Fact-checked by Grok 2 weeks ago

Condensation

Condensation is the phase transition in which a gas or vapor transforms into a liquid, typically occurring when the temperature decreases or pressure increases, allowing molecules to lose kinetic energy and come together to form a denser liquid state.^[1] This process is the reverse of evaporation or vaporization and involves the release of latent heat, which is the energy absorbed or released during the phase change without a temperature variation.^[2] In the context of the Earth's hydrological cycle, condensation is essential for forming clouds, fog, dew, and precipitation, as water vapor in the atmosphere cools and condenses onto particles known as condensation nuclei.^[3] The process is governed by factors such as the dew point—the temperature at which air becomes saturated with vapor and condensation begins—and relative humidity, which measures the air's moisture content relative to its saturation point.^[4] Beyond atmospheric phenomena, condensation occurs in various natural and engineered systems, including the cooling of gases in refrigeration cycles, the formation of liquid fuels from natural gas, and the distillation processes in chemical engineering.^[5] Understanding condensation is critical across disciplines, from meteorology and climate science to materials engineering, due to its influence on weather patterns and energy transfer.^[6]

Fundamentals

Definition and Overview

Condensation is the physical process by which a substance in the gaseous or vapor phase transitions to the liquid phase, typically triggered by a decrease in temperature or an increase in pressure that allows molecules to come closer together and form stronger intermolecular attractions.^[7] This phase change is driven primarily by intermolecular forces, such as van der Waals forces, which overcome the kinetic energy of the molecules, enabling them to cluster and coalesce into a liquid state.^[8] Real gases can undergo condensation below their critical temperature, but as conditions approach the critical point, the distinction between liquid and gas phases blurs, and above it, no such phase transition occurs.^[9]^[5] The concept of condensation emerged from early scientific inquiries into the behavior of gases and vapors during the 17th century, with observations by Robert Boyle using an air pump to study the "spring of the air." In his experiments, he noted incidental effects like the adhesion of a whitish steam to cooled surfaces in the apparatus under reduced pressure.^[10] Boyle's work, detailed in his 1660 book New Experiments Physico-Mechanicall, Touching the Spring of the Air, contributed to early experimental approaches in studying matter's states, though focused primarily on gas behavior.^[11] Condensation is distinct from related phase transitions: it represents the reverse of evaporation, where liquid molecules gain sufficient energy to enter the gas phase, whereas sublimation involves a direct transition from solid to gas, and deposition is the inverse, from gas to solid without an intermediate liquid.^[12] Common examples include the familiar transformation of water vapor into liquid droplets on a cold glass surface, as well as the condensation of alcohol vapors during distillation processes or refrigerant gases in cooling systems, illustrating its role across natural and engineered contexts.

Thermodynamic Principles

Condensation is governed by fundamental thermodynamic principles that dictate the conditions under which a vapor phase transitions to a liquid, primarily through the interplay of energy balances and equilibrium states. At the core of this process is the concept of saturation vapor pressure, which represents the pressure exerted by a vapor in equilibrium with its liquid phase at a given temperature. This equilibrium occurs when the rates of evaporation and condensation are equal, establishing a dynamic balance where the vapor and liquid coexist without net phase change.^[13] A key energetic aspect of condensation is the release of latent heat, the energy liberated when vapor molecules transition to the liquid state without a temperature change. For water vapor condensing to liquid at 100°C and standard atmospheric pressure, this latent heat is approximately 2260 kJ/kg, though it decreases with temperature (e.g., about 2500 kJ/kg at 0°C). This exothermic process significantly influences the thermodynamics of the system, often warming the surroundings and affecting local temperature profiles during condensation events. Interfacial energy and surface tension also play roles in the overall energetics, particularly in droplet formation.^[14]^[15] The relationship between temperature and the equilibrium vapor pressure is quantitatively described by the Clausius-Clapeyron equation, derived from the equality of chemical potentials across phases:

