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Criminal conversion

Criminal conversion is a criminal offense that occurs when a person knowingly or intentionally exerts unauthorized control over the property of another, typically with the intent to deprive the owner of their rights to that property, distinguishing it from mere accidental or negligent interference.^[1] This offense serves as the criminal counterpart to the civil tort of conversion, which involves intentional interference with personal property but lacks the requirement of criminal mens rea.^[2] In essence, it criminalizes wrongful dominion over chattels—such as vehicles, money, or goods—without the owner's consent, often encompassing acts like temporary misuse, sale, or concealment.^[3] The key elements of criminal conversion generally include: (1) the property belongs to someone other than the defendant; (2) the defendant knowingly or intentionally assumes control over it without authority; and (3) the act is done with fraudulent intent or awareness of the high probability of unauthorized control.^[1] Unlike theft, which typically requires an intent to permanently deprive the owner, criminal conversion can apply to temporary deprivations, such as using borrowed property beyond agreed terms or failing to return entrusted funds.^[3] In the United States, criminal conversion is addressed through both federal and state laws, with variations in definitions and penalties. Federally, under 18 U.S.C. § 641, it prohibits the knowing conversion of government property or money to one's own use or that of another, punishable by fines and up to 10 years' imprisonment if the value exceeds $1,000, or up to 1 year if $1,000 or less.^[4] At the state level, it is explicitly codified in jurisdictions like Indiana, where Indiana Code § 35-43-4-3 defines it as a Class A misdemeanor, carrying penalties of up to 1 year in jail and a $5,000 fine, escalating to a Level 6 felony under certain circumstances, such as when the property is a motor vehicle used to further a crime or failure to return a leased motor vehicle.^[5] Other states, such as Colorado and Georgia, recognize similar offenses through case law, often treating them as forms of theft by conversion with misdemeanor or felony classifications based on property value.^[1] Prosecutions frequently arise in contexts like employee misuse of company assets, bailee failures to return goods, or attorney mishandling of client funds, allowing victims to pursue both criminal charges and civil remedies concurrently.^[3]

Definition and Elements

Definition

Criminal conversion is a criminal offense defined as the knowing or intentional exertion of unauthorized control over another person's personal property without consent, characterized by the lack of intent to permanently deprive the owner of the property. This act involves temporarily assuming dominion or using the property in a manner that interferes with the owner's rights, distinguishing it from broader theft offenses. In common law jurisdictions, particularly certain U.S. states, the offense targets misuses such as taking and using a vehicle without permission or diverting funds temporarily for personal gain.^[1]^[5] Unlike civil conversion, which is a tort allowing recovery of damages for wrongful interference with personal property regardless of intent, criminal conversion requires proof of mens rea, such as knowledge that the control is unauthorized or fraudulent intent to deprive the owner temporarily. This intent elevates the conduct to criminal liability, resulting in penalties that vary by jurisdiction, often classifying the offense as a misdemeanor for lower-value property or a felony when the value exceeds a threshold or aggravating factors are present, such as involvement of public servants or repeated offenses.^[3] The scope of property covered by criminal conversion includes personal chattels, such as vehicles or goods, and extends to intangible property in formulations where statutes define property broadly to encompass electronic data or access rights, but it generally excludes real property like land or buildings. For instance, unauthorized use of digital services or temporary control over confidential information may qualify under expansive definitions.^[6] The offense serves to criminalize temporary misappropriations that disrupt an owner's possession or use without amounting to full theft, thereby addressing gaps in property crime laws that emphasize permanent deprivation. By punishing such interferences, it protects individual property rights against unauthorized temporary dominions that could otherwise evade criminal sanctions.^[7]^[8]

