possible echoes of Chedorlaomer's campaigns appear in ancient Near Eastern texts describing Elamite incursions into Babylonian and Mesopotamian territories, where Elamite rulers are depicted as aggressive overlords imposing tribute and leading coalitions against rebellious city-states. Babylonian chronicles and royal inscriptions, such as those referencing later Elamite invasions under Middle Elamite kings, record eastern forces sacking cities like Sippar and subjugating southern Mesopotamia for extended periods, mirroring the biblical account of prolonged dominion followed by punitive expeditions.^[18] These narratives portray Elamite leaders as eastern threats to Babylonian stability, akin to the tyrannical conqueror in Genesis, though no text explicitly names Chedorlaomer.^[19]

Historical Context

Elamite Kingdom Background

The Elamite kingdom was situated in southwestern Iran, encompassing the lowlands of Susiana (modern Khuzistan) along the Persian Gulf and the highlands of Fars in the Zagros Mountains, with its core territory stretching from the alluvial plains near Mesopotamia to the Iranian plateau's interior. This geographical position bridged the Mesopotamian alluvium and the Iranian highlands, facilitating control over vital trade corridors through the Zagros passes and the Transtigridian region. The primary capital was Susa, a major urban center founded around 4200 BCE on the Susiana Plain, which served as the political, administrative, and cultural hub; a secondary highland capital was Anshan (modern Tall-i Malyan), forming a dual administrative system that underscored Elam's integration of lowland and highland domains.^[20] During the early 2nd millennium BCE, Elam emerged as a formidable rival to Mesopotamian powers such as Sumer and Akkad, engaging in cycles of conflict, conquest, and cultural exchange that shaped its regional influence. The Awan dynasty, dominant from approximately 2700 to 2120 BCE, marked an early phase of consolidation, with rulers like Puzur-Inshushinak (ca. 2112–2095 BCE) extending control over Susa and western Iranian territories through military campaigns that subdued neighboring regions like Simashki. This was followed by the Shimashki dynasty (ca. 2200–1900 BCE), which rose amid the decline of the Ur III period (ca. 2100–2000 BCE) and is noted for kings such as Kindattu, who captured the Sumerian king Ibbi-Sin around 2004 BCE, asserting Elamite dominance over Mesopotamian cities like Ur. Elam's rivalry involved repeated Akkadian incursions, such as those by Sargon and Rimush in the 24th century BCE, which temporarily integrated Susa into Akkadian administration, yet Elamite resilience led to retaliatory expansions that looted Mesopotamian monuments and artifacts.^[20] Elam's expansionist policies in this era relied on aggressive territorial campaigns and a structured tribute system to amass resources, reflecting its ambition to dominate eastern trade networks. Rulers like Puzur-Inshushinak conquered up to 80 locales, while later Shimashki kings extracted tribute in metals such as gold, silver, and copper from subjugated areas, including Mesopotamian polities and highland tribes, which were funneled through centralized temple administrations at sites like Anshan. These policies extended Elam's reach westward, with interactions involving Canaan likely occurring through conquest routes and Gulf trade networks that carried goods like chlorite vessels and incense from the Iranian plateau to the Levant, as evidenced by glyptic seals and weight standards. Such extensions are exemplified by the biblical figure Chedorlaomer, whose campaigns illustrate the kingdom's projection of power into Canaanite territories for tribute and control around the early 2nd millennium BCE.^[20]