\frac{dP}{dT} = \frac{L}{T(V_g - V_l)}

Here, P is the vapor pressure, T is the absolute temperature, L is the latent heat of vaporization (equal in magnitude but opposite in sign to the latent heat of condensation), and V_g and V_l are the specific volumes of the gas and liquid phases, respectively. Since V_g \gg V_l for most substances, the equation approximates to \frac{dP}{dT} \approx \frac{L}{T V_g}, illustrating the exponential increase in saturation vapor pressure with temperature and providing a predictive tool for phase boundaries in condensation processes. This equation underscores how small changes in temperature can dramatically alter the propensity for condensation.^[16] The spontaneity of condensation is determined by the Gibbs free energy change, \Delta [G](/page/G) = \Delta [H](/page/H+) - T \Delta [S](/page/%s), where \Delta [H](/page/H+) is the enthalpy change (dominated by the negative latent heat for condensation) and \Delta [S](/page/%s) is the entropy change (negative due to increased molecular order in the liquid). Condensation becomes thermodynamically favorable when \Delta [G](/page/G) < 0, which occurs below the dew point—the temperature at which the partial pressure of the vapor equals the saturation vapor pressure. At equilibrium (dew point), \Delta [G](/page/G) = 0, marking the boundary between stable vapor and spontaneous liquid formation.^[17] Temperature and pressure exert direct control over these processes: lowering the temperature below the dew point through supercooling creates a supersaturated vapor state where condensation is thermodynamically driven but may be kinetically delayed without nucleation sites, as the reduced thermal energy favors molecular clustering. Conversely, increasing pressure via compression raises the saturation temperature for a given vapor composition, potentially inducing condensation by shifting the equilibrium toward the denser liquid phase, as predicted by the Clausius-Clapeyron relation. These effects highlight the sensitivity of condensation to environmental conditions, with pressure changes often used in applications to manipulate phase behavior.^[18]^[19]

Mechanisms

Nucleation and Initiation

Condensation begins with the process of nucleation, where clusters of molecules in the vapor phase aggregate to form the initial stable embryos of the liquid phase. This initiation step is governed by classical nucleation theory (CNT), which describes the formation of these clusters through fluctuations in the supersaturated vapor. In the absence of foreign substrates, nucleation proceeds homogeneously, requiring the spontaneous assembly of molecules to overcome a significant free energy barrier due to the creation of a new liquid-vapor interface.^[20] Homogeneous nucleation occurs in pure, uncontaminated vapors and is rare under atmospheric or typical laboratory conditions because of the high energy required to form the initial cluster without catalytic assistance. In contrast, heterogeneous nucleation dominates in real-world scenarios, where impurities such as dust particles, ions, or solid surfaces provide sites that lower the energy barrier by partially wetting the forming droplet. This surface-catalyzed process facilitates the transition from vapor to liquid at lower supersaturations, making it the primary mechanism for condensation initiation in most environments.^[21]^[20] The size of the critical nucleus, beyond which clusters grow spontaneously rather than evaporate, is determined by balancing the surface energy cost against the bulk free energy gain from condensation. The critical radius r^* is given by

r^* = \frac{2\sigma}{\Delta P},

where \sigma is the surface tension of the liquid-vapor interface and \Delta P is the pressure difference across the interface, driven by supersaturation. This radius typically ranges from a few angstroms to nanometers, depending on the vapor conditions. The associated free energy barrier for forming this critical nucleus in homogeneous nucleation is

\Delta G^* = \frac{16\pi \sigma^3 v^2}{3(\Delta \mu)^2},

where v is the volume per molecule in the liquid phase, with \Delta \mu representing the chemical potential difference between the vapor and liquid phases, often expressed as \Delta \mu = kT \ln S, where S is the supersaturation ratio and kT is the thermal energy.^[20]/07:_Precipitation_Processes/7.02:_Nucleation_of_Liquid_Droplets)^[22] Key factors influencing the initiation of nucleation include the degree of supersaturation, which exponentially increases the nucleation rate by reducing \Delta G^*, and the presence of impurities or ions that promote heterogeneous sites. Ions, in particular, can enhance nucleation through charge-induced clustering in ion-mediated processes, observed in clean atmospheric conditions. These elements collectively determine whether nucleation occurs, with higher supersaturations overcoming barriers in purer systems.^[20]^[23] The time scales for nucleation onset are brief, typically spanning milliseconds to seconds, reflecting the rapid molecular collisions and cluster formation once supersaturation is achieved. In experimental expansions of supersaturated vapors, the steady-state cluster distribution establishes within microseconds to milliseconds, leading to observable droplet formation shortly thereafter.

Growth Processes and Reversibility

Once nucleation has initiated droplet formation, growth proceeds primarily through diffusion-limited mechanisms, where water vapor diffuses from the supersaturated ambient air to the droplet surface, leading to net condensation. The rate of radius increase for a spherical droplet in this regime is given by

