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Cremasteric reflex

The cremasteric reflex is a superficial reflex observed exclusively in human males, elicited by gently stroking the medial aspect of the upper thigh from proximal to distal, which triggers contraction of the cremaster muscle and resultant elevation of the ipsilateral testis toward the inguinal canal.^[1] Anatomically, the cremaster muscle comprises thin loops of skeletal muscle fibers that surround the spermatic cord and testis, with origins from the internal oblique muscle, transversus abdominis, and inguinal ligament.^[1] Its innervation arises from the genital branch of the genitofemoral nerve (arising from spinal segments L1 and L2), which provides both sensory afferents from the skin of the upper medial thigh and motor efferents to the muscle fibers.^[1] This neural pathway ensures a polysynaptic reflex arc, with sensory input ascending to the spinal cord before descending to elicit the motor response.^[1] Physiologically, the reflex plays a protective role in testicular thermoregulation by elevating the testes in response to stimuli such as cold exposure, emotional stress, or sexual arousal, thereby preventing potential damage from temperature fluctuations or trauma.^[1] The cremaster muscle's striated nature allows for voluntary modulation to some extent, distinguishing it from smooth muscle components in the scrotum, and it contributes to overall genital reflexes involved in reproduction.^[2] Clinically, testing the cremasteric reflex involves palpating the testis while stroking the inner thigh; a positive response is graded simply as present (normal elevation) or absent, and it is typically reliable in males over 2 years of age.^[1] Its absence is a highly sensitive sign (reported in up to 100% of confirmed cases) for testicular torsion in acute scrotal pain presentations, though rare exceptions exist, making it a valuable but imperfect diagnostic tool that prompts urgent imaging or surgery.^[1]^[3] Furthermore, an absent or diminished reflex may indicate upper or lower motor neuron lesions at L1-L2, genitofemoral nerve injury (e.g., from inguinal hernia repair), or conditions like spinal cord injury.^[1] In pediatric neurology and urology, it aids in assessing retractile testes or developmental anomalies.^[1]

Anatomy

Cremaster muscle

The cremaster muscle is a thin, paired structure unique to males, forming a layer of the spermatic cord that envelops the testes and provides dynamic support. It arises as an extension of the internal oblique muscle and consists of loosely arranged fasciculi of striated and smooth muscle fibers embedded in connective tissue, allowing for both voluntary and reflexive contractions. This muscle plays a key role in testicular positioning, with its fibers looping around the spermatic cord to influence scrotal temperature and protection.^[1]^[4]^[5] The muscle originates from two main parts: the lateral portion emerges from the lower edge of the internal abdominal oblique and transversus abdominis muscles, as well as the inguinal ligament, while the medial portion attaches to the pubic tubercle and the lateral aspect of the pubic crest. These origins enable the muscle to form a sling-like structure that extends downward. It inserts into the tunica vaginalis of the testis, creating a hammock that suspends and mobilizes the gonad within the scrotum. In females, homologous remnants appear along the round ligament of the uterus, but the muscle is rudimentary and non-functional.^[1]^[4]^[6] Structurally, the cremaster muscle comprises distinct bundles of slow-twitch (type 1) striated fibers, which predominate for sustained contractions, interspersed with widely dispersed smooth muscle fibers that enhance reflexive responsiveness. Histological analysis reveals multiple motor end-plates along the striated fibers and dense nerve plexuses among the smooth fibers, supporting rapid elevation of the testis during stimuli. The muscle lies between the external and internal spermatic fascia layers, integrating with the pampiniform plexus for thermoregulatory heat exchange. Blood supply is provided by the cremasteric artery, a branch of the inferior epigastric artery, ensuring adequate perfusion for its protective functions.^[5]^[4]^[6]