Regional Alliances and Conflicts

In the Middle Bronze Age (circa 2000–1550 BCE), the ancient Near East featured a fragmented geopolitical landscape dominated by competing city-states and kingdoms across Mesopotamia, the Levant, and eastern highlands, where shifting coalitions among Mesopotamian and eastern powers were essential for projecting influence toward the Levant. These alliances typically arose to counter mutual threats, secure trade routes, or exploit weakened neighbors, as seen in the interactions between Babylonian, Larsa, and Elamite rulers during the Isin-Larsa period. For example, early Amorite dynasties in southern Mesopotamia, such as those in Larsa, formed tactical partnerships with eastern kingdoms to consolidate control over fertile alluvial regions and repel incursions from nomadic groups.^[21] Elam's strategic position east of Mesopotamia enabled it to engage in these networks through intermittent military interventions and diplomatic ties, often backing Mesopotamian polities against rivals to extract resources or buffer its borders. During the early second millennium BCE, Elamite kings supported Larsa's expansion, providing troops and resources that helped Larsa dominate southern city-states like Ur and Isin, though such coalitions frequently dissolved into rivalry when ambitions clashed. Conflicts escalated when Elamite forces raided Mesopotamian territories, prompting defensive pacts among local rulers to repel eastern incursions and protect vital irrigation systems.^[21] In the Levant, Canaanite city-states emerged as key nodes in this system, functioning as semi-independent entities vulnerable to incorporation as vassals by distant overlords seeking access to Mediterranean ports and overland commerce. These polities, fortified against local raids and environmental pressures, paid tribute in goods like timber, metals, and agricultural surplus to maintain autonomy, with alliances forming sporadically to resist domination by Mesopotamian or Egyptian interests. Sites in the southern Jordan Valley, potentially including urban centers akin to Sodom and Gomorrah, exemplified this dynamic, serving as buffer zones where local rulers balanced tribute obligations with occasional coalitions against intrusive powers.^[22] Invasions and campaigns often traversed the King's Highway, an ancient north-south artery through Transjordan linking Egypt, the Arabian trade networks, and Mesopotamia, which doubled as a conduit for both mercantile exchanges and military expeditions. This route's control was contested through alliances, as kingdoms stationed garrisons at passes and oases to safeguard caravans carrying copper, incense, and textiles, while rebels exploited its length to launch ambushes or evade pursuers.^[23] Overarching patterns of tribute and rebellion permeated these interactions, particularly amid the Amorite migrations and dynastic upheavals following the Ur III collapse around 2000 BCE, when emerging rulers in cities like Babylon and Mari imposed levies on subordinate territories to fund armies and palaces. Vassals frequently rebelled against burdensome exactions, sparking cycles of punitive campaigns and renegotiated pacts that redistributed power among coalitions, as weaker states sought eastern or Egyptian patrons to counter Mesopotamian overreach.^[24]

Scholarly Identification

Proposed Historical Equivalents

Scholars have proposed identifying the biblical Chedorlaomer with Kudur-Lagamar, a hypothetical early Elamite king from the Awan dynasty in the 21st century BCE, primarily due to close phonetic similarity between the names and alignment in reign duration.^[3] The Elamite name Kudur-Lagamar, meaning "servant of the goddess Lagamar," matches the structure of Chedorlaomer, as supported by etymological analysis linking it to Elamite linguistic origins.^[3] According to this view, Kudur-Lagamar reigned for approximately 36 years (c. 1990–1954 BCE), which corresponds to the biblical timeline of a 12-year alliance followed by a 13-year vassalage period before the revolt described in Genesis 14.^[3] Alternative proposals connect Chedorlaomer to later Elamite rulers, such as Kutir-Nahhunte II (c. 1155–1150 BCE), son of Shutruk-Nahhunte I, based on parallels in military campaigns against Mesopotamian cities and name elements like "Kutir" resembling "Kudur."^[25] Michael Astour argued for this identification, suggesting the Genesis narrative reflects 12th-century BCE events, including Elamite invasions recorded in Babylonian chronicles.^[26] Some extensions to Neo-Elamite figures, like those in the 7th century BCE, have been debated but face challenges due to even greater chronological discrepancies with the patriarchal era.^[27] These identifications rely on synchronisms with Abraham's lifetime, traditionally placed around 2000 BCE, using biblical chronologies cross-referenced with Sumerian King Lists and Assyrian regnal data to align Kudur-Lagamar's rule with the events of Genesis 14.^[3] Proponents of the earlier dating, such as Gérard Gertoux, argue that the 21st-century BCE context better fits the Masoretic timeline and regional power dynamics, whereas later proposals like Kutir-Nahhunte's require compressing or reinterpreting biblical chronology to match 12th-century invasions.^[3] Debates center on the reliability of king list synchronisms, with critics noting potential gaps in Assyrian records for the early 2nd millennium BCE.^[28] However, the majority of scholars regard the Genesis 14 narrative as a later literary composition, possibly from the Persian or post-exilic period, reflecting ideological themes rather than historical events, with no direct evidence confirming Chedorlaomer as a specific historical figure.^[1]^[2]