Key Legal Elements

Criminal conversion requires proof of both the actus reus and mens rea to establish liability. The actus reus involves the defendant's knowing or intentional exertion of unauthorized control, use, or disposal over another's personal property in a manner that seriously interferes with the owner's rights, such as assuming dominion inconsistent with the true ownership.^[1] This interference must be more than trivial, often encompassing acts like withholding, selling, or destroying the property without consent.^[9] The mens rea for criminal conversion typically demands that the defendant intend to exert control over the property without authority and possess knowledge that such control is unauthorized.^[1] Unlike larceny or theft, criminal conversion does not require an intent to permanently deprive the owner of the property; temporary unauthorized use suffices if done with the requisite culpable mental state.^[10] This intent distinguishes the crime from mere negligence or civil breaches, emphasizing a deliberate disregard for the owner's rights.^[11] To secure a conviction, the prosecution bears the burden of proving all elements beyond a reasonable doubt, including that the defendant acted volitionally and knew of the lack of consent from the property owner. This standard applies uniformly, requiring evidence that the defendant was aware their actions deprived the owner of rightful possession or use. In many statutes, the classification of criminal conversion as a misdemeanor or felony hinges on the value of the property involved; for instance, in North Carolina, under G.S. 14-168.1, conversion by bailee, lessee, tenant, or attorney-in-fact of property valued at $400 or less is a Class 3 misdemeanor, while exceeding that threshold elevates it to a Class H felony.^[12] Similar thresholds exist elsewhere, such as $1,500 in Georgia for misdemeanor classification of certain conversion offenses.^[13]

Historical Background

Origins in Common Law

The concept of criminal conversion has its roots in 17th- and 18th-century English common law, evolving primarily from the civil tort of trespass to chattels and the related criminal offense of larceny by bailee. Trespass to chattels addressed minor interferences with personal property, such as temporary use or damage, but escalated to conversion when the interference involved a serious denial of the owner's rights, like selling or destroying the chattel. In the criminal realm, larceny by bailee applied when a person in lawful possession—such as a carrier or servant—subsequently converted the property to their own use, provided felonious intent was present; this bridged the gap in larceny law, which traditionally required an initial trespassory taking from the owner's possession.^[14]^[15] A seminal influence on these doctrines was Sir William Blackstone's Commentaries on the Laws of England (1765–1769), which articulated conversion as the "wrongful exercise of dominion over the personal goods of another," treating the property as one's own through acts like withholding, using, or disposing of it. Blackstone traced the action of trover and conversion to its origins as a form of trespass on the case, a flexible writ developed in the late medieval period to remedy indirect injuries where no direct force was used, allowing plaintiffs to recover damages equivalent to the chattel's full value. This emphasis on unauthorized dominion provided a foundational principle for distinguishing conversion from mere detention, laying the groundwork for its criminal application by highlighting the harm to the owner's possessory interests.^[16] Before comprehensive 19th-century statutory reforms, such as those consolidating property offenses, criminal conversion was recognized as an indictable misdemeanor in England, prosecutable for wrongful acts like temporary asportation or misuse of goods without the animus furandi (intent to steal permanently) required for felony larceny. This lesser offense targeted scenarios where lawful possession turned illicit through conversion, ensuring accountability for breaches of trust that fell short of full theft. Its scope was confined to personal property, excluding real property due to common law's rigid separation between chattels (movable goods) and immovables, which prevented analogous claims against land or fixtures.^[17]

Development and Codification

In the 19th century, English legislative reforms consolidated criminal conversion within broader theft provisions to address gaps in common law. The Larceny Act 1861 (24 & 25 Vict. c. 96) marked a key development by enacting section 3, which deemed bailees who fraudulently convert entrusted chattels, money, or valuable securities guilty of larceny, punishable as a felony. This provision effectively criminalized conversion by those in possession, bridging the divide between tortious conversion and outright theft. Subsequent changes in the Larceny Act 1901 (1 Edw. 7 c. 10) introduced specific offences for fraudulent conversion, targeting misappropriations such as those by solicitors handling client funds. The Larceny Act 1916 (6 & 7 Geo. 5 c. 50) further streamlined these rules by consolidating larceny and kindred offences, including conversion, into a more coherent framework. The 20th century brought transformative shifts toward unification. The Theft Act 1968 (c. 60) in England and Wales abolished distinct crimes like larceny, embezzlement, and fraudulent conversion, integrating them into the single offence of theft under section 1, which requires dishonest appropriation of property with intent to permanently deprive the owner. This subsumption eliminated technical distinctions that had complicated prosecutions, such as the need to prove initial lawful possession in conversion cases.^[18] English common law's global spread influenced colonial jurisdictions, leading to post-independence codifications that preserved criminal conversion elements. In Australia, the Crimes Act 1900 (NSW) codified larceny by bailee in section 125, criminalizing fraudulent taking or conversion of bailed property as a felony.^[19] Canada's Criminal Code (RSC 1985, c. C-46) similarly incorporates conversion within theft under section 322, which covers fraudulent dealing with another's property, with punishments outlined in section 334.^[20] Recent 21st-century trends reflect adaptations to digital contexts, extending conversion laws to intangible assets like data and cryptocurrencies through amendments and judicial interpretation. In the UK, the Law Commission's Supplemental Report on Digital Assets (2024) and the accompanying draft Bill, introduced as the Property (Digital Assets etc) Bill in September 2024, propose statutory recognition of certain digital assets as personal property, facilitating their coverage under theft provisions akin to conversion.^[21] In Australia, the Crimes and Other Legislation Amendment (Omnibus No. 1) Act 2024 (Cth), assented on 24 October 2024, enhances the seizure and management of digital assets in criminal proceedings.^[22] Section 322 of Canada's Criminal Code provides for fraudulent conversion of property, which may encompass digital assets including cryptocurrencies as property.^[23]