Innervation

The sensory component of the cremasteric reflex is mediated by fibers from the ilioinguinal nerve and the genitofemoral nerve, which detect tactile stimuli applied to the inner thigh and scrotal skin.^[1] The ilioinguinal nerve arises from the L1 spinal segment as a branch of the lumbar plexus, providing sensory innervation to the medial thigh, mons pubis, and anterior scrotum in males.^[7] It courses anteriorly along the quadratus lumborum muscle, pierces the transversus abdominis near the anterior superior iliac spine, and enters the inguinal canal to emerge through the superficial inguinal ring alongside the spermatic cord.^[7] The motor innervation is supplied exclusively by the genital branch of the genitofemoral nerve, which originates from the L1 and L2 spinal segments within the lumbar plexus and conveys efferent signals to induce contraction of the cremaster muscle.^[1] This nerve forms from the anterior rami of L1-L2 inside the psoas major muscle, descends along its anterior surface, and divides into genital and femoral branches; the genital branch then penetrates the psoas, crosses the external iliac artery, and enters the inguinal canal through the deep inguinal ring to reach the cremaster muscle via the spermatic cord.^[8] Anatomical variations in these nerves are common and can influence the reflex pathway. For instance, the genitofemoral nerve exhibits premature bifurcation within the psoas in approximately 20% of individuals, while the ilioinguinal nerve may originate from a shared trunk with the iliohypogastric nerve or vary in its relation to the inguinal canal structures.^[8]^[7] Entrapment of either nerve, often iatrogenic during inguinal hernia repair or pelvic surgeries, can compromise reflex integrity by compressing the ilioinguinal nerve at the superficial inguinal ring or the genitofemoral nerve near the deep ring, leading to altered sensory input or motor output.^[1]^[9]

Physiology

Mechanism of the reflex

The cremasteric reflex operates through a spinal reflex arc centered at the L1-L2 spinal cord segments. Stimulation of the inner thigh activates sensory afferents from the genitofemoral and ilioinguinal nerves, which transmit impulses to the dorsal horn of the spinal cord at these levels, where initial synapsing occurs.^[1]^[10] Within the spinal cord, the sensory input integrates via interneurons in the dorsal horn, connecting to alpha motor neurons in the anterior horn; these motor neurons then generate the efferent output through the genital branch of the genitofemoral nerve, directly innervating the cremaster muscle to elicit contraction and ipsilateral testicular elevation.^[1]^[11] This process involves central integration with sensory input ascending to the brain before descending to elicit the motor response. The L1-L2 segments are pivotal, as their disruption impairs the arc's integrity and abolishes the response.^[1]^[10]^[12]

Functions

The cremasteric reflex primarily functions in thermoregulation by elevating or lowering the testes to maintain an optimal temperature approximately 2-3°C below core body temperature, which is essential for spermatogenesis.^[1]^[13] This adjustment ensures that the testicular environment supports sperm production and viability, as higher temperatures can impair germ cell development.^[14] In addition to thermoregulation, the reflex serves a protective role by retracting the testes closer to the body in response to stimuli such as cold, tactile sensation, or potential injury, thereby reducing vulnerability to trauma.^[1]^[4] This mechanism helps safeguard the testes, which are otherwise exposed outside the abdominal cavity. The cremasteric reflex also participates in sexual reflexes, contributing to scrotal tightening during arousal, which draws the testes upward to protect them during intercourse.^[15]^[16] From an evolutionary perspective, the reflex has adapted in males to compensate for the vulnerability of descended scrotal testicles, enhancing reproductive protection by integrating thermoregulatory, defensive, and activation functions that improve fertilization success.^[16]

