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Spermatogenesis

Spermatogenesis is the intricate biological process by which male germ cells develop into mature spermatozoa within the testes, essential for male reproduction. This process transforms diploid spermatogonial stem cells into haploid, motile sperm through successive stages of cell proliferation, genetic reduction, and morphological differentiation, ultimately enabling fertilization of the ovum.^[1] Spermatogenesis primarily occurs in the seminiferous tubules of the testes, where germ cells are nurtured by Sertoli cells that form the blood-testis barrier and provide nutritional and structural support. The process unfolds in three principal phases: first, the mitotic proliferation of spermatogonia, which includes type A spermatogonia (stem cells) and type B spermatogonia that commit to differentiation; second, meiosis, where primary spermatocytes undergo DNA replication and two divisions to yield haploid secondary spermatocytes and then round spermatids; and third, spermiogenesis, involving the transformation of spermatids into elongated forms with acrosomes, flagella, and condensed nuclei to become functional spermatozoa.^[2]^[3]^[4] The regulation of spermatogenesis is tightly controlled by the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis, with follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) stimulating Sertoli cells to support germ cell development and luteinizing hormone (LH) prompting Leydig cells to secrete testosterone, the primary androgen essential for maintaining spermatogenic progression. In humans, the full cycle of spermatogenesis spans approximately 74 days, during which each testis produces around 100 million sperm daily, though efficiency varies with only a fraction maturing fully due to apoptosis and other losses.^[5]^[6]^[7]^[4]

Fundamentals

Definition and Purpose

Spermatogenesis is the biological process by which mature spermatozoa originate and develop from spermatogonial stem cells within the testes. This intricate differentiation pathway involves the proliferation of germ cells through mitosis, followed by meiotic divisions to yield haploid cells, and culminates in the morphological transformation into functional sperm. The primary purpose of spermatogenesis is to produce these haploid male gametes, which are essential for fertilizing the female ovum during sexual reproduction, thereby enabling the transmission of genetic material to offspring and the propagation of the species. Central to this process is meiosis, which halves the diploid chromosome number to haploid and introduces genetic diversity through mechanisms such as crossing over and independent assortment, ensuring variability in the progeny. This genetic recombination not only supports evolutionary adaptation but also maintains the viability of the species by preventing deleterious mutations from accumulating unchecked. Spermatogenesis traces its evolutionary origins to early vertebrates, where it emerged as a specialized mechanism for gamete production in the transition to internal fertilization and sexual dimorphism. The process has remained highly conserved across mammalian lineages, highlighting its critical and stable role in facilitating efficient reproductive success over millions of years. In contrast to oogenesis, which is a cyclical and finite process in human females—completing primary oocyte formation before birth and maturing one ovum per menstrual cycle—spermatogenesis operates continuously from puberty onward, generating vast numbers of sperm throughout the male reproductive lifespan to support ongoing fertility.

Location and Microenvironment

Spermatogenesis primarily occurs within the seminiferous tubules of the testes, which are highly coiled, thread-like structures that constitute the majority of testicular tissue in humans. These tubules, numbering approximately 500 to 1000 per testis, form convoluted loops embedded in the testicular stroma and connect to the rete testis for sperm transport.^[8] The tubular wall consists of a stratified epithelium supported by a basement membrane, a thin layer of extracellular matrix that separates the germinal compartment from the surrounding interstitium. Peritubular myoid cells, flat contractile cells encircling the basement membrane, provide structural integrity, facilitate peristaltic contractions to propel spermatozoa, and contribute to the formation of the blood-testis barrier (BTB) by regulating fluid dynamics.^[9]^[10] The BTB, established by tight junctions between adjacent Sertoli cells near the basement membrane, compartmentalizes the seminiferous epithelium into a basal compartment facing the basement membrane and an adluminal compartment toward the tubular lumen. The basal compartment houses spermatogonial stem cells and early germ cells exposed to systemic circulation, while the adluminal compartment protects meiotic and post-meiotic germ cells from immune surveillance, creating an immunoprivileged niche essential for successful gametogenesis. This compartmentalization maintains a specialized microenvironment characterized by precise temperature control, where the scrotal location positions the testes 2–4°C below core body temperature (approximately 34–35°C), achieved through the countercurrent heat exchange of the pampiniform plexus and scrotal thermoregulation mechanisms. Additionally, the intratubular pH is maintained at a slightly alkaline level (around 7.2–7.4), optimal for germ cell differentiation, and nutrients such as glucose, amino acids, and ions are supplied via interstitial fluid from peritubular capillaries, diffusing across the epithelium to support high metabolic demands.^[11]^[12]^[13]^[14] In humans, age-related variations impact tubular efficiency post-puberty, with peak spermatogenic activity occurring in young adulthood followed by gradual decline. After puberty, seminiferous tubules elongate and mature, supporting robust sperm production, but by the fourth decade, progressive thickening of the tubular basement membrane and peritubular layers occurs due to increased collagen deposition and fibrosis, reducing nutrient diffusion and germ cell viability. This leads to diminished tubule efficiency, with up to 90% of tubules showing active spermatogenesis in men in their 20s, dropping to partial or complete degeneration in over 50% by age 50, contributing to overall fertility reduction.^[15]