Distinctions from Other Property Crimes

Difference from Theft

Criminal conversion and theft both involve the unauthorized exercise of control over another's property, but they are distinguished primarily by the defendant's intent regarding the permanence of the deprivation. Under the Model Penal Code § 223.2, theft by unlawful taking or disposition requires that a person unlawfully take or exercise control over movable property of another with the purpose to deprive the owner thereof, where "deprive" encompasses withholding the property permanently, for an extended period that appropriates a major portion of its value, or disposing of it in a way that makes recovery unlikely.^[24] In contrast, criminal conversion typically lacks this specific intent for permanent deprivation and instead punishes the knowing or intentional exertion of unauthorized control over personal property, as defined in statutes such as Indiana Code § 35-43-4-3, which criminalizes such control without requiring proof that the defendant aimed to deprive the owner of the property's value or use.^[5] This overlap in the actus reus—unauthorized control—means that the offenses can intersect in factual scenarios, but the mens rea determines the charge. For example, "joyriding" illustrates the distinction: taking and operating a vehicle without permission for temporary enjoyment, such as a brief unauthorized drive, constitutes criminal conversion because there is no intent to permanently keep the vehicle, unlike theft where such intent is present.^[25] Similarly, exceeding the terms of a test drive by not returning a car promptly but with an intent to return it later may qualify as conversion rather than theft, emphasizing misuse over outright stealing.^[26] As a result, criminal conversion is frequently classified as a lesser offense with reduced penalties compared to theft, reflecting the diminished harm from temporary interference; for instance, in Indiana, basic conversion is a Class A misdemeanor punishable by up to one year in jail, while theft of the same low-value property can escalate to a felony based on intent and circumstances.^[5] However, in certain jurisdictions, if evidence allows inference of intent to deprive—such as prolonged non-return of the property—conversion charges may merge into or be elevated to theft, increasing potential sanctions.^[27] The underlying policy rationale differentiates the protections offered: theft statutes target the severe harm of total dispossession or substantial economic loss to the owner, justifying harsher punishments, whereas conversion laws address disruptive but reversible interferences with possession and use, preserving a broader spectrum of property rights without over-penalizing non-permanent acts.^[28]

Difference from Embezzlement

Criminal conversion and embezzlement both involve the wrongful use or disposal of another's property, but they differ fundamentally in the nature of the offender's initial relationship to the property. Embezzlement specifically requires that the offender come into lawful possession of the property through a position of trust, such as employment or a fiduciary role, before fraudulently appropriating it for personal use— for instance, an employee diverting company funds.^[29] In contrast, criminal conversion applies more broadly to any intentional and unauthorized exercise of dominion or control over another's personal property, which may begin with an unlawful taking or interference, without necessitating prior lawful possession or a trust relationship.^[30] Regarding intent, both offenses demand a culpable mental state, such as knowledge or intent to deprive the owner, but embezzlement places particular emphasis on the breach of a fiduciary duty arising from the initial entrustment.^[31] Criminal conversion, however, encompasses a wider range of unauthorized acts, including temporary misuse or refusal to return property, without the requirement of a pre-existing trust; it focuses on the act of conversion itself as a serious interference with the owner's rights.^[30] Historically, embezzlement emerged as a distinct crime in 18th-century England to address fraud by bailees and servants who converted property lawfully in their possession, scenarios not covered by common-law larceny due to the absence of initial trespass. Statutes beginning in the 1740s targeted specific trades, such as wool combers, and expanded through acts in 1762 and culminating in the broader Larceny Act of 1799, which criminalized such conversions to protect emerging industrial interests.^[32] Criminal conversion, rooted in the civil tort of trover, evolved separately to handle non-fiduciary interferences, filling gaps where no trust existed.^[30] In modern U.S. law, some states have adopted unified or consolidated theft statutes inspired by the Model Penal Code, subsuming embezzlement and elements of conversion under a single "theft" offense to simplify prosecution, as seen in jurisdictions like New York and California.^[33] However, criminal conversion often retains a distinct identity in other states, with its mens rea emphasizing non-permanent deprivations or misuse without the permanence required for traditional theft, allowing for targeted charges in scenarios involving temporary control.^[29]