Elicitation and examination

Testing procedure

The testing procedure for the cremasteric reflex requires the patient to lie supine in a relaxed position, with legs slightly apart to facilitate access to the inner thighs and ensure the scrotum is relaxed.^[1] A comfortable room temperature is maintained to minimize confounding effects from cold-induced cremasteric contractions.^[17] The examiner uses a blunt instrument, such as the edge of a tongue depressor or the handle of a reflex hammer, to gently stroke the skin along the medial aspect of the thigh on one side, beginning proximally near the inguinal ligament and moving distally toward the knee over a distance of approximately 5-10 cm.^[18] This stroking should be light and deliberate to stimulate the sensory fibers without causing discomfort or a defensive response.^[19] The procedure is then repeated on the contralateral side for bilateral comparison, typically taking less than one minute per side.^[1] Precautions include avoiding the test in patients with acute scrotal pain or recent abdominal surgery, as these conditions may alter the response or cause undue discomfort; in such cases, the asymptomatic side should be examined first if testing proceeds.^[12] The female equivalent of this reflex, known as the Geigel reflex, is elicited similarly by stroking the inner thigh and observing for contraction of the abdominal wall muscles along the inguinal ligament.^[1]

Normal response

The normal response to stimulation of the cremasteric reflex involves contraction of the cremaster muscle, leading to prompt elevation of the ipsilateral testis by more than 0.5 cm toward the inguinal canal. This elevation typically occurs immediately upon gentle stroking of the medial upper thigh, reflecting the superficial nature of the reflex arc.^[20] The response is strictly ipsilateral in the majority of cases, with only minimal contralateral testicular movement observed in some individuals due to minor cross-innervation effects.^[1] Age influences the presence and vigor of the reflex: it is often absent or inconsistent in infants under 3 months (present in approximately 48% of newborns and 45% of those aged 1-30 months), becomes reliably present and brisk in children over 30 months (approaching 100% incidence), may show exaggerated elevation in young children up to 2 years, diminishes slightly in healthy adults while remaining intact, and tends to weaken or disappear in the elderly as superficial reflexes generally decline with advanced age.^[21]^[19]^[22] Bilateral symmetry in reflex elicitation and testicular elevation is characteristic of normal function, providing a reference for clinical assessment.^[23]

Clinical significance

Absent reflex

The absence of the cremasteric reflex is a key clinical sign often associated with testicular torsion, where it results from ischemia affecting the genitofemoral nerve pathway.^[24] This finding contributes to diagnostic scoring systems for torsion, such as the Testicular Workup for Ischemia and Suspected Torsion (TWIST) score, where an absent reflex earns 1 point toward a higher probability of the condition.^[24] However, the reflex is not entirely reliable, as it remains present in approximately 10% of confirmed torsion cases, indicating a sensitivity of up to 99% but with limitations in ruling out the diagnosis when intact.^[25] Neurological conditions can also lead to an absent cremasteric reflex due to disruption of the reflex arc involving the L1-L2 spinal segments. Upper motor neuron lesions, such as those from stroke or cerebral palsy, and lower motor neuron lesions, including peripheral nerve damage, impair the reflex by affecting efferent signals via the genitofemoral nerve.^[1] Spinal cord injuries at the L1-L2 levels similarly abolish the reflex through direct interruption of the neural pathway, often observed in traumatic or compressive etiologies.^[1] Other factors contributing to reflex absence include large hydroceles, which mechanically interfere with testicular elevation and nerve function, as seen in cases of tense scrotal swelling obscuring palpation and response.^[26] Post-inguinal hernia repair can damage the genitofemoral or ilioinguinal nerves, leading to persistent absence.^[1] In elderly individuals, superficial reflexes including the cremasteric may become less brisk even in healthy states due to age-related changes.^[22] Direct testicular trauma may cause temporary or permanent loss through local ischemia or nerve injury. Despite its utility, the presence of a normal cremasteric reflex does not exclude testicular torsion, necessitating confirmatory imaging such as Doppler ultrasound to assess blood flow.^[24] This limitation underscores the reflex's role as a supportive but not definitive diagnostic tool in acute scrotal emergencies.^[25]

