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Cycloheximide

Cycloheximide is a naturally occurring glutarimide antibiotic produced by the soil bacterium Streptomyces griseus, first isolated in 1946 by mycologist Alma Whiffen at the Upjohn Company as a product of bacterial fermentation originally named actidione.^[1] With the chemical formula C15H23NO4 and a molecular weight of 281.35 g/mol, it is a crystalline solid soluble in organic solvents like ethanol and DMSO but poorly soluble in water.^[2] Primarily known as a potent inhibitor of eukaryotic protein synthesis, cycloheximide binds to the E-site of the 60S ribosomal subunit, preventing the translocation of peptidyl-tRNA and halting translation elongation without affecting prokaryotic ribosomes.^[3]^[1] In research, cycloheximide is extensively employed as a tool to investigate cellular processes dependent on protein synthesis and turnover, such as the cycloheximide (CHX) chase assay, where cells are treated with concentrations like 50 μg/mL to block new protein production and measure existing protein half-lives via techniques including western blotting.^[4] It has been used since the mid-20th century to study translation dynamics, ribosome profiling, and responses to protein synthesis inhibition in model organisms like yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae), where it induces G1 phase arrest at low doses (0.5–10 μg/mL)^[5] and reveals proteasome-related resistance mechanisms in mutants.^[6] Beyond academia, its antifungal properties—effective against fungi, algae, protozoa, and higher plants—led to early veterinary and agricultural applications, such as controlling fungal diseases in crops and turf, though its high toxicity limits broader use.^[7]^[8] Cycloheximide's unique sensory profile adds to its notability; it elicits extreme bitterness in rodents via specific T2R G-protein-coupled taste receptors (e.g., mT2R5 in mice), triggering aversion at micromolar concentrations and serving as a potent rodent repellent, with rats preferring dehydration over ingestion of 15 μM solutions.^[9] This property stems from its detection by glossopharyngeal and vagal nerves rather than the chorda tympani, highlighting evolutionary adaptations to natural toxins.^[9] However, its cytotoxicity—causing rapid cell death, mitochondrial damage, and potential interference with p53-dependent pathways—necessitates careful handling, and it is not approved for human therapeutic use due to these risks.^[10]^[4] Derivatives, such as C13-aminobenzoyl cycloheximide, have been developed to enhance specificity for translation studies while reducing off-target effects.^[3]

History and Discovery

Discovery

Cycloheximide was first reported in 1946 by Alma Joslyn Whiffen, a mycologist at the Upjohn Company, during a screening program for antibiotics produced by soil bacteria.^[11] Working with colleagues Nestor Bohonos and Robert L. Emerson, Whiffen identified antifungal activity in fermentation broths from Streptomyces griseus, the same bacterium known for producing streptomycin.^[11] This discovery emerged from routine assays testing microbial extracts against fungal pathogens, highlighting the potential of actinomycetes as sources of novel antifungal agents.^[12] The compound was isolated from S. griseus fermentations and initially named Actidione, reflecting its origin from an actinomycete and its fungicidal action.^[13] Early isolation efforts at Upjohn involved extracting the active substance from culture filtrates using organic solvents like chloroform, yielding a crude product that inhibited a range of fungi. In 1948, further purification by B.E. Leach and J.H. Ford resulted in a crystalline form, characterized with the empirical molecular formula C15H23NO4 and a melting point of approximately 115–119°C.^[14] Initial antifungal testing demonstrated potent activity against dermatophytes such as Trichophyton species and Microsporum species, with minimum inhibitory concentrations as low as 0.1–1.0 μg/mL in agar diffusion assays. Key milestones followed rapidly, including a U.S. patent application filed on October 19, 1946, by Whiffen, Emerson, and Bohonos, which was granted in 1951 as U.S. Patent 2,574,519 for the compound and its production process.^[15] Upjohn initiated commercial production of Actidione (later renamed cycloheximide) in the early 1950s, establishing it as a valuable tool for agricultural and medical mycology.^[15] These developments marked the transition from laboratory curiosity to practical antifungal agent, though its eukaryotic specificity limited broader antibiotic applications.