Timeline and Duration

Spermatogenesis in humans spans approximately 64-74 days from the initial spermatogonium to the formation of a mature spermatozoon.^[7] This timeline encompasses the progression through the seminiferous epithelium, where one complete cycle lasts about 16 days.^[7] The phased durations include roughly 16 days for spermatocytogenesis, during which spermatogonia proliferate and differentiate into primary spermatocytes; 24 days for meiosis, involving the reduction divisions to produce haploid spermatids; and 20-24 days for spermiogenesis, the transformation of spermatids into spermatozoa.^[7] In adult males, spermatogenesis operates continuously rather than in discrete batches, enabling ongoing sperm production throughout reproductive life.^[4] This sustained activity results in a daily output of approximately 100-200 million spermatozoa in healthy individuals.^[16] The speed and duration of spermatogenesis vary significantly across species, reflecting differences in reproductive strategies and physiology. For instance, in rodents such as mice, the entire process is considerably shorter, completing in about 35 days.^[7]

Cellular Components

Germ Cell Lineage

Spermatogenesis originates from primordial germ cells (PGCs), which are specified early in embryonic development within the epiblast around embryonic day 6.5 in mice, around the third week of embryonic development (approximately 3 weeks post-fertilization) in humans. These PGCs, marked by expression of genes such as Oct4 and Nanos3, actively migrate through the hindgut endoderm and dorsal mesentery to colonize the gonadal ridge by embryonic day 10.5-11.5 in mice, where they associate with somatic cells to form the foundational germ cell population for future gametogenesis. Upon arrival, PGCs proliferate mitotically and arrest in G0/G1 phase as prospermatogonia or gonocytes within the testicular cords, resuming division postnatally to initiate spermatogonial proliferation.^[7]^[17] The germ cell lineage progresses from spermatogonia, the diploid stem cells residing on the basement membrane of seminiferous tubules, through successive differentiation stages. Spermatogonia are classified into Type A dark (A_d), Type A pale (A_p), and Type B based on nuclear morphology and proliferative behavior. Type A_d spermatogonia serve as reserve stem cells with limited division, exhibiting densely stained nuclei, while Type A_p undergo active renewal and differentiation, producing chains of interconnected cells via incomplete cytokinesis. Type B spermatogonia, distinguished by lighter nuclei and higher mitotic activity, commit to differentiation by entering premeiotic S-phase to form primary spermatocytes. This lineage maintains a balance through asymmetric divisions of spermatogonial stem cells (SSCs), where one daughter cell self-renews to preserve the stem pool and the other differentiates, ensuring continuous sperm production throughout adult life.^[18]^[19]^[20] Primary spermatocytes remain diploid (2n) and undergo DNA replication to become tetraploid before meiosis I, yielding haploid (n) secondary spermatocytes. These secondary spermatocytes complete meiosis II to produce round spermatids, also haploid, which then transform into elongated spermatids and finally mature spermatozoa without further division. Key morphological markers along this progression include progressive chromatin condensation in spermatids, where histones are replaced by protamines, resulting in a highly compact nucleus essential for sperm head formation and DNA protection. This ploidy reduction from diploid to haploid, coupled with cytoplasmic remodeling, underscores the lineage's commitment to generating genetically diverse, motile gametes.^[21]^[22]^[23]

Role of Sertoli Cells

Sertoli cells are tall, columnar somatic cells that line the seminiferous tubules and play a pivotal role in supporting spermatogenesis by providing structural, nutritional, and regulatory assistance to developing germ cells. These cells extend from the basement membrane to the tubular lumen, enveloping germ cells at various stages of differentiation and creating a nurturing niche essential for sperm production. Through their multifaceted functions, Sertoli cells ensure the orderly progression of germ cell development while maintaining the integrity of the testicular microenvironment.^[24]^[25] In their structural role, Sertoli cells form the blood-testis barrier (BTB) via specialized tight junctions between adjacent cells near the basement membrane, which divides the seminiferous epithelium into a basal compartment containing spermatogonia and an adluminal compartment housing meiotic and post-meiotic germ cells. This barrier prevents the ingress of immune cells and molecules, establishing an immune-privileged adluminal compartment that shields autoantigenic germ cells from systemic immune surveillance and potential autoimmune attack. The dynamic remodeling of these junctions allows controlled transit of preleptotene spermatocytes into the adluminal region during spermatogenesis.^[26]^[27]^[28] Sertoli cells offer critical nutritional support to germ cells, which lack direct vascular access and rely on these somatic cells for sustenance. They secrete androgen-binding protein (ABP), which binds and concentrates testosterone within the seminiferous tubules, thereby enhancing local androgen levels necessary for germ cell maturation. Furthermore, Sertoli cells engage in phagocytosis of residual bodies—cytoplasmic fragments discarded by elongating spermatids during spermiogenesis—preventing accumulation of debris and supporting epithelial homeostasis.^[29]^[30] Regulatory functions of Sertoli cells include the production of inhibin and activin, dimeric proteins that modulate feedback loops in gonadotropin regulation to fine-tune spermatogenic activity. Inhibin selectively suppresses follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) secretion from the pituitary, while activin promotes it, helping maintain hormonal balance for sustained germ cell development. Additionally, Sertoli cells facilitate germ cell migration and positioning through their extensive cytoskeletal network, including actin-based structures and microtubules that anchor and transport germ cells across the epithelium.^[31]^[29] In humans, Sertoli cells exhibit a density ranging from approximately 85 to 670 million per testis, varying with age and individual factors, which directly influences the capacity for spermatogenesis. These cells respond to FSH stimulation, which drives their proliferation and functional maturation, particularly during puberty, enabling them to support increasing germ cell demands.^[32]^[33]