\frac{dr}{dt} = \frac{D \left( \frac{M}{RT} \right) \Delta P}{r \rho},

where D is the diffusion coefficient of water vapor in air, M is the molar mass of water, R is the gas constant, T is temperature, \Delta P is the difference in partial pressure of water vapor between the environment and the droplet surface, r is the droplet radius, and \rho is the liquid water density./07:_Precipitation_Processes/7.04:_Liquid_Droplet_Growth_by_Diffusion) This process is controlled by Fick's law of diffusion and assumes continuum conditions, with growth slowing as r increases due to the longer diffusion path./07:_Precipitation_Processes/7.04:_Liquid_Droplet_Growth_by_Diffusion) In addition to diffusion, droplet growth occurs via coalescence, the merging of colliding droplets driven by relative motion. For small droplets (radii < 10 μm), Brownian motion dominates, causing random collisions that promote coalescence in dense populations. Larger droplets (radii > 50 μm) experience gravitational settling, where faster-falling drops overtake slower ones, increasing collision efficiency and leading to rapid size increases essential for precipitation formation.^[24]^[25] Condensation growth is reversible under certain conditions, where droplets can evaporate if the environment warms above the dew point, restoring vapor pressure equilibrium and reducing supersaturation. However, hysteresis arises in metastable states, where condensed liquid persists below the dew point due to energy barriers preventing immediate evaporation, or vice versa for supersaturated vapor. This non-coincidence of condensation and evaporation paths results in looped phase diagrams, observed in porous media and surface condensates.^[26]^[27] Factors influencing reversibility include surface tension, which stabilizes droplets via the Laplace pressure \Delta P = 2\sigma / r (where \sigma is surface tension), and impurities that alter wettability through changes in contact angle \theta. Impurities, such as surfactants or particulates, modify interfacial tensions, shifting \theta according to Young's equation:

\cos \theta = \frac{\sigma_{sg} - \sigma_{sl}}{\sigma_{lg}},

where \sigma_{sg}, \sigma_{sl}, and \sigma_{lg} are the solid-gas, solid-liquid, and liquid-gas interfacial tensions, respectively. This can promote or hinder droplet spreading and evaporation kinetics.^[28]^[29] Distinguishing kinetic and thermodynamic reversibility highlights path dependence in non-equilibrium conditions during condensation. Thermodynamic reversibility assumes quasi-static equilibrium with no entropy production, allowing exact reversal via infinitesimal changes in temperature or pressure. In contrast, kinetic reversibility accounts for finite rates and irreversibilities, such as heat and mass transport lags, leading to hysteresis and non-reversible paths in dynamic systems like rapid cooling or turbulent flows.^[30]

Scenarios

Natural and Atmospheric Cases

Dew formation occurs when surfaces cool overnight through radiative processes, causing the air in contact with them to reach its dew point temperature, at which water vapor condenses into liquid droplets. This phenomenon is particularly prevalent in temperate climates, where clear skies and calm conditions facilitate efficient radiative cooling of grass, leaves, and other surfaces, often leading to visible dew on mornings following such nights.^[31]^[32] Clouds and fog form primarily through adiabatic cooling of rising air parcels, where expansion against decreasing atmospheric pressure lowers the temperature until saturation is reached, prompting water vapor to condense onto aerosol particles serving as cloud condensation nuclei (CCN). In the case of clouds, this process often involves orographic lift over terrain or convective uplift from surface heating, resulting in droplet formation around hygroscopic aerosols like sea salt or sulfates. Fog, a cloud at ground level, similarly arises from radiative cooling near the surface or advection of moist air over cooler land, with aerosols enabling droplet nucleation at relative humidities near 100%.^[33]^[34]^[35] In the broader context of rain and precipitation cycles, condensation nuclei play a critical role in cloud physics by initiating droplet growth within clouds, which can coalesce into raindrops through collision and coalescence processes, ultimately driving the global water cycle. Annually, global precipitation totals approximately $5.05 \times 10^{14} cubic meters, representing the primary mechanism for redistributing water from the atmosphere to Earth's surface and sustaining hydrological balance. Variations in nuclei concentration influence precipitation efficiency, with higher numbers typically suppressing large drop formation and delaying rain in some cloud types.^[36]^[37] Frost and hoar frost develop under sub-zero conditions when water vapor undergoes deposition directly to ice crystals on surfaces cooled below the frost point, bypassing the liquid phase. Hoar frost, characterized by feathery, needle-like structures, forms on clear, calm nights with sufficient atmospheric moisture, as vapor diffuses to cold surfaces and freezes upon contact. This process is distinct from rime frost, which involves freezing of supercooled droplets, but both tie into vapor-phase transitions at low temperatures.^[31] Atmospheric condensation rates are modulated by environmental factors such as humidity, wind, and topography. High relative humidity accelerates saturation and condensation by increasing available water vapor, while low wind speeds enhance surface cooling for dew and frost but can disperse fog; conversely, stronger winds may inhibit local cooling yet promote advective fog. Topography influences patterns through orographic uplift, where air forced over elevated terrain cools adiabatically, fostering enhanced condensation and precipitation on windward slopes. Recent climate change impacts, including warmer near-surface temperatures, have reduced dew formation frequency in regions like China by up to 28-50% since the 1960s, potentially altering cloud formation dynamics and water cycle feedbacks.^[38]^[39]^[40]