Biosynthesis and Production

Cycloheximide is biosynthesized by Streptomyces griseus through a hybrid pathway combining elements of polyketide and non-ribosomal peptide synthesis, primarily orchestrated by an acyltransferase-less type I polyketide synthase (PKS) and tailoring enzymes encoded in a biosynthetic gene cluster. The pathway assembles the characteristic glutarimide ring and cyclohexene moiety using malonyl-CoA as the main extender unit for the polyketide chain, along with an amino acid precursor—such as L-isoleucine—that contributes to the carbon framework and nitrogen incorporation via an aminomutase (AMT) and amidotransferase (e.g., ChxD). In some strains, the cluster includes non-ribosomal peptide synthetase (NRPS) domains, such as a condensation domain in orfX, to facilitate amide bond formation in the glutarimide moiety.^[16]^[17] The core enzymatic steps begin with loading of malonyl-CoA onto an acyl carrier protein (ACP) by an external acyltransferase (AT), followed by iterative condensations in the PKS modules (ChxE with five modules containing ketosynthase [KS], dehydratase [DH], enoylreductase [ER], methyltransferase [MT], and ACP domains) to build a linear polyketide chain incorporating six malonyl-CoA units and two S-adenosylmethionine (SAM) methyl groups. Cyclization occurs via an X domain-mediated Michael addition or intramolecular acylation of the amide nitrogen, releasing preactiphenol as an intermediate and forming the glutarimide ring. Tailoring modifications follow, including oxidation at C-8 by a cytochrome P450 (ChxI), ketoreduction of the enoyl group, and phenol reduction to cyclohexanone by ketoreductases (ChxG and ChxH), culminating in the mature cycloheximide structure.^[16]^[17] Industrial production of cycloheximide relies on submerged fermentation of S. griseus in nutrient-rich media, typically containing 60 g/L glucose monohydrate as the carbon source and 14 g/L defatted soybean meal as the primary nitrogen source, supplemented with 2.5 g/L yeast extract, 5 g/L ammonium sulfate, 8 g/L calcium carbonate, 4 g/L NaCl, and 1 g/L KH₂PO₄. Cultures are maintained at 25°C with agitation at 300 rpm and aeration at 250 L/min air per liter, initiating fed-batch glucose infusion (0.24 g/h/L) after 48 hours to sustain growth, minimize degradation, and boost accumulation. Strain improvement via mutagenesis and selection, combined with process optimization, yields 1-2 g/L of cycloheximide after 5-10 days, representing a 43-52% enhancement over batch methods.^[18]^[19] Contemporary production challenges include inherent antibiotic self-degradation, low titers limited by feedback inhibition, and scalability issues due to the compound's eukaryotic toxicity. Recent 2020s genomic studies have identified split gene clusters in diverse Streptomyces strains, enabling targeted genetic engineering—such as PKS module overexpression and deletion of competing biosynthetic pathways—to pursue higher yields, though these efforts remain primarily at the laboratory scale amid regulatory hurdles for antifungal agents.^[20]^[16]

Chemical Properties

Molecular Structure

Cycloheximide possesses the molecular formula C_{15}H_{23}NO_{4} and a molecular weight of 281.35 g/mol.^[2] The core structure features a glutarimide ring, known chemically as piperidine-2,6-dione, which serves as the central scaffold. This ring is substituted at the 4-position with an ethyl side chain bearing a hydroxyl group at the alpha carbon (position 2 of the chain). The terminal carbon of this side chain is attached to a cyclohexanone ring substituted with methyl groups at positions 3 and 5. The ketone functionality is located at position 2 of the cyclohexanone, contributing to the molecule's overall rigidity and functional profile. This architecture positions key functional groups, including the imide nitrogens, carbonyls, and hydroxyl, in a manner that supports its interactions with biological targets.^[2] Cycloheximide contains four chiral centers, located at the 2-position of the ethyl side chain and positions 1, 3, and 5 of the cyclohexanone ring. The natural enantiomer exhibits the (2R,1'S,3'S,5'S) configuration, corresponding to the systematic IUPAC designation 4-[(2R)-2-[(1S,3S,5S)-3,5-dimethyl-2-oxocyclohexyl]-2-hydroxyethyl]piperidine-2,6-dione. This precise stereochemical arrangement is critical for the compound's biological potency, as stereoisomers such as isocycloheximide and epi-isocycloheximide demonstrate significantly reduced or altered antifungal and protein synthesis inhibitory activities.^[2]^[21] Structural analogs of cycloheximide, such as naramycin B and streptimidone, belong to the glutarimide antibiotic family and share the core glutarimide motif but differ in side chain modifications. For instance, naramycin B features alterations in the hydroxyethyl linkage and cyclohexyl substituents, while streptimidone lacks the hydroxyl group and has a simplified unsaturated side chain, influencing their relative potencies and specificities. These variations highlight how modifications to the ethyl side chain and ring substituents can modulate activity while preserving the essential glutarimide framework.^[22]