Stages of the Process

Spermatocytogenesis

Spermatocytogenesis is the proliferative phase of spermatogenesis in which spermatogonial stem cells multiply through mitosis to produce primary spermatocytes, setting the stage for subsequent meiotic divisions. Type A spermatogonia, the stem cell population, undergo asymmetric mitotic divisions to maintain the stem cell pool while generating committed daughter cells that continue differentiating. These type A cells further proliferate mitotically to form type B spermatogonia, which represent the final pre-meiotic stage and divide once more to yield primary spermatocytes, each retaining a diploid chromosome complement.^[4] Central to this process are key events that ensure fidelity and progression. DNA replication occurs during the S phase of each mitotic cycle, duplicating the genome to equip daughter cells for division. Checkpoint mechanisms, including the intra-S phase and G2/M checkpoints, actively monitor replication fidelity and DNA damage, halting progression if genome integrity is compromised to prevent the inheritance of mutations in gametes.^[34] Accompanying these divisions are distinct cellular transformations that signal commitment to differentiation. Differentiating spermatogonia exhibit increased cell volume and chromatin remodeling, alongside the upregulation of meiotic-specific genes. Notably, activation of the stimulated by retinoic acid gene 8 (Stra8) in late-stage type B spermatogonia initiates transcriptional reprogramming, promoting the expression of genes essential for meiotic entry and irreversibly committing cells to the spermatocyte lineage.^[35] Through this series of mitoses, spermatocytogenesis amplifies germ cell numbers, generating approximately four primary spermatocytes from each committed type A stem cell division in humans, thereby optimizing the output for meiosis.^[2]

Meiotic Division

Meiotic division in spermatogenesis encompasses two sequential nuclear divisions that transform diploid primary spermatocytes into four haploid round spermatids, halving the chromosome number while promoting genetic diversity through recombination.^[1] This process occurs within the seminiferous tubules, following the proliferative phases, and is essential for producing genetically unique gametes capable of fertilization.^[2] Meiosis I initiates with prophase I in the primary spermatocyte, where homologous chromosomes undergo synapsis, aligning along their lengths to facilitate genetic recombination.^[36] The synaptonemal complex, a ladder-like protein structure composed of central and lateral elements, assembles between paired homologs during this stage, stabilizing their interaction and enabling the formation of double-strand breaks that lead to crossovers.^[37] These crossovers exchange genetic material between non-sister chromatids, generating novel allele combinations; in human males, an average of approximately 50 crossovers occur per primary spermatocyte, distributed across the 22 autosomal bivalents and the XY pair.^[38] Progression through metaphase I involves alignment of bivalents at the equatorial plate, followed by anaphase I, where homologous chromosomes segregate to opposite poles via microtubule-based spindle fibers, yielding two haploid secondary spermatocytes each containing replicated chromosomes. Meiosis II proceeds rapidly as an equational division in the secondary spermatocytes, lacking a preceding S phase and thus without DNA replication or recombination.^[1] Sister chromatids align and separate during metaphase II and anaphase II, guided by a reformed spindle apparatus that ensures precise kinetochore-microtubule attachments, resulting in four round spermatids per original primary spermatocyte.^[39] Throughout both divisions, the spindle assembly checkpoint monitors chromosome attachment to prevent missegregation, while mechanisms such as the pachytene checkpoint detect unrepaired recombination errors or asynapsis, triggering apoptosis to eliminate aneuploid or defective cells and maintain genomic integrity.^[40] In humans, this error correction is highly effective, with aneuploidy rates in sperm typically below 5%, underscoring the robustness of meiotic safeguards.^[41]