Abnormal responses

Hyperreflexia of the cremasteric reflex, characterized by an exaggerated or overly brisk elevation of the testis, is most commonly observed in pediatric patients and can result in the misdiagnosis of cryptorchidism due to apparent intermittent testicular retraction.^[1] In boys with undescended or retractile testes, electromyographic studies reveal shortened latency and prolonged duration of cremasteric muscle activity (statistically significant in undescended cases, similar but inconclusive in retractile), suggesting dysinhibition of motor neurons that reduces normal inhibitory control over the reflex arc.^[27] Asymmetry in cremasteric reflex responses, such as a unilateral brisk or absent reaction compared to the contralateral side, may occur in localized inflammatory conditions like unilateral orchitis or epididymitis, where the reflex is typically intact on the affected side, helping to distinguish from torsion.^[28] Hyporeflexia without complete absence, manifesting as a sluggish or weakly elicited response, can occur in partial injuries to the genitofemoral nerve, such as those following inguinal hernia repair, or in early stages of spinal cord pathology before full areflexia develops.^[12] During the initial phase of spinal shock after injury, cutaneous reflexes including the cremasteric may be diminished, transitioning to increased activity in subsequent phases as spinal excitability recovers.^[29] In pediatrics, an exaggerated cremasteric reflex aids in differentiating retractile testes from true cryptorchidism, avoiding unnecessary surgical intervention by confirming dynamic elevation rather than fixed maldescent.^[27] In adults, atypical responses like partial hyporeflexia serve as indicators of potential spinal or peripheral nerve pathology, prompting imaging or electrophysiological testing to assess for involvement or localized compression.^[23]