Industrial and Laboratory Examples

In petroleum refining, fractional distillation employs controlled condensation to separate crude oil into valuable hydrocarbon fractions based on their differing boiling points. Crude oil is heated to approximately 350°C in a furnace, vaporizing it into a mixture of gases that enter the base of a tall fractional distillation column. As the vapors rise, the temperature decreases progressively, causing heavier hydrocarbons with higher boiling points to condense first near the bottom, while lighter fractions condense higher up. For instance, diesel oil condenses around 260°C, kerosene at about 180°C, and gasoline at roughly 110°C, with the lightest petroleum gases remaining vapor at the top. This process yields key products such as liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), naphtha, and residual oils, enabling efficient resource allocation in refineries.^[41] A prominent laboratory example of condensation is the Wilson cloud chamber, invented by Charles Thomson Rees Wilson in 1911, which visualizes the tracks of ionizing particles through supersaturated vapor condensation. The chamber contains a sealed environment saturated with water or alcohol vapor, rapidly expanded to create supersaturation. When charged particles, such as alpha particles from radioactive sources, pass through, they ionize the gas molecules along their path, forming ions that serve as nucleation sites for vapor condensation into visible droplets. These droplet trails, typically 10-50 micrometers in diameter, reveal particle trajectories, aiding early discoveries in nuclear physics, including the Compton effect and cosmic ray studies. The technique earned Wilson the 1927 Nobel Prize in Physics for its role in advancing particle detection.^[42] In refrigeration systems, condensation occurs in the condenser coils of vapor-compression cycles, where superheated refrigerant vapor is transformed into a high-pressure liquid, releasing latent heat to the surroundings. For air conditioning units using R-134a (1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane), the refrigerant enters the condenser at pressures around 10-15 bar and temperatures exceeding 50°C after compression; it then cools to about 40°C, condensing due to its boiling point of -26.3°C at atmospheric pressure and critical temperature of 101.1°C. This phase change enables efficient heat rejection, with the liquid refrigerant subsequently expanding to absorb heat in the evaporator. R-134a, widely adopted since the 1990s for its low toxicity and ozone-friendly properties, exemplifies how tailored refrigerants optimize cycle performance in household and industrial cooling. Chemical vapor deposition (CVD) utilizes precursor condensation and reaction for fabricating thin films in semiconductor manufacturing, depositing materials like silicon dioxide or polysilicon onto wafers. Volatile precursor gases, such as silane (SiH4) or tetraethyl orthosilicate, are introduced into a vacuum chamber heated to 300-800°C, where they adsorb onto the substrate surface—often via initial physisorption akin to condensation—before decomposing or reacting to form the solid film. This controlled process achieves uniform layers 10-1000 nm thick, critical for transistor gates, interconnects, and insulation in integrated circuits. Low-pressure CVD variants enhance precursor transport and minimize defects, supporting high-volume production in devices like microprocessors.^[43]^[44] Modern CO2 capture technologies incorporate amine solvent processes with integrated condensation steps to mitigate emissions from fossil fuel combustion, with advancements since 2020 focusing on energy-efficient solvent blends. In post-combustion capture, flue gas contacts an aqueous amine solution (e.g., monoethanolamine) in an absorber, where CO2 chemically absorbs to form carbamates; the rich solvent is then heated in a stripper to release CO2 gas, producing an overhead stream of CO2 and water vapor that undergoes cooling and condensation to recover and recycle over 99% of the water. Recent innovations, such as piperazine-promoted solvents and phase-change amines, reduce regeneration energy by 20-30% compared to conventional systems, enabling scalable deployment at power plants with capture rates exceeding 90%. These developments, supported by U.S. Department of Energy initiatives, address economic barriers for net-zero goals.^[45]