Physical and Chemical Characteristics

Cycloheximide is typically isolated as a white to off-white crystalline powder or colorless crystals.^[2] This appearance facilitates its handling in laboratory settings, where it is often stored as a solid to maintain stability. The compound has a melting point ranging from 119.5 to 121 °C.^[2] Solubility is limited in water, with practical concentrations reaching approximately 20 mg/mL at room temperature when aided by sonication, though it is sparingly soluble without assistance.^[23] In contrast, it shows high solubility in organic solvents, such as ethanol (~14 mg/mL), DMSO (approximately 25 mg/mL), and acetone.^[24]^[2]^[25] Chemically, cycloheximide remains stable under neutral and acidic conditions, including pH ranges of 3 to 5 where solutions can persist for weeks under refrigeration.^[23] However, it degrades rapidly in dilute alkaline solutions at room temperature, yielding products like 2,4-dimethylcyclohexanone.^[2] The compound is also sensitive to light, particularly ultraviolet radiation, necessitating protection from direct exposure during storage and use to prevent inactivation.^[25]^[26] Spectroscopic properties aid in its identification and analysis. Infrared (IR) spectroscopy reveals characteristic absorption bands for the carbonyl groups of the glutarimide ring near 1700 cm⁻¹.^[27] Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) data include distinct signals for the protons in the glutarimide moiety, typically observed in the 1H NMR spectrum around 2.5–3.5 ppm.^[27] Ultraviolet (UV) absorption occurs primarily below 290 nm, with no significant absorbance in the 290–700 nm range relevant to solar UV exposure.^[28]

Mechanism of Action

Inhibition of Protein Synthesis

Cycloheximide inhibits eukaryotic protein synthesis by binding to the E-site of the 60S ribosomal subunit, thereby preventing the translocation of peptidyl-tRNA from the A-site to the P-site during the elongation phase of translation. This binding stabilizes the ribosome in a pre-translocation state, blocking the action of elongation factor 2 (eEF2) and halting further peptide chain extension after typically one translocation cycle. As a result, ribosomes become frozen on the mRNA, leading to the arrest of nascent polypeptide synthesis at short lengths, usually comprising only the first few amino acids.^[29]^[30] The binding pocket is formed by ribosomal proteins eL28 and eL36 near the E-site tRNA, positioning the inhibitor within the peptide exit tunnel, with cycloheximide forming hydrogen bonds primarily with 25S/28S rRNA nucleotides such as C3993 in helix 88. This steric hindrance clashes with the advancing peptidyl-tRNA, inhibiting its movement and effectively stalling the ribosome-mRNA complex. Structural studies using X-ray crystallography of cycloheximide-bound yeast 80S ribosomes have confirmed these interactions, revealing how the inhibitor's cyclohexane and glutarimide rings anchor it in the tunnel to disrupt elongation dynamics.^[29] The inhibition is dose-dependent, with an IC50 of approximately 0.1–1 μg/mL in cell-free translation systems derived from eukaryotic sources such as rabbit reticulocytes. The effect onset is rapid, occurring within minutes of exposure, and the binding is reversible upon removal of the inhibitor, allowing resumption of translation. Experimental evidence from pulse-chase assays demonstrates the accumulation of short nascent peptides on stalled ribosomes, as labeled amino acids incorporate only briefly before elongation ceases. Similarly, ribosome profiling techniques reveal ribosome stalling and enrichment of footprints at early coding regions, underscoring the selective blockade during elongation.^[30]^[31]

Specificity to Eukaryotes

Cycloheximide exhibits high specificity for eukaryotic ribosomes due to key structural differences between the eukaryotic 60S large subunit and the prokaryotic 50S subunit. The drug binds within the E-site of the 60S subunit, specifically at nucleotide C3993 in helix 88 of the 28S rRNA, a region that interacts with ribosomal proteins L27a (eL28) and L36a (eL36), whose positioning and the surrounding rRNA form a binding pocket absent in the bacterial 50S subunit's 23S rRNA equivalent, preventing effective interaction and inhibition in prokaryotic systems.^[32] This structural mismatch results in no observable inhibition of bacterial protein synthesis, even at concentrations up to 100 μg/mL that fully arrest eukaryotic translation. In cell-free extracts from Escherichia coli, cycloheximide fails to block peptide chain elongation, underscoring its inability to engage the prokaryotic ribosomal architecture effectively. Such selectivity has made it a valuable tool for distinguishing eukaryotic from prokaryotic translation in mixed systems.^[33] Cycloheximide shows partial activity within eukaryotic cells by inhibiting translation on cytosolic 80S ribosomes but sparing organellar ribosomes in mitochondria and chloroplasts, which resemble prokaryotic 70S structures due to their endosymbiotic origins. These organellar ribosomes lack the eukaryotic-specific features of the 60S subunit, rendering them resistant to the drug and allowing continued synthesis of mitochondrially or chloroplast-encoded proteins. This differential sensitivity highlights the evolutionary divergence in ribosomal architecture across life's domains, as well as the prokaryotic heritage of organelles, enabling targeted studies of compartmentalized protein synthesis.^[34]^[32]