Spermiogenesis

Spermiogenesis represents the terminal differentiation phase of spermatogenesis, transforming haploid round spermatids into mature, motile spermatozoa without additional cell divisions. This intricate process involves profound remodeling of cellular architecture, chromatin packaging, and organelle reorganization to equip sperm for motility, acrosomal reaction, and genetic delivery during fertilization. In mammals, spermiogenesis is divided into distinct phases—Golgi, cap, acrosome, and maturation—spanning approximately 16 steps in mice and analogous stages in other species, culminating in the release of spermatozoa into the seminiferous tubule lumen.^[42] A hallmark transformation during spermiogenesis is the condensation of the spermatid nucleus, which compacts the genome to a volume less than 5% of its original size. This involves the sequential replacement of somatic histones with transition proteins (such as TNP1 and TNP2) and subsequently protamines (PRM1 and PRM2), which bind DNA in a toroid-like structure to achieve ultra-compact packaging and protect the paternal genome. The histone-to-protamine transition is orchestrated by chromatin remodelers like BRDT and chaperones such as HSPA2, with disruptions leading to defective sperm head morphology and infertility.^[43]^[44]30931-1) Concurrent with nuclear remodeling, the acrosome forms as a specialized vesicle overlying the anterior nucleus, derived primarily from the Golgi apparatus. In the initial Golgi phase, proacrosomal vesicles bud from the trans-Golgi network and fuse to create a single acrosomal granule that migrates to the nuclear envelope. During the cap and acrosome phases, this structure spreads and flattens, incorporating lysosomal enzymes like acrosin and hyaluronidase, essential for egg penetration; key regulators include GOPC and PICK1, which facilitate vesicle trafficking and fusion.^[45]^[46] Flagellum development establishes sperm motility, beginning with the distal centriole forming the basal body that nucleates the axoneme—a 9+2 microtubule arrangement characteristic of motile cilia. Intraflagellar transport (IFT) proteins, such as IFT88 and IFT140, mediate the assembly and transport of dynein arms and radial spokes along the growing flagellum, while the manchette—a transient microtubule structure—guides head-tail coupling and cytoplasmic reorganization. In mammals, this process elongates the tail to 50-80 μm, enabling hyperactivated motility.^[42]^[47] Morphologically, round spermatids undergo a dramatic metamorphosis into elongated forms, marked by nuclear elongation, acrosomal flattening, and mitochondrial relocation to the midpiece. Excess cytoplasm, including redundant organelles, is extruded as residual bodies, which are phagocytosed by Sertoli cells to streamline the sperm for transit. This reshaping reduces the cytoplasmic volume by over 90%, transforming the symmetric round cell into the streamlined, polarized spermatozoon.^[42]^[48] At the molecular level, spermiogenesis features the cessation of transcription shortly after meiosis, around step 7 in mice, shifting reliance to translation of stored maternal mRNAs for protein synthesis. Microtubule organization, driven by tubulin post-translational modifications like polyglutamylation, supports flagellar elongation and manchette formation, while ion channel assembly—such as CatSper complexes in the principal piece—occurs via targeted insertion into the plasma membrane, preparing sperm for capacitation-induced calcium influx.^[21]^[49]^[50] Spermiogenesis concludes with spermiation, the release of mature spermatozoa from Sertoli cell embeddings. This involves ectoplasmic specialization disassembly, tubulobulbar complex formation for adhesion retraction, and actin cytoskeleton dynamics mediated by proteins like espin and testis-specific actins. Successful spermiation ensures spermatozoa enter the tubule lumen, where they mature further during epididymal transit.^[51]^[52]

Regulation and Influences

Hormonal Mechanisms

Spermatogenesis is primarily regulated by the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis, a central endocrine system that integrates neural and hormonal signals to initiate and maintain germ cell production in the testes. The process begins in the hypothalamus with the pulsatile release of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH), which stimulates gonadotroph cells in the anterior pituitary to secrete follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH). These gonadotropins travel via the bloodstream to the testes, where LH binds to luteinizing hormone receptors (LHR) on interstitial Leydig cells, triggering the synthesis and secretion of testosterone, the key androgen required for testicular function. Meanwhile, FSH interacts with FSH receptors (FSHR) predominantly expressed on Sertoli cells within the seminiferous tubules, promoting their proliferation, nutrient provision, and secretion of factors essential for germ cell survival and differentiation.^[53] Testosterone exerts its effects locally within the testes at concentrations significantly higher than in serum—typically 50- to 100-fold elevated in the intratesticular environment—to sustain meiosis and spermiogenesis. Androgen receptors (AR) are expressed on both Sertoli cells and later-stage germ cells, such as spermatocytes and round spermatids, enabling testosterone to stabilize meiotic divisions, prevent germ cell apoptosis, and facilitate the transformation of spermatids into mature spermatozoa. Inhibin B, a dimeric glycoprotein produced by Sertoli cells in response to FSH stimulation, acts as a negative feedback regulator by selectively inhibiting FSH secretion from the pituitary without affecting LH, thereby fine-tuning gonadotropin levels to match the demands of ongoing spermatogenesis.^[54]^[55]^[56] The activation of these hormonal mechanisms follows a developmental timeline, with the HPG axis remaining quiescent during childhood and awakening at puberty through amplified GnRH pulsatility driven by reduced GABAergic inhibition and increased kisspeptin signaling in the hypothalamus. This pubertal surge elevates FSH and LH levels, initiating Sertoli cell maturation and the first wave of spermatogenesis, typically completing the process from spermatogonia to spermatozoa within 64-74 days in humans. In adulthood, steady-state maintenance of spermatogenesis relies on consistent GnRH pulses every 1-2 hours, sustaining serum testosterone at approximately 3-10 ng/mL and intratesticular levels around 100-1,000 ng/mL to support continuous sperm production at rates of 100-200 million per day.^[57]^[58]