Jurisdictional Overview

United States

In the United States, criminal conversion at the federal level is primarily governed by 18 U.S.C. § 641, which prohibits the embezzlement, stealing, purloining, or knowing conversion of any record, voucher, money, or thing of value belonging to the United States, including government property.^[4] This statute applies to unauthorized use or disposal of federal assets and requires proof of specific intent to deprive the government of its property, as established by the Supreme Court in Morissette v. United States (342 U.S. 246, 1952), where the Court reversed a conviction for failing to include criminal intent as an element of the offense.^[34] Penalties under this provision distinguish between misdemeanors for property valued at $1,000 or less (up to one year imprisonment and fines) and felonies for higher values (up to ten years imprisonment and fines).^[4] At the state level, criminal conversion laws vary, with some jurisdictions treating it as a standalone offense and others subsuming it under broader theft statutes. In Indiana, for example, Indiana Code § 35-43-4-3 defines criminal conversion as knowingly or intentionally exerting unauthorized control over another's property, classified as a Class A misdemeanor, but elevated to a Level 6 felony if it involves certain circumstances, such as a motor vehicle.^[5] Similarly, in Georgia, O.C.G.A. § 16-8-4 codifies theft by conversion as the unauthorized appropriation of lawfully obtained property, such as funds or leased items, punishable as a misdemeanor if the value is $1,500 or less, or a felony otherwise, with penalties scaling up to 20 years for values over $25,000.^[35] Across many states, criminal conversion functions as a subclass of theft, integrated into unified theft statutes that emphasize intent to control or deprive without distinguishing initial possession. For instance, Arizona's A.R.S. § 13-1802 encompasses conversion within its definition of theft, where unauthorized control of property with intent to deprive the owner constitutes the offense, graded by value thresholds (e.g., class 6 felony for $1,000 to $2,000).^[36] Nevada similarly consolidates conversion under its comprehensive theft laws in NRS Chapter 205, treating it as larceny with penalties escalating from misdemeanors (under $1,200) to category B felonies (over $3,500).^[37] State penalties generally scale with property value, with felony thresholds ranging from $500 (e.g., Illinois, New Mexico) to $2,500 (e.g., Texas, Wisconsin), often resulting in imprisonment from one to twenty years depending on the amount and prior offenses.^[38] Enforcement commonly targets scenarios like vehicle joyriding—where temporary unauthorized use of a motor vehicle occurs without intent for permanent deprivation—or failure to return rental property, such as cars or equipment, after lawful possession, often charged as conversion to reflect the breach of trust rather than initial taking.^[39]^[40] As of 2025, emerging applications in some jurisdictions extend theft provisions to digital contexts, such as unauthorized control of cryptocurrencies or virtual assets, treated similarly to traditional property crimes.^[41]