Biological Effects

Effects on Fungi and Other Eukaryotes

Cycloheximide demonstrates significant antifungal activity against a range of eukaryotic microbes, particularly yeasts such as Saccharomyces cerevisiae, where it inhibits growth and fermentation at concentrations of 1–5 μg/mL.^[35] This inhibition extends to other fungi like Candida species, with minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) typically ranging from 0.5–2 μg/mL in standard media.^[36] By blocking eukaryotic protein synthesis on 80S ribosomes, cycloheximide disrupts essential cellular processes, including cell wall synthesis and sporulation in sensitive fungi; for instance, it suppresses photo-induced sporulation in Trichoderma viride.^[37]^[38] In plants, cycloheximide induces the expression of genes encoding ethylene biosynthetic enzymes, thereby stimulating ethylene production, which plays a key role in regulating senescence and ripening processes.^[39] A 2025 study demonstrated its algicidal effects against the harmful algal bloom species Phaeocystis globosa, where application at 250 μg/mL reduced chlorophyll a content by 50.5% and the quantum yield of photosystem II (Fv/Fm) by 50% after 7 days, leading to inhibited photosynthesis and cell death.^[40] In animal cells, cycloheximide arrests the cell cycle at the G1/S transition in mammalian cell lines, such as rat glioma C6 cells, by partially inhibiting protein synthesis at low concentrations (e.g., 0.1–1 μg/mL).^[41] It also triggers apoptosis in various mammalian cells, including hepatocytes, through mechanisms involving the rapid degradation of short-lived anti-apoptotic proteins like Mcl-1.^[42]^[43] Cycloheximide exhibits a broad spectrum of activity against eukaryotic organisms but displays variable sensitivity across taxa; while most fungi and yeasts are highly susceptible, certain groups like dermatophytes (e.g., Trichophyton species) show intrinsic resistance due to efflux transporters such as MFS1, enabling their isolation on cycloheximide-supplemented media.^[44] Similarly, some protozoa, including mutants of Tetrahymena pyriformis, exhibit resistance, highlighting adaptations in ribosomal function or drug efflux that mitigate its inhibitory effects.^[45]

Effects on Prokaryotes and Viruses

Cycloheximide exhibits minimal direct effects on prokaryotes due to its specificity for eukaryotic 80S ribosomes, leaving prokaryotic 70S ribosomes unaffected. At standard concentrations, it does not inhibit growth or protein synthesis in bacteria such as Escherichia coli or the producing species Streptomyces griseus.^[46]^[47] This lack of activity on bacteria enables its use in selective media, often combined with antibacterial agents like chloramphenicol, to isolate pathogenic fungi from mixed cultures contaminated by saprophytic fungi and bacteria.^[48]^[49] The compound's antiviral effects are primarily indirect, stemming from inhibition of host eukaryotic protein synthesis required for viral replication. It demonstrates strong activity against various RNA viruses, including HIV-1, influenza, coxsackie B, and enterovirus 71, by blocking the translation of viral proteins dependent on host machinery.^[50] A 2025 study highlighted its mechanism against Coxsackievirus B3, where low concentrations (as little as 0.08 μM) activated mTORC1 signaling to suppress autophagy while completely halting viral RNA replication across serotypes.^[51] In bacterial-fungal interactions, cycloheximide facilitates the study of symbiosis by selectively inhibiting fungal partners without affecting bacterial counterparts. For instance, Streptomyces species produce the compound to protect fungal gardens in ambrosia beetle mutualisms from eukaryotic competitors, allowing bacterial-fungal consortia to thrive.^[52] Emerging research explores cycloheximide's potential anticancer effects through indirect targeting of mitochondria in tumor cells, leveraging its inhibition of cytosolic protein synthesis to disrupt mitochondrial biogenesis and function. In cancer models, it sensitizes cells to apoptosis by preventing the synthesis of nuclear-encoded mitochondrial proteins, leading to reduced oxygen consumption and altered membrane potential.^[53]^[54] This approach highlights its utility in combination therapies for enhancing mitochondrial-dependent cell death pathways in malignancies.^[55]