Environmental and Genetic Factors

Spermatogenesis is highly sensitive to environmental temperature, with optimal function occurring at 35–36°C in the testes, and elevations as small as 2–3°C can impair germ cell development and reduce sperm production.^[59] Varicocele, a common condition involving dilated veins in the scrotum, exacerbates this by increasing local heat through impaired venous drainage and reflux of warmer abdominal blood, leading to oxidative stress, hypoxia, and disrupted spermatogenesis.^[60] Endocrine-disrupting chemicals like bisphenol A (BPA), found in plastics and consumer products, interfere with hormonal signaling and have been linked to reduced sperm counts and motility in exposed individuals, with studies showing negative correlations between seminal BPA levels and semen parameters.^[61] Nutritional deficiencies, particularly of zinc—an essential trace element concentrated in the testes—disrupt spermatogenesis by increasing oxidative stress, impairing testosterone synthesis, and causing abnormalities in sperm morphology and viability.^[62] Genetic factors on the Y chromosome play a critical role in regulating spermatogenesis, with genes such as SRY initiating testis development and others like DAZ (deleted in azoospermia) essential for germ cell proliferation and survival.^[63] Deletions or mutations in DAZ and related Y-linked genes are associated with azoospermia or severe oligospermia, highlighting their direct influence on sperm production.^[64] Epigenetic modifications, including DNA methylation patterns in spermatogonia, dynamically regulate gene expression during germ cell differentiation, with stage-specific methylation changes ensuring proper progression through meiosis and spermiogenesis.^[65] Aberrant methylation in these cells can lead to transcriptional dysregulation and impaired fertility.^[66] Aging significantly impacts spermatogenesis efficiency, with sperm count declining by approximately 1–2% annually after age 40 due to cumulative oxidative damage and reduced germ cell renewal.^[67] Telomere shortening in aging testicular tissues contributes to this decline by promoting genomic instability and apoptosis in spermatogenic cells, though telomerase activity partially compensates by elongating sperm telomeres during development.^[68] A 2023 meta-analysis indicated a global decline in sperm concentration of about 50% since the 1970s, attributed in part to environmental pressures including rising temperatures from climate change, which exacerbate heat stress on the testes and correlate with reduced semen quality in population studies.^[69]^[70] However, 2025 studies in fertile U.S. men and other cohorts have reported stable sperm parameters over recent decades, suggesting the decline may not be uniform across all populations. Additionally, emerging evidence links wildfire smoke exposure to declines in sperm quality.^[71]^[72]^[73]

Pathophysiology

Associated Disorders

Disorders associated with spermatogenesis primarily manifest as impairments in sperm production or quality, leading to male infertility. These conditions disrupt various stages of germ cell development, from proliferation to maturation, and are classified based on semen analysis findings such as sperm count and morphology. Key pathological states include azoospermia, oligospermia, and teratospermia, each with distinct etiologies rooted in genetic, infectious, or structural defects. Azoospermia, defined as the complete absence of sperm in the ejaculate, affects approximately 1% of men and 10-15% of infertile males, and is categorized into obstructive azoospermia (OA) and non-obstructive azoospermia (NOA). In OA, spermatogenesis proceeds normally, but physical blockages in the reproductive tract, such as congenital bilateral absence of the vas deferens or post-surgical scarring, prevent sperm transport.^[74] In contrast, NOA arises from intrinsic testicular failure, where spermatogenesis is severely impaired or absent, accounting for 60% of azoospermia cases. A prominent example is Sertoli cell-only syndrome (SCOS), also known as germ cell aplasia, in which seminiferous tubules contain only Sertoli cells without germ cells, resulting in complete lack of sperm production; this idiopathic condition is diagnosed via testicular biopsy and represents a common histological pattern in NOA.^[75]^[76] Oligospermia, characterized by a sperm concentration below 16 million per milliliter, stems from partial disruptions in spermatogenesis and contributes to subfertility in many cases. Genetic causes include Klinefelter syndrome (47,XXY karyotype), the most frequent chromosomal anomaly in males (affecting 1 in 500-1,000 live births), which leads to testicular dysgenesis, hyalinized tubules, and reduced germ cell proliferation, often presenting with severe oligospermia or azoospermia alongside elevated gonadotropins.^[77] Infectious etiologies, such as mumps orchitis, particularly when occurring post-puberty, can induce acute testicular inflammation, germ cell apoptosis, and fibrosis, resulting in oligospermia in up to 30% of affected individuals; the virus targets seminiferous tubules, causing long-term atrophy in one or both testes.^[78] Teratospermia involves abnormal sperm morphology, with fewer than 4% normal forms per World Health Organization criteria, often due to defects in spermiogenesis—the final differentiation phase where spermatids transform into spermatozoa. These abnormalities impair fertilization potential by affecting acrosome formation, flagellar assembly, or nuclear condensation. Globozoospermia, a severe subtype, features round-headed sperm lacking an acrosome and exhibiting cytoskeletal defects, arising from genetic mutations (e.g., in DPY19L2 gene) that halt acrosomal vesicle development during spermiogenesis; this rare condition (incidence <0.1%) leads to total teratozoospermia and is confirmed by electron microscopy showing persistent cytoplasmic organelles.^[79]^[80] Overall, spermatogenesis-related disorders account for about 15% of male infertility cases worldwide, with male factors implicated in roughly half of all infertile couples; rates appear to be increasing, attributed to rising environmental exposures such as endocrine disruptors and pollutants that exacerbate genetic vulnerabilities.^[81]^[82]