Other Common Law Jurisdictions

In Australia, criminal conversion is subsumed under broader theft offenses in state and territory legislation, reflecting a consolidation of common law property crimes. For instance, in Victoria, the Crimes Act 1958 defines theft in section 72 as the dishonest appropriation of property belonging to another with the intention of permanently depriving the owner of it, explicitly encompassing acts of conversion even if the initial possession was lawful.^[42] Section 73 further clarifies that a person commits theft by dishonestly dealing with property as their own after obtaining possession, while section 74 addresses appropriation involving temporary deprivation as equivalent to stealing.^[42] Similar provisions exist across other jurisdictions, such as New South Wales' Crimes Act 1900, where fraudulent conversion by a bailee under section 125 is penalized, emphasizing dishonest misuse of property in one's possession.^[43] In Canada, criminal conversion is integrated into the offense of theft under the Criminal Code, with no standalone provision following the 1892 codification that merged earlier common law distinctions. Section 322 defines theft as fraudulently taking or converting anything, whether animate or inanimate, to one's own use or that of another, with intent to deprive the owner temporarily or absolutely.^[44] This includes scenarios of temporary interference, such as unauthorized use of property, and applies to values over $5,000 as an indictable offense under section 334(b), carrying a maximum penalty of ten years imprisonment.^[45] The provision's broad scope ensures that dishonest conversion, even without secrecy, constitutes theft, prioritizing fraudulent intent over the permanence of deprivation.^[44] New Zealand's approach mirrors this integration, with the Crimes Act 1961 section 219 defining theft or stealing to include both dishonest taking and using property after obtaining possession or control, without a claim of right and with intent to permanently deprive the owner.^[46] Subsection (1)(b) specifically covers conversion-like acts, such as dealing with property in a manner that prevents its return in unaltered condition, while subsection (4) requires movement of tangible property to establish the offense.^[46] Temporary deprivation is penalized equivalently to permanent taking, underscoring that no intent for outright ownership is necessary. In India, as a common law jurisdiction influenced by British codes, criminal conversion is addressed distinctly as dishonest misappropriation under section 403 of the Indian Penal Code, 1860, punishing whoever dishonestly misappropriates or converts movable property to their own use with imprisonment up to two years, or fine, or both.^[47] This offense requires proof of dishonest intent at the time of conversion and applies to property already in the accused's possession, differing from theft by lacking initial trespass.^[47] Variations in other jurisdictions, such as Pakistan's similar provision under its Penal Code, emphasize the non-permanent nature of deprivation, focusing on misuse rather than outright taking. Globally, common law systems have trended toward merger or decriminalization of standalone conversion offenses, as seen in the United Kingdom's Theft Act 1968, which consolidated larceny, embezzlement, and fraudulent conversion into a single theft offense under section 1, defining it as dishonest appropriation of property with intent to permanently deprive.^[48] This reform eliminated separate conversion charges post-1968, broadening "appropriation" to include assumptive dealings with property.^[48] Emerging applications extend these principles to digital contexts, such as unauthorized software use or cryptocurrency misappropriation, treated as theft where dishonest conversion of intangible assets occurs without requiring physical movement.^[48]

Examples and Case Law

Illustrative Examples

One common illustrative example of criminal conversion involves vehicle joyriding, where an individual takes another's car for a temporary drive without permission and without the intent to permanently deprive the owner of it. For instance, a teenager might borrow a parent's or neighbor's vehicle for a short joyride around the block, exerting unauthorized control over the property by using it for personal enjoyment. This act interferes with the owner's right to exclusive possession, even if the vehicle is returned undamaged, and constitutes criminal conversion under statutes that penalize knowing or intentional unauthorized control over personal property.^[7] Another scenario arises from the unauthorized use of services, such as accessing a neighbor's WiFi network without consent, which disrupts the owner's exclusive control over their internet service. In this case, a person might connect to an unsecured wireless router to stream content or browse online, temporarily depriving the owner of bandwidth and potentially incurring additional costs without permission. Legal analysis has recognized WiFi signals as capable of conversion, treating the unauthorized interference as a wrongful exercise of dominion over the owner's digital property rights.^[49] Criminal conversion can also occur through the misuse of rental property, such as failing to return leased equipment after the rental period expires, even without intent to steal it permanently. For example, a contractor rents tools from a hardware store for a specific job but continues using them for personal projects beyond the agreed term, profiting from the extended use while disregarding the owner's demands for return. This refusal to relinquish control transforms lawful possession into wrongful interference, qualifying as theft by conversion in jurisdictions that address such failures to return entrusted property.^[50] In the digital realm, temporarily hacking into an online account to use resources like cloud storage without deleting or selling the data exemplifies criminal conversion of electronic property. Consider a scenario where someone gains unauthorized access to a colleague's cloud account to upload and store their own files temporarily, thereby exerting control over the owner's digital space and limiting its availability. Courts have extended conversion principles to e-data, recognizing the intentional deprivation of access to intangible but possessory digital assets as a form of wrongful dominion.^[51] Boundary cases highlight how lawful initial possession can evolve into criminal conversion, such as when a finder of lost property refuses a temporary return to the owner. For example, an individual discovers a lost wallet on the street and, upon the owner's identification and request, declines to hand it back immediately, instead using its contents briefly for personal verification before retaining it longer than necessary. This refusal to restore the property after demand constitutes conversion, as the finder's initial right gives way to intentional interference with the true owner's rights.^[2]