Applications

Research Applications

Cycloheximide is extensively employed in the CHX chase assay to measure protein half-life in eukaryotic cells. In this technique, cells are treated with cycloheximide to halt new protein synthesis, allowing researchers to monitor the degradation of existing proteins over time via western blotting, which quantifies protein levels at various intervals post-treatment.^[4] This method provides insights into protein stability and turnover rates, with half-lives calculated by fitting degradation curves to exponential decay models, revealing regulatory mechanisms in processes like cell signaling and stress responses.^[56] For instance, in yeast models, systematic CHX chase assays have determined half-lives for over 3,700 proteins, highlighting short-lived regulators critical for cellular homeostasis.^[56] In ribosome profiling, cycloheximide arrests translation elongation on eukaryotic ribosomes, enabling a snapshot of actively translating mRNAs by isolating and sequencing ribosome-protected fragments. This approach, pioneered in yeast studies, reveals translation efficiency, ribosome occupancy, and regulatory elements like upstream open reading frames, aiding investigations into translational control during development and disease. By stabilizing ribosomes in a uniform conformation, cycloheximide facilitates precise mapping of codon-specific pausing and global translation dynamics, though its use requires caution due to potential biases in footprint uniformity across species.^[57] Cycloheximide serves as a selective agent in microbial ecology and brewing to isolate prokaryotes by inhibiting eukaryotic growth, particularly fungi. In culture media, concentrations around 10-25 mg/L suppress yeast and other eukaryotes while permitting bacterial proliferation, facilitating the study of prokaryotic communities in complex environments like soils or biofilms.^[58] In brewing applications, it is added to detection media for beer-spoilage microbes, where it inhibits contaminating yeasts, allowing enumeration of lactic acid bacteria without interference.^[59] This selectivity exploits cycloheximide's specificity for 80S ribosomes, enabling differentiation of microbial populations in mixed samples.^[60] Additional research techniques leverage cycloheximide's effects on specific pathways. In plant biology, it stimulates ethylene production in immature fruits like apples, providing a tool to dissect ripening mechanisms by enhancing hormone levels and observing downstream gene expression changes.^[61] In yeast models of organelle biogenesis, cycloheximide selectively blocks cytosolic translation, allowing isolated labeling of mitochondrial proteins with radioactive amino acids to probe synthesis rates and assembly of respiratory complexes.^[62] These applications underscore its utility in elucidating compartment-specific translation and hormonal regulation.^[63]

Industrial and Agricultural Uses

In the brewing industry, cycloheximide is incorporated into selective culture media to inhibit the growth of yeasts and fungi during yeast propagation and beer fermentation testing, thereby facilitating the isolation and detection of bacterial spoilers without interference from eukaryotic contaminants.^[64] For instance, it is commonly added to Universal Beer Agar and MacConkey agar at concentrations around 10 μg/mL to suppress brewing yeasts while permitting the growth of wild yeasts or bacteria for quality control assessments.^[59] This application leverages its specificity as an antifungal agent, ensuring reliable microbial monitoring in production processes.^[65] Historically, cycloheximide has been utilized as an agricultural fungicide to combat soil-borne fungal pathogens, particularly in crop protection against eukaryotic infections, though its application has diminished due to associated health risks.^[60] More recently, emerging studies have demonstrated its potential as an algicide in aquaculture, where it effectively controls harmful algal blooms by disrupting protein synthesis and photosynthetic processes in algae such as Phaeocystis globosa.^[40] For example, 2025 research highlighted its ability to reduce algal pigment content (chlorophyll a by 50.5% and carotenoids by 55.1%) and quantum yield (Fv/Fm by 50%) at 250 μg/mL, offering a targeted approach to mitigate bloom impacts on fish farming without broad-spectrum environmental disruption.^[40] As a pharmaceutical precursor, cycloheximide plays a role in the synthesis of structural analogs designed to retain its protein synthesis inhibitory properties for potential antifungal therapeutics, while addressing limitations like mammalian toxicity.^[66] Synthetic routes have enabled the production of modified congeners with altered structure-activity relationships, focusing on enhanced specificity to eukaryotic targets for drug development.^[67] These efforts prioritize analogs that could serve as less toxic alternatives in antifungal formulations, drawing on cycloheximide's core glutarimide scaffold.^[66] In veterinary applications, cycloheximide finds occasional use in topical antifungal treatments for animals, particularly against dermatophyte infections in dogs and cats, administered at controlled dosages to exploit its inhibitory effects on fungal protein synthesis.^[2] Such formulations are applied sparingly to localized skin conditions, with veterinary guidelines emphasizing precise application to minimize systemic exposure.^[2]