Diagnostic and Therapeutic Considerations

Diagnosis of spermatogenesis-related issues primarily involves semen analysis, which evaluates sperm concentration, motility, and morphology according to World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines. The 2021 WHO criteria define normal semen parameters as a sperm concentration of at least 16 million per milliliter, total sperm count of 39 million per ejaculate, and progressive motility of at least 30%.^[83] Abnormal results, such as oligospermia or azoospermia, prompt further investigation to identify underlying causes of impaired spermatogenesis.^[83] Testicular biopsy serves as a definitive diagnostic tool for assessing spermatogenic activity, particularly in cases of azoospermia, by distinguishing between obstructive and non-obstructive etiologies through histological examination of seminiferous tubules.^[84] It reveals patterns such as hypospermatogenesis or Sertoli cell-only syndrome, guiding decisions on fertility preservation.^[84] Hormonal assays measure follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone (LH), and testosterone levels; elevated FSH above 12 IU/L typically indicates primary testicular failure due to impaired spermatogenesis.^[85] Scrotal ultrasound is the preferred imaging modality for detecting varicoceles, which can impair spermatogenesis by increasing testicular temperature and oxidative stress, with diagnostic criteria including vein dilation greater than 3 mm and reflux during Valsalva maneuver.^[86] Karyotyping identifies chromosomal abnormalities, such as Klinefelter syndrome (47,XXY), in up to 10-15% of men with non-obstructive azoospermia or severe oligozoospermia, informing prognosis and genetic counseling.^[87] Therapeutic interventions aim to restore fertility by addressing specific deficits in spermatogenesis. Assisted reproductive technologies, including in vitro fertilization (IVF) combined with intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI), enable fertilization even with low sperm counts by directly injecting a spermatozoon into the oocyte, achieving live birth rates of 30-40% per cycle in male factor infertility cases.^[88] Hormone replacement therapy with human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), often combined with recombinant FSH, induces spermatogenesis in men with hypogonadotropic hypogonadism, resulting in sperm appearance in ejaculate for 70-90% of patients after 6-12 months.^[89] Surgical correction via varicocelectomy improves semen parameters in 60-70% of men with clinical varicoceles, with meta-analyses showing an average increase in sperm concentration of 7-12 million per milliliter and motility by 10%.^[90] This procedure enhances natural conception rates by 30-50% in selected cases by reducing venous reflux and improving testicular function.^[90] Emerging therapies focus on regenerative approaches to overcome severe spermatogenic failure. Stem cell-based methods, such as in vitro spermatogenesis using spermatogonial stem cells cultured in three-dimensional systems, have generated functional sperm in preclinical models, offering potential for patients with non-obstructive azoospermia.^[20] Gene editing technologies like CRISPR-Cas9 target monogenic defects, such as TEX11 mutations causing meiotic arrest, with proof-of-concept studies demonstrating restored spermatogenesis in edited mouse models.^[91] These innovations remain experimental but hold promise for personalized fertility restoration.^[91]