Archaeological and Textual Evidence

Archaeological excavations at Susa, the primary Elamite capital, have uncovered numerous artifacts from the late third and early second millennia BCE, including cylinder seals that depict royal figures engaged in conquests and processions symbolizing military dominance. These seals, often carved in steatite and featuring motifs of kings subduing enemies or receiving tribute, reflect Elamite expansionist policies eastward and westward into Mesopotamian territories during periods of heightened imperial activity, such as the Awan and Shimashki dynasties around 2000 BCE. Similarly, digs at Anshan (modern Tall-e Malyan) have revealed administrative tablets and seals indicating Elamite control over highland resources and trade routes that facilitated military logistics, though no artifacts explicitly document campaigns as far as Canaan.^[29]^[30] Mesopotamian textual sources provide indirect evidence of Elamite military incursions into western regions, though none directly reference a figure named Chedorlaomer or campaigns targeting Canaanite city-states. The Sumerian King List records early conflicts, such as Enmebaragesi of Kish's victory over Elam around 2600 BCE, which involved plundering Elamite weapons and highlights ongoing tensions that later reversed with Elamite dominance in Mesopotamia by the Ur III period (c. 2100–2000 BCE). Letters from the Mari archives (18th century BCE) describe Elamite alliances and interventions in Syrian and Euphratean politics, including pressures on Amorite tribes and coalitions that could extend influence toward the Levant, but stop short of explicit westward raids into Canaan. These texts underscore Elam as a formidable eastern power capable of projecting force across Mesopotamia, aligning with the biblical portrayal of a coalition led by an Elamite king.^[31]^[32] No direct inscriptions or artifacts mention Chedorlaomer by name outside the Hebrew Bible, a point emphasized in scholarly analyses of Elamite royal records, where known kings like those of the Awan dynasty bear similar theophoric elements but lack precise matches. Potential indirect corroborations include the geographical details of the Battle of Siddim, described in Genesis 14:10 as a valley full of slime pits; geological surveys confirm abundant natural asphalt (bitumen) deposits in the Dead Sea basin, with massive blocks and seeps exploited since antiquity for waterproofing and trade, supporting the plausibility of such terrain hindering military maneuvers. This environmental evidence, combined with broader patterns of Elamite-Mesopotamian interactions, provides a contextual foundation for assessing the historicity of the narrative without confirming specific events or individuals.^[33]^[34]