References

[1]
Cremasteric Reflex - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
The cremasteric reflex is a superficial reflex found in human males that is elicited when the inner part of the thigh is stroked.
[2]
Human cremaster muscle and cremasteric reflex - PubMed
Significance: CM is an important muscle for testis thermoregulation and sexual reflexes. Neurophysiological techniques are available for physiological and ...
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The cremasteric reflex: a useful but imperfect sign in testicular torsion
The cremaster reflex has been reported to be absent in 100% of cases of testicular torsion, making it a useful sign in this difficult diagnosis.
[4]
Cremaster muscle - Kenhub
Cremaster is a pelvic muscle whose main function is to protect the testes via cremasteric reflex. Learn about its anatomy and function at Kenhub!
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Morphology and Innervation of the Human Cremaster Muscle in ...
Apr 30, 2008 · Cremaster muscle (CM) consists of loosely arranged muscle fasciculi lying along the spermatic cord. These fascicules are united by loose areolar ...
[6]
Cremaster Muscle - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Testicular Anatomy and Physiology The cremaster muscle of the spermatic cord also contracts to raise the testicle closer to the body core, thus increasing the ...
[7]
Anatomy, Anterolateral Abdominal Wall Nerves - StatPearls - NCBI
The ilioinguinal nerve innervates the skin overlying the inguinal ligament, medial thigh, mons pubis, scrotum, root of the penis, and labia majora. It also ...
[8]
Anatomy, Abdomen and Pelvis: Genitofemoral Nerve - NCBI - NIH
The cremasteric reflex is a function of genitofemoral nerve innervation, as it supplies sensation to the superior medial aspect of the thigh.
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Ilioinguinal Neuralgia - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Feb 18, 2024 · Ilioinguinal neuralgia is a frequent cause of pain in the lower abdomen and the upper thigh caused by an injury or damage to the nerve.
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https://teachmeanatomy.info/nerves/genitofemoral-nerve/
[11]
Human cremaster muscle and cremasteric reflex - ScienceDirect.com
CM is an important muscle for testis thermoregulation and sexual reflexes. Neurophysiological techniques are available for physiological and clinical studies.
[12]
Cremasteric Reflex - Physiopedia
The cremasteric reflex is a superficial reflex present in males. The female equivalent of this test is called the Geigel reflex.
[13]
The process of spermatogenesis liberates significant heat ... - PubMed
The process of spermatogenesis liberates significant heat and the scrotum has a role in body thermoregulation.Missing: reflex | Show results with:reflex
[14]
Full article: The effects and molecular mechanism of heat stress on ...
Normally, the inside of the testicles should be 2–6°C below the core temperature to achieve optimal spermatogenesis temperature.
[15]
Cremaster Muscle | Contraction, Function & Pain - Lesson - Study.com
The cremaster muscle (also known as the cremaster fascia) is a thin muscle that surrounds each of the testicles and the spermatic cord in men. The spermatic ...What is the Cremaster Muscle? · Cremaster Muscle Function
[16]
On the Origin of Descended Scrotal Testicles: The Activation ...
Oct 1, 2009 · As noted previously, the cremasteric reflex participates in testicular thermoregulation by raising or lowering the testicles within the ...
[17]
Experimental study on the regulation of testicular function ... - PubMed
The results indicate that the cremaster reflex contributes much to the temperature regulation of the testicle located within the scrotum. MeSH terms. Animals ...Missing: testing | Show results with:testing
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Cremasteric Reflex - Carepatron
To check for the Cremasteric Reflex: Position the patient in a comfortable supine position with their legs slightly apart to allow easy access to the medial ...Step 3: Conduct The Test · Benefits Of Using Our... · Comprehensive Documentation
[19]
Cremasteric Reflex - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
The cremasteric reflex is defined as a reflexive contraction of the cremaster muscle, causing the scrotum to retract when the ipsilateral medial thigh is gently ...Missing: pathway | Show results with:pathway
[20]
How To Assess Reflexes - Neurologic Disorders - Merck Manuals
For Babinski reflex, the lateral sole of the foot is firmly stroked from the heel to the ball of the foot with a tongue blade or end of a reflex hammer. The ...
[21]
The incidence of the cremasteric reflex in normal boys - PubMed
The cremasteric reflex was present in 48 of 100 newborns (48%), 32 of 71 subjects (45%) between 1 and 30 months old, and all 54 boys older than 30 months.Missing: changes response adults elderly
[22]
Abdominal Reflex - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
The superficial reflex (abdominal, cremasteric), in ... Pain sensation can be measured in a similar fashion using a broken tongue depressor as a stimulus.Motor Systems I · Clinical Importance Of... · Assessment Of Reflex...
[23]
Deep Tendon Reflexes | Stanford Medicine 25
Contraction of cremaster muscle (that will pull up the scrotum/testis) after stroking the same side of superior/inner thigh · Absent with: · testicular torsion ...Missing: sources | Show results with:sources<|control11|><|separator|>
[24]
Testicular Torsion - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Additionally, the cremasteric reflex is unreliable in young patients, especially those under one year old. The Prehn sign is not reliable for predicting torsion ...Missing: response variations
[25]
Testicular Torsion in the Absence of Severe Pain - PubMed Central
May 21, 2021 · Studies have shown that a classical symptom such as an absent cremasteric reflex has a high sensitivity of up to 99%, while a normal cremasteric ...
[26]
Diagnosis and management of testicular compartment syndrome ...
In clinic, his physical exam showed a large, left-sided, tense hydrocele with a nonpalpable testicle and absent cremasteric reflex. An emergent ultrasound in ...
[27]
Testicular ischemia as a result of an incarcerated inguinal hernia ...
Apr 18, 2022 · ... trauma to the testicle resulted in testicular infarction. In Case 2 ... absent cremasteric reflex and a difficult to palpate right testicle.
[28]
Cremasteric reflexes of boys with descended, retractile, or ... - PubMed
Defined by shortened latency and prolonged activity of cremasteric responses, which probably reflect a diminished neuronal inhibitory control, ...
[29]
Acute Scrotum Pain - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Finally, the clinician should investigate bilaterally for the presence of a cremasteric reflex. A “high-riding” asymmetrical testicle with an abnormal lay and ...
[30]
Spinal shock revisited: a four-phase model - Nature
Mar 23, 2004 · During this period, cutaneous (polysynaptic) reflexes such as the BC, the AW, and the CM begin to recover. Thus, the absence of all reflexes is ...