Notable Cases

One of the landmark decisions in U.S. federal law on criminal conversion is Morissette v. United States, 342 U.S. 246 (1952). In this case, the defendant entered an open military bombing range and carted off spent bomb casings, which he believed were abandoned scrap metal, selling them for $84. He was convicted under 18 U.S.C. § 641 for "knowingly converting" government property to his own use. The trial court instructed the jury that criminal intent could be presumed from the act itself, treating the offense as one of strict liability. The Supreme Court reversed, holding that the statutory term "converts" incorporates the common-law requirement of criminal intent—specifically, an intent to wrongfully deprive the owner of the property or its use. The Court emphasized that absent a clear legislative intent for strict liability (typically limited to public welfare offenses like food adulteration), mens rea is essential to distinguish criminal from civil wrongs, ensuring the jury evaluates intent based on all circumstances rather than presuming it from the act. This ruling has profoundly shaped federal prosecutions under § 641, reinforcing that mere unauthorized taking without felonious intent does not suffice for conviction.^[34] In Indiana, state courts have clarified the elements of criminal conversion under Ind. Code § 35-43-4-3, particularly in scenarios involving unauthorized control over rented or bailed property. Courts have held that knowingly exerting control without consent constitutes the offense, with felony enhancements applying when the property value exceeds $750, distinguishing it from mere civil breach. These decisions underscore that intent to deprive the owner of possession—even temporarily—triggers criminal liability, influencing how prosecutors charge rental disputes as felonies based on economic loss.^[5] Post-2010, U.S. prosecutions for unauthorized access to digital property have trended toward treating such acts under federal statutes like 18 U.S.C. § 1030 (CFAA), particularly in cases involving data exfiltration or system tampering. For example, in Van Buren v. United States, 593 U.S. ___ (2021), the Supreme Court narrowed CFAA liability to cases of accessing areas beyond authorized bounds. This has influenced charges in cyber incidents where defendants exceed permissions to misuse electronic assets, aligning with enhanced penalties under post-2010 cyber laws like the Identity Theft Enforcement and Restitution Act amendments.^[52]

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Jun 4, 2025 · Marginal note:Punishment for theft. 334 Except where otherwise provided by law, every one who commits theft. (a) if the property stolen is a ...
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Crimes Act 1961 No 43 (as at 30 October 2025), Public Act 219 Theft or stealing – New Zealand Legislation
### Summary of Section 219 - Theft or Stealing (Crimes Act 1961)
[45]
Section 403 in The Indian Penal Code, 1860
Whoever dishonestly mis-appropriates or converts to his own use any movable property, shall be punished with imprisonment of either description for a term which ...Missing: conversion | Show results with:conversion
[46]
Theft Act 1968
### Summary of Section 1 of the Theft Act 1968
[47]
[PDF] Wi-Fi Signals Capable of Conversion - Huskie Commons
Jan 5, 2008 · In comparing the unauthorized use of another's wireless internet signal to these factors, it is clear that wireless internet can be converted.
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Stop Theft by Conversion - ECM Solutions
Mar 27, 2023 · In addition, rental companies can work with law enforcement to pursue legal action against customers who engage in theft by conversion. This can ...Missing: joyriding | Show results with:joyriding
[49]
Conversion of E-Data | News & Resources - Dorsey & Whitney LLP
When company data are stolen or maliciously destroyed, the modern cause of action is the federal Computer Fraud and Abuse Act (CFAA), 18 U.S.C. 1030, a criminal ...Missing: amendments century Australia<|control11|><|separator|>
[50]
Larceny - Judicial Commission of NSW
Dec 24, 2024 · A person in lawful possession of something can steal it by fraudulently converting it to his or her own use; that is, by dealing with the ...
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[PDF] 19-783 Van Buren v. United States (06/03/2021) - Supreme Court
Jun 3, 2021 · Van Buren was charged with a felony violation of the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act of 1986 (CFAA), which subjects to criminal liability anyone ...