Toxicity and Safety

Human and Environmental Toxicity

Cycloheximide exerts toxicity in humans primarily through its inhibition of eukaryotic protein synthesis, which disrupts cellular functions and leads to severe adverse effects. Acute exposure, particularly via ingestion, can cause gastrointestinal distress including excessive salivation, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and melena, as observed in animal models and extrapolated to human risk profiles. The compound is highly toxic, with an oral LD50 in rats of approximately 2 mg/kg, indicating a probable lethal dose in humans of 5-50 mg/kg.^[2]^[68]^[69] Reproductive and developmental toxicity is a major concern, with cycloheximide classified as a teratogen capable of inducing birth defects such as polydactyly and oligodactyly in exposed embryos. It may also damage fertility and cause toxicity to male germ cells, contributing to its status as a developmental toxicant. In California, it is listed under Proposition 65 as known to cause birth defects or other reproductive harm. Potential carcinogenicity has been noted in limited studies, though it is not a well-established carcinogen, with reports of tumor development in animal models following exposure.^[8]^[70]^[71]^[72] In research settings, cycloheximide exposure can induce DNA damage and trigger apoptosis in eukaryotic cells, highlighting its hazardous nature even at controlled doses. Due to this high toxicity and narrow therapeutic window, it is unsuitable for clinical therapeutic applications and is restricted to laboratory use.^[71] Environmentally, cycloheximide poses risks to aquatic ecosystems, where it is toxic to eukaryotes such as fish and algae at concentrations around 1.6 mg/L (LC50 for fish) and 2.2 mg/L (EC50 for algae), with potential for long-lasting adverse effects. Safety assessments indicate it is hazardous to aquatic life over chronic exposure periods, potentially disrupting eukaryotic organisms in contaminated water bodies. While specific soil persistence data are limited, its mobility in soil suggests potential leaching into waterways from agricultural or research runoff, exacerbating aquatic toxicity.^[73]^[72]

Regulatory Status

In the United States, cycloheximide is designated as an extremely hazardous substance (EHS) under Section 302 of the Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act (EPCRA), administered by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Facilities that store, handle, or process cycloheximide in quantities at or above its threshold planning quantity (TPQ) of 100 pounds must develop and submit emergency planning documents, including chemical inventory reports and risk management plans, to local emergency planning committees and the state emergency response commission.^[74] In the European Union, cycloheximide is subject to the Classification, Labelling and Packaging (CLP) Regulation (EC) No 1272/2008, with harmonized classifications including acute toxicity category 2, reproductive toxicity category 1B, germ cell mutagenicity category 2, serious eye irritation category 2, and aquatic chronic toxicity category 2, necessitating appropriate labeling and safety data sheets for handlers. It is exempt from full registration under the REACH Regulation (EC) No 1907/2006 due to annual production volumes below 1 tonne, but notifications are required for substances of very high concern, and general restrictions apply to prevent environmental release through proper waste management and disposal protocols. Furthermore, cycloheximide is not approved for use as a plant protection product in any EU member state under Regulation (EC) No 1107/2009, effectively prohibiting its agricultural application due to its toxicity profile.^[75] Occupational safety standards for cycloheximide in laboratory and industrial settings are governed by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) under the Hazard Communication Standard (29 CFR 1910.1200), requiring employers to provide safety data sheets, training, and personal protective equipment (PPE) such as chemical-resistant gloves, protective clothing, safety goggles, and respiratory protection if airborne concentrations exceed permissible exposure limits or in poorly ventilated areas. Handling must occur in fume hoods to minimize inhalation risks, and spill response protocols involve evacuation, containment with absorbent materials, neutralization if applicable, and proper decontamination to avoid skin contact or environmental contamination, in line with OSHA's general laboratory safety guidelines (29 CFR 1910.1450). The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has not classified cycloheximide as a carcinogen, though it remains under monitoring for potential mutagenic and reproductive effects in occupational exposure assessments.^[76] Regarding international trade, cycloheximide is not controlled under the Chemical Weapons Convention as a scheduled chemical, but as a pesticide, its import and export are restricted in certain countries. In some nations, export of antibiotics like cycloheximide may face additional scrutiny or licensing requirements if classified as dual-use items or precursors for non-research purposes, though no global convention specifically targets it for such controls.^[77]