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The blood-testis barrier (BTB) is found between adjacent Sertoli cells in the testis where it creates a unique microenvironment for the development and ...
[26]
Sertoli cells- Immunological sentinels of spermatogenesis - PMC
Mar 3, 2014 · SCs protect these auto-antigenic germ cells by forming the Blood-Testis-Barrier (BTB)/SC barrier and expressing immunoregulatory factors, ...
[27]
Regulation of Blood–Testis Barrier (BTB) Dynamics during ...
This junctional barrier, which located near the basement membrane, is formed by adjacent Sertoli cells known as the blood–testis barrier (BTB). The BTB is one ...
[28]
Sertoli-Sertoli and Sertoli-Germ Cell Interactions and Their ...
Oct 1, 2004 · Sertoli cells provide support for developing germ cells within the seminiferous epithelium by participating directly in the deposition of ...
[29]
Apoptotic spermatogenic cells can be energy sources for Sertoli ...
In this report, we demonstrate that apoptotic spermatogenic cells and residual bodies can be used to produce ATP by Sertoli cells after phagocytosis of them.
[30]
Sertoli Cell - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Activin and inhibin are Sertoli cell-secreted proteins that induce the proliferation and differentiation of germ cells. Whereas activin stimulates FSH ...<|separator|>
[31]
The total number of Leydig and Sertoli cells in the testes of men ...
Dec 25, 2014 · The unilateral number of Sertoli cells in male testes ranges from ∼85 × 106 to 670 × 106, and the Leydig cell numbers from ∼45 × 106 to 250 × 10 ...Missing: density million
[32]
Effect of FSH on testicular morphology and spermatogenesis ... - NIH
FSH acts directly on the Sertoli cells to stimulate germ cell number and acts indirectly to increase androgen production by the Leydig cells.
[33]
Maintenance of genome integrity and active homologous ... - Nature
Aug 7, 2020 · Cell cycle arrest at the G1-, S-, and G2/M-phase checkpoints allows DNA repair mechanisms, such as mismatch repair (MMR), base excision repair ( ...
[34]
Expression of Stimulated by Retinoic Acid Gene 8 (Stra8) and ... - NIH
RA induction of Stra8 expression is probably a vitally important trigger to the subsequent differentiation steps and commitment toward the formation of primary ...
[35]
Mechanisms of meiosis initiation and meiotic prophase progression ...
The meiotic prophase is characterized by the meiosis-specific chromosomal events such as chromosome recombination and homolog synapsis.
[36]
Synaptonemal Complex Components Persist at Centromeres and ...
Jun 28, 2012 · In late prophase, we first identified the proteins that reside at paired centromeres. We found that components of the central and lateral ...
[37]
Proteins Involved in Meiotic Recombination: A Role in Male Infertility?
Human males have an average of 50 crossover sites per spermatocyte while females have about 70 per oocyte [Tease and Hulten [Citation2004]]. Variation in the ...
[38]
Meiotic spindle assembly checkpoint and aneuploidy in males ...
Aneuploidy arises from a two-step process that consists of the occurrence of a chromosome with the propensity to mis-segregate, followed by failure of the ...
[39]
Reduced MAD2 levels dampen the apoptotic response to non ...
We show that reduced MAD2 levels attenuate the apoptotic response to mis-segregating sex chromosomes and allow the formation of aneuploid sperm. These findings ...
[40]
Meiotic spindle checkpoint & aneuploidy: males vs females
Dec 18, 2018 · The production of gametes (sperm and eggs in mammals) involves two sequential cell divisions, meiosis I and meiosis II.
[41]
Development of functional spermatozoa in mammalian ...
Jul 22, 2024 · In this Review, we describe comprehensively how functional spermatozoa develop in mammals during spermiogenesis, including the formation of acrosomes, axonemes ...
[42]
Epigenetic regulation of the histone-to-protamine transition during ...
... histone-to-protamine transition during spermiogenesis (Nikhil et al. 2015) ... nuclear condensation and increased amounts of double strand breaks in the ...
[43]
Essential Role of Histone Replacement and Modifications in Male ...
... histone-to-protamine transition during spermiogenesis. Understanding the ... nuclear condensation and aberrant elongation of spermatids. Further ...
[44]
Mechanism of Acrosome Biogenesis in Mammals - Frontiers
The whole process of spermiogenesis is comprised of 16 steps in mouse. The 1st phase is called the Golgi phase because the Golgi apparatus is an essential ...
[45]
Mechanism of Acrosome Biogenesis in Mammals - PubMed Central
Sep 18, 2019 · Round spermatids are transformed into mature spermatozoa in four different phases: Golgi (1–3), Cap (4–7), Acrosome (8–12), and maturation phase ...Introduction · Figure 1 · Potential Ways For The...
[46]
Intraflagellar transport is essential for mammalian spermiogenesis ...
Sep 30, 2015 · We here show that mature sperm are completely devoid of them, making the importance of IFT to mammalian sperm development unclear.
[47]
Review: Spermatogenesis in the bull - Cambridge University Press
Mar 13, 2018 · Spermiogenesis involves the differentiation of round spermatids into fully mature spermatozoa released into the lumin of seminiferous tubules.
[48]
The tubulin code in mammalian sperm development and function
Mar 15, 2023 · Here we review the current knowledge on the implications of the tubulin code in sperm development and functions and its importance for male fertility.
[49]
Sperm ion channels and transporters in male fertility and infertility
In this Review, we explore the literature regarding ion channel signalling in the context of regulating mammalian sperm motility and male fertility, focusing ...
[50]
Spermiation: The process of sperm release - PMC - NIH
Tubulobulbar complexes (TBCs). Tubulobulbar complexes are fascinating structures that are most prominent between late spermatids and Sertoli cells during ...
[51]
Mechanisms of spermiogenesis and spermiation and how they are ...
Spermiation is the process by which elongated spermatids undergo their final remodelling and ultimate release from the seminiferous epithelium into the tubule ...
[52]
Update on male reproductive endocrinology - PMC - PubMed Central
The goal of our review is to highlight what is known about the endocrine system's role in spermatogenesis and to discuss how derangements in this system can ...
[53]
The Role of Testosterone in Spermatogenesis - NIH
May 19, 2022 · Testosterone is essential to maintain qualitative spermatogenesis. Nonetheless, no studies have been yet performed in humans to analyze the ...
[54]
Molecular regulation of hypothalamus–pituitary–gonads axis in males
FSH together with testosterone regulates the maturation of sperm cells. Activin, inhibin and follistatin mainly regulate the expression and secretion of ...
[55]
Hormone Regulation in Testicular Development and Function - PMC
The testes produce other hormones, such as inhibin, which helps regulate follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) levels, and estrogen, albeit in small amounts.
[56]
Mini-Puberty, Physiological and Disordered - Oxford Academic
Mar 4, 2024 · Here we review physiological mini-puberty and consequences of central HPG axis disorders; provide a diagnostic approach to allow for early identification of ...<|separator|>
[57]
Revisiting the gonadotropic regulation of mammalian ...