References

[1]
Abraham Defeats Chedorlaomer, the Proto-Persian King
Oct 29, 2025 · Chedorlaomer of Elam has an Elamite sounding name, like Kudur-Nahhunte, the name of several Elamite kings in the second and first millennia ...
[2]
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The narrative in Genesis 14 chronicles the campaign of King Chedorlaomer of Elam and his coalition and the patriarch Abram's war with the invaders. The events ...
[3]
(PDF) Abraham and Chedorlaomer: Chronological, Historical and ...
Chedorlaomer's campaign against Sodom is historically significant, dating back to 1954 BCE. Abraham's arrival in Canaan is chronologically placed around 1963 ...
[4]
Genesis 14 and "The Four Quarters" - SciELO South Africa
The first twelve verses of this episode describe an event which was representative of the relationship of the Assyrian Empire with vassal states.<|control11|><|separator|>
[5]
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May 12, 2004 · First, the route of the conquest seems to be the 'way of the kings,' the trade route which the Mesopotamian kings sought to insure. The ...
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Chedorlaomer - International Standard Bible Encyclopedia
This suggests that the Elamite form, in cuneiform, would be Kudur-lagamar, the second element being the name of a god, and the whole therefore meaning "servant ...Missing: etymology origins scholarly
[16]
[PDF] 152 - Biblical Studies.org.uk
Names compounded with Kudur (meaning perhaps "servant") are specifically Elamite, and particular interest is attached to this feature in view of the Biblical ...
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Kudur-Mabuk and the Kingship of Larsa - ANE Today
Jan 1, 2022 · Kudur-Mabuk bore an Elamite name, which means “(The god) Mabuk is a protector.” Since the names of his father Šimti-šilhak and his daughter ...
[18]
ELAM i. The history of Elam - Encyclopaedia Iranica
Dec 15, 1998 · It seems that Mesopotamians in the late 3rd millennium BCE considered Elam to encompass the entire Persian plateau.
[19]
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Babylonia came into being early in the second millennium B.C. and lasted until it was conquered by the Persians in 539 B.C. For the early history of Babylonia ...
[20]
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This comprehensive and ambitious survey seeks for Elam, hardly a household name, a noteworthy place in our shared cultural heritage. It will be both a valuable.
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Babylonian Empire - Livius.org
Oct 12, 2020 · First, Babylon and its ally Larsa fought a defensive war against Elam, the archenemy of Akkad. After this war had been brought to a ...Old Babylonian Period · Assyrian Period · Neo-Babylonian Period
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Aug 6, 2025 · This present study focuses on the inhabitants of the southern Levant (Canaan) during the Bronze Ages, based on a variety of physical ...
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In Latin, Via Maris means "way of the sea." King's Highway, a 700-mile trade route connecting Africa with Mesopotamia. It ran from Egypt across the Sinai ...<|separator|>
[24]
The Amorites and the Bronze Age Near East - Academia.edu
In this book, Aaron A. Burke explores the evolution of Amorite identity in the Near East from ca. 2500–1500 BC.
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These tablets, properly called the “Spartoli tablets,” came to be known as the “Chedorlaomer tablets,” and various scholars of the ancient Near East, including ...Missing: etymology scholarly<|control11|><|separator|>
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It has been supported recently by Michael Astour in a brilliant essay ... 1-5aa, 9 Sodom and Gomorrah now allied with. Admah and 2;eboiim in a battle against ...
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Kudur-Nahhunte would have been a model for Chedarlaomer (Astour 1992:894). In that case, the name element lāʿomer would refer to the Elamite deity Nahhunte, a ...Missing: etymology | Show results with:etymology
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Dating the Chedorlaomer's Death - Academia.edu
The eyes, Conclusion: King Kudur-Lagamar (1990-1954), alias Chedorlaomer, has actually existed since he was the third and last king of Awan I, the only Elamite ...
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Apr 7, 2008 · ... cylinder seals of an often exceptional ... From then on Susa remained under the Elamite hold until it was conquered by the Achaemenids.
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Dec 18, 2015 · The first phase of this period (Middle Elamite I, c. 1500–1400 BC) is notable not only for the wealth of evidence from Susa but for the ...
[31]
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A total of 39 kings ruled for 14409 + X years, 3 months and 3 1/2 days, 4 times in Kic. A total of 22 kings ruled for 2610 + X years, 6 months and 15 days
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[PDF] LETTERS FROM MESOPOTAMIA
This book contains 150 translated Akkadian letters from Mesopotamia, including official, business, and private letters, from 2334-2279 BC to 539 BC.Missing: incursions | Show results with:incursions
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[PDF] HISTORY OF EARLY IRAN - Institute for the Study of Ancient Cultures
The present study endeavors to present the facts about early Elamite and Iranian history in a manner which will be at the same time useful to the scholar and ...
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Dead Sea Asphalts—Historical Aspects1 | AAPG Bulletin
Sep 21, 2019 · Asphalts are present in the Dead Sea basin in three forms: (1) huge blocks, up to 100 tons in weight, composed of extremely pure (>99.99%) solid asphalt ...Solid Hydrocarbons In Dead... · Ancient World · Uses Of Dead Sea Asphalt<|control11|><|separator|>