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Although the protein synthesis inhibitor cycloheximide (CHX) has been known for decades, its precise mechanism of action remains incompletely understood.Missing: history | Show results with:history
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ASPECTS OF INHIBITION OF PROTEIN SYNTHESIS IN ... - PubMed
Cycloheximide and acetoxy-cycloheximide specifically inhibit protein synthesis ... The drugs have no effect on protein synthesis in extracts of Escherichia coli.
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Effects of cycloheximide, d-threo-chloramphenicol, erythromycin and ...
d-Threo-chloramphenicol and erythromycin did not affect cytoplasmic protein synthesis, but partially inhibited mitochondrial protein synthesis. These results ...
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effect of actidione (cycloheximide) on yeast fermentation - margaret ...
Actidione, an antibiotic produced by Strepto- myces griseus, is highly active against a large number of yeasts but it has no marked anti-.
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Antifungal efficacy and safety of cycloheximide in OptisolGS | DDDT
May 18, 2021 · Some studies evaluated the efficacy, safety, and light stability of amphotericin B and voriconazole addition in hypothermic storage at many ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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Inhibition by cycloheximide of protein and RNA synthesis in
Cycloheximide (actidione) has been shown to inhibit protein synthesis and to a variable extent, RNA synthesis in various fungi, as well as mammalian cells, but ...
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Suppression of photo-induced sporulation in Trichoderma viride by ...
The photoinduced sporulation was partially or fully inhibited in the presence of phenethyl alcohol, actinomycin D, 5-fluorouracil, cycloheximide and ethidium ...
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Exogenously induced expression of ethylene biosynthesis, ethylene ...
Abstract. In higher plants, copper ions, hydrogen peroxide, and cycloheximide have been recognized as very effective inducers of the transcriptional activi.
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https://academic.oup.com/jxb/article/61/12/3475/433792
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Induction of cell cycle arrest at G1 and S phases and cAMP ...
Dec 15, 2010 · Our results suggest that partial inhibition of protein synthesis in C6 glioma by low concentration of cycloheximide induces cell cycle arrest at G1 and M ...
[41]
Toxicoproteomic investigation of the molecular mechanisms of ...
Cycloheximide (CHX) is a well-known protein synthesis inhibitor and has been shown to rapidly induce hepatocellular apoptosis both in vitro and in vivo (Ledda- ...
[42]
RAPID TURNOVER OF MCL-1 COUPLES TRANSLATION TO CELL ...
Induction of apoptosis by cycloheximide was detected within 2 – 4 h and blocked by proteasome inhibitors, indicating that degradation of short-lived protein(s) ...
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MFS1, a Pleiotropic Transporter in Dermatophytes That Plays a Key ...
Jul 7, 2021 · Our experiments revealed a key role of MFS1 in the resistance of dermatophytes to CHL and their high minimum inhibitory concentration for ...
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A cycloheximide-resistant mutant of Tetrahymena pyriformis
A genetic analysis has shown that cycloheximide resistance in the mutant strain is due to a dominant nuclear allele, designated chx-1. Heterozygotes ( chx-1 chx ...
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Aspects of Inhibition of Protein Synthesis in Mammalian Cells
Cycloheximide and acetoxycycloheximide specifically inhibit protein synthesis in L-cells growing in suspension culture.
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Inhibition of Protein Synthesis by Cyclo-heximide (Actidione) in ...
Cycloheximide is an antibiotic produced by Streptomyces griseus. It inhibits the growth of fungi1,2, algae3, protozoa4 and higher plants5, but has no effect ...Missing: isolation strain D Upjohn
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Use of cycloheximide in the selective isolation of fungi pathogenic to ...
Use of cycloheximide in the selective isolation of fungi pathogenic to man. J Lab Clin Med. 1954 Sep;44(3):422-8. Authors. L K GEORG, L AJELLO, C PAPAGEORGE.
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Use of Cycloheximide in the Selective Isolation of Fungi Pathogenic ...
Cycloheximide showed no fungistatic effect on the following species at any of the concentrations used Phialophora pedrosoi (2 strains), P. compactum, P.
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[Antiviral activities of cycloheximide and its derivatives] - PubMed
CHX showed strong inhibitory activities against several RNA viruses such as HIV-1, influenza viruses, coxsackie B virus, enterovirus (EV71) and several DNA ...
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Antiviral Activity of Cycloheximide Against Coxsackievirus B3 ...
Jun 30, 2025 · Cycloheximide treatment completely inhibited viral RNA replication for all tested CVB serotypes at concentrations as low as 0.08 μM (Fig. 4B). ...
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Cycloheximide-Producing Streptomyces Associated With ...
Based on these results, we propose a mutualism between two species of ambrosia beetle and Actinobacteria, in which the bacterial symbiont produces cycloheximide ...
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The Effect of Cycloheximide on the Interaction between ...
Studies with rat and guinea pig liver mitochondria have shown that cycloheximide reduces oxygen consumption with all KAD+-linked substrates in the isolated ...
[53]
Distinct alterations in mitochondrial mass and function characterize ...