Apr 14, 2023 · Spermatogenesis occurs within testicular seminiferous tubules under the regulation of gonadotropins – Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) and ...
[58]
A global view of the pathophysiology of varicocele - Hassanin - 2018
Jul 6, 2018 · Spermatogenesis is a temperature-sensitive process that best proceeds at 35–36 °C. In patients with varicocele, regurgitation of warm abdominal ...
[59]
Male infertility and varicocele: myths and reality - PMC - NIH
The adverse effect of varicocele on spermatogenesis can be attributed to many factors such as an increased testicular temperature, increased intratesticular ...
[60]
Bisphenol A Exposure Interferes with Reproductive Hormones ... - NIH
Apr 17, 2024 · This systematic review revealed that BPA exposure disrupts reproductive hormones, reduces sperm counts and may ultimately adversely affect male reproduction.
[61]
Zinc is an Essential Element for Male Fertility: A Review of Zn Roles ...
In contrast, Zn deficiency impedes spermatogenesis and is a reason for sperm abnormalities and has a negative effect on serum testosterone concentration. Based ...
[62]
Genetics of the human Y chromosome and its association with male ...
Feb 17, 2018 · The human Y chromosome harbors genes that are responsible for testis development and also for initiation and maintenance of spermatogenesis ...
[63]
Y-chromosomal genes affecting male fertility: A review - PMC - NIH
The Y-chromosome plays major role in male fertility and is suitable to study the evolutionary relics, speciation, and male infertility and/or subfertility.
[64]
Genome-wide DNA methylation changes in human spermatogenesis
May 16, 2024 · Here, we examined the genome-wide DNA methylation changes during human spermatogenesis and its alterations in disturbed spermatogenesis.
[65]
Epigenetic regulation by DNA methylation, histone modifications ...
Oct 6, 2025 · In this review, we address epigenetic regulation mediated by DNA methylation, histone modifications and CRCs in controlling spermatogenesis, ...
[66]
Age & male fertility — Is there an age limit to producing sperm?
Jun 6, 2025 · A low sperm count can reduce the chance of pregnancy. One study found that sperm count declines up to 2.6% per year of age.4. Sperm motility ...Age And Male Fertility · How Does Age Affect Male... · Effects Of Advanced Paternal...
[67]
Shedding light into the relevance of telomeres in human ...
From a different perspective, dysfunctional short telomeres could also induce sperm DNA fragmentation [98], possibly related with triggered apoptosis.
[68]
Temporal trends in sperm count: a systematic review and meta ...
Our previous meta-analysis reported a significant decrease in sperm concentration (SC) and total sperm count (TSC) among men from North America–Europe–Australia ...
[69]
Temperature change and male infertility prevalence - NIH
May 13, 2025 · Meta-analyses have shown that global semen quality is declining at an accelerating rate, with sperm concentration and total sperm count ...
[70]
Azoospermia - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
Nov 18, 2023 · Based on the presence or absence of obstruction of the ducts or vas deferens, azoospermia can be classified into obstructive azoospermia (OA) ...Introduction · Pathophysiology · Evaluation · Treatment / Management
[71]
Review of Azoospermia - PMC - NIH
Azoospermia is classified as obstructive azoospermia (OA) or non-obstructive azoospermia (NOA), each having very different etiologies and treatments.
[72]
Sertoli Cell–Only Syndrome - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
Sertoli cell-only syndrome, also known as del Castillo syndrome or germ cell aplasia, is one of the most common causes of azoospermia in infertile men.Etiology · Evaluation · Treatment / Management · Prognosis
[73]
Male Infertility - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Klinefelter Syndrome Often, the diagnosis is not made until adulthood, and infertility with azoospermia or severe oligozoospermia is a common presenting ...
[74]
Mumps orchitis - PMC - NIH
Mumps orchitis rarely leads to sterility but it may contribute to subfertility. It can also can lead to oligospermia, azoospermia, and asthenospermia (defects ...
[75]
Genetic Causes of Qualitative Sperm Defects - PubMed Central - NIH
Teratozoospermia is defined as the presence, at semen analysis, of a reduced typical form of spermatozoa. As seen above, this term should not be used anymore.
[76]
Globozoospermia: A Case Report and Systematic Review of Literature
Jul 6, 2022 · Globozoospermia is a rare disorder of sperm morphology characterized by round-headed spermatozoa without acrosome, cytoskeleton defects around ...
[77]
Male Infertility - American Urological Association
Approximately 15% of couples struggle with infertility. Of these couples, male factor infertility is present in an estimated 50%, and a male factor is the sole ...
[78]
Lifestyle and Environmental Factors Affecting Male Fertility ...
Current lifestyles bring about an increasing prevalence of unhealthy habits that can negatively affect male fertility. Cigarette smoking, alcohol intake, ...
[79]
WHO laboratory manual for the examination and processing of ...
Jul 27, 2021 · This manual provides updated, standardized, evidence-based procedures and recommendations for laboratory managers, scientists and technicians to follow in ...
[80]
A Practical Approach to Testicular Biopsy Interpretation for Male ...
Aug 1, 2010 · For men with a zero sperm count (azoospermia), testicular biopsy is done to determine if a blockage is present or if primary testicular failure ...Abstract · INDICATIONS FOR... · HYPOSPERMATOGENESIS
[81]
Approach to the Infertile Man - Oxford Academic
Normal testosterone, normal LH, and elevated FSH levels in an azoospermic or severely oligozoospermic man are suggestive of primary spermatogenic failure. These ...Iv. Diagnostic Evaluation · Genetic Causes · Y Chromosome Microdeletion...
[82]
The use of scrotal ultrasound in the evaluation of varicoceles - NIH
Urologists use ultrasound in the male infertility workup to evaluate scrotal contents and objectively identify varicoceles if their presence is questionable ...
[83]
Genetic testing for men with infertility: techniques and indications
The most common genetic tests for male infertility used in clinical practice today are karyotyping, Y-chromosome microdeletion screening, and CFTR gene mutation ...Initial workup of infertility · Karyotype analysis (KA) · Other genetic tests for infertility
[84]
intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) - Cleveland Clinic
ICSI is a form of in vitro fertilization (IVF). Healthcare providers most commonly use ICSI when male infertility affects a person's ability to conceive a child ...
[85]
Indications for the use of human chorionic gonadotropic hormone for ...
Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) therapy can help re-establish or maintain spermatogenesis in hypogonadal men.
[86]
The Impact of Varicocelectomy on Sperm Parameters: A Meta-Analysis
Inguinal varicocelectomy led to an improvement in sperm count of 7.17 million per ml (p <0.0001) while motility changed by 9.44% (p = 0.001). Subinguinal ...
[87]
Rescue of male infertility through correcting a genetic mutation ... - NIH
Our study establishes a paradigm for the treatment of male azoospermia by combining in vitro expansion of SSCs and gene therapy.