Cycloheximide prevented both the proliferation of mitochondria and subsequent cell death.
[54]
Poly I:C enhances cycloheximide-induced apoptosis of tumor cells ...
Jan 17, 2008 · Poly I:C treatment caused tumor cells more sensitive to CHX-induced cell death. To investigate the effects of TLR3 on tumor cells, all tumor ...
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Proteome-wide mapping of short-lived proteins in human cells
Nov 18, 2021 · Additionally, a systematic investigation determined the half-lives for over 3,700 yeast proteins with the cycloheximide chase assay and western ...
[56]
Humans and other commonly used model organisms are resistant to ...
Aug 24, 2021 · Cycloheximide differentially affects human and yeast ribosomes. CHX induced biases have been reported in ribosome profiling data from yeast31,32 ...
[57]
Cultivation strategies for prokaryotes from extreme environments
Jun 12, 2023 · Nalidixic acid (25 mg/L), cycloheximide (25 mg/L), and potassium dichromate (25 mg/L) can be added to the isolation media to inhibit the growth ...
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Methods for detection and identification of beer-spoilage microbes
Aug 10, 2023 · Cycloheximide at a concentration of 10 ppm inhibits yeast growth in media (Hill, 2015). It is worth noting that brewery technicians should be ...
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Cycloheximide - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Cycloheximide is an antifungal agent that inhibits protein biosynthesis in eukaryotic organisms, and is a product of Streptomyces griseus.
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Regulation of Anthocyanin Synthesis in Apple Skin. II. Involvement ...
Ethylene production by immature apple fruit was stimulated by cycloheximide application, u.v. irradiation and wounding. After fruit were treated with 1 and 10 ...
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[6] Analysis of products of mitochondrial protein synthesis in yeast
This chapter discusses recent development in the genetics of yeast mitochondrial translation ... cycloheximide labels specifically mitochondrial translation ...
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A novel system to monitor mitochondrial translation in yeast - PMC
Additionally, cycloheximide treatment alters protein degradation 10 and acutely impacts on mitochondrial translation within very short time frames 11. To ...
[63]
[PDF] Beer Testing Media - Hardy Diagnostics
(4,7) Hardy Diagnostics Universal Beer Agar is supplemented with cycloheximide, which suppresses the growth of yeast and fungi, and further enhances the ...
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https://hardydiagnostics.com/media/assets/product/documents/BeerTestingMedia.pdf
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Versatile Synthetic Route to Cycloheximide and Analogues That ...
Apr 8, 2019 · Cycloheximide (CHX) is an inhibitor of eukaryotic translation elongation that has played an essential role in the study of protein synthesis ...Missing: stereochemistry | Show results with:stereochemistry
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Structure-activity studies with cycloheximide and congeners
The antibiotic cycloheximide inhibits protein synthesis in animal cells. The effect of a number of derivatives, related compounds and stereoisomers of ...
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Cycloheximide - Hazardous Agents - Haz-Map
... LD50 = 500 mg/kg in monkeys and dogs, but only 2 mg/kg in rats; [HSDB] Extremely toxic (probable oral lethal dose in humans is 5-50 mg/kg, or 7 drops to 1 ...
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Cycloheximide - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Cycloheximide is a glutaramide agent, previously an antifungal, now used as a plant fungicide and in lab media. It inhibits protein synthesis and is used in ...
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Cycloheximide: a protein synthesis inhibitor with teratogenic ...
Cyclohexamide is involved in the inhibition of truly mitochondrial protein synthesis. Cycloheximide, as a protein synthesis inhibitor, was studied in breast ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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Cycloheximide - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Cycloheximide is defined as a compound used to treat cells to freeze ribosomes on the mRNA, thereby preventing ribosomes from detaching or progressing along ...
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[PDF] Oxford Supplement (with Cycloheximide) - Neogen
Acute toxicity (oral). : Fatal if swallowed. Acute toxicity (dermal). : No ... LD50 oral rat. 2 mg/kg (Rat, Literature study, Oral). LD50 oral. 2 mg/kg. ATE ...
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Appendix A to Part 355, Title 40 -- The List of Extremely Hazardous Substances and Their Threshold Planning Quantities
**Summary of Cycloheximide Entry from Appendix A to Part 355, Title 40:**
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Cycloheximide - AERU - University of Hertfordshire
Oct 22, 2025 · EU Candidate for substitution (CfS). Not applicable. Listed in EU database. No. Approved for use (✓) under EC 1107/2009 in the following EU ...
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List of Classifications - IARC Monographs
Sep 18, 2025 · IARC Monographs on the Identification of Carcinogenic Hazards to Humans ... Agents classified by the IARC Monographs, Volumes 1–139. CopyMissing: Cycloheximide | Show results with:Cycloheximide
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[PDF] PIC CIRCULAR LI (51) – June 2020 - Rotterdam Convention
Jun 16, 2020 · The approval of isoproturon for these product types (i.e. uses) is currently under review in the European. Union and the regulatory decision is ...