Measurement and Analysis

Techniques and Instruments

Optical methods play a crucial role in observing and quantifying condensation by enabling direct visualization and sizing of droplets. Microscopy techniques, such as environmental scanning electron microscopy, allow for high-resolution imaging of heterogeneous condensation processes, capturing droplet growth from nucleation stages on surfaces.^[46] Advanced optical microscopy has been developed to reveal the initial stages of droplet nucleation, providing insights into the dynamics of condensation on engineered surfaces with sub-micrometer precision.^[47] For broader particle distributions, laser diffraction measures the size of condensation droplets by analyzing the angular scattering of laser light, effective for ranges from 2 μm to 2000 μm as demonstrated in spray and droplet characterization studies applicable to condensation events.^[48] Hygrometers and dew point meters provide precise quantification of condensation onset through controlled cooling and detection. Chilled mirror hygrometers operate on the principle of cooling a mirror surface until the first condensate forms, with optical sensors detecting changes in reflectivity to determine the exact dew point temperature, achieving accuracies of ±0.1 °C.^[49] This optical detection method ensures fundamental traceability to thermodynamic equilibrium, making it a primary standard for moisture content in gases down to -60 °C dew point.^[50] Acoustic and electrical sensors offer non-optical alternatives for detecting condensation via physical property changes. Electrical capacitance sensors monitor humidity and condensation by measuring variations in the dielectric constant of a hygroscopic material between electrodes, where condensate formation alters capacitance to signal moisture presence.^[51] Surface acoustic wave (SAW) sensors detect droplet formation and frost through shifts in wave propagation frequency caused by mass loading from condensate, enabling real-time monitoring in cold environments.^[52] Ultrasonic methods contribute by using high-frequency vibrations to sense droplet accumulation or enhance detection in vapor systems, though primarily applied in removal contexts.^[53] The historical evolution of condensation measurement instruments traces from manual to automated systems. In the 19th century, Henri Victor Regnault's apparatus, developed around 1854, used ether evaporation in a silver thimble to achieve precise dew-point measurements, marking a significant advancement in condensing hygrometry.^[54] This evolved into psychrometers, which compare wet- and dry-bulb temperatures to infer humidity via evaporative cooling. Modern digital psychrometers integrate electronic sensors for direct readout of temperature, humidity, and dew point, improving accuracy and ease over traditional sling types.^[55] Calibration standards ensure measurement reliability, with NIST-traceable methods providing benchmarks for vapor pressure and dew point accuracy. The NIST Hybrid Humidity Generator calibrates hygrometers across dew points from -70 °C to +85 °C using two-pressure humidity generation, serving as a primary standard for traceability in condensation-related instruments.^[56] These protocols verify optical and sensor-based systems against fundamental thermodynamic references, maintaining uncertainties below 0.5% for relative humidity.^[57]

Key Parameters and Quantification

The dew point temperature represents the temperature at which air becomes saturated with water vapor, leading to the onset of condensation, and is a critical parameter for predicting condensation occurrence in various environments.^[58] It is calculated using the Magnus formula, an empirical approximation based on temperature T (in °C) and relative humidity RH (in %):

\alpha(T, RH) = \ln\left(\frac{RH}{100}\right) + \frac{a T}{b + T},

T_d = \frac{b \alpha(T, RH)}{a - \alpha(T, RH)},

where a \approx 17.27 and b \approx 237.7^\circC are constants derived from vapor pressure data over water.^[59] This formula provides accuracy within 0.2°C for typical atmospheric conditions between -45°C and 60°C.^[60] The condensation rate quantifies the mass transfer during phase change and is often expressed as the mass flux J (in kg/m²s) using the Hertz-Knudsen equation, which models the net flux from vapor pressure differences at a liquid-vapor interface:

J = \alpha (P_v - P_s) \sqrt{\frac{M}{2\pi R T}},

where \alpha is the accommodation coefficient (typically 0.01–1, depending on surface properties), P_v and P_s are the vapor and saturation pressures (in Pa), M is the molar mass of the vapor (kg/mol), R is the gas constant (8.314 J/mol·K), and T is the temperature (K).^[61] This equation, extended by Schrage for non-equilibrium effects, is foundational for estimating rates in vacuum or low-pressure condensation processes.^[62] In industrial condensers, such as those in refrigeration cycles, efficiency is quantified by the coefficient of performance (COP), defined as the ratio of heat absorbed in the evaporator to the work input to the compressor:

\text{COP} = \frac{Q_e}{W},

where Q_e is the evaporator heat absorption rate (W) and W is the compressor power (W).^[63] Typical COP values range from 2 to 5 for vapor-compression systems, with higher values indicating better energy efficiency under optimal operating conditions like low temperature lifts.^[64] Uncertainty in condensation measurements arises from factors such as temperature gradients across the surface, which can induce convective errors up to 10–20% in heat flux estimates, and variations in vapor pressure readings due to sensor calibration.^[65] Error analysis often employs Monte Carlo methods to propagate uncertainties from inputs like inlet temperature (±0.5°C) and flow velocity (±1%), yielding overall measurement uncertainties of 5–15% in heat transfer coefficients for condensing flows.^[66] Modern software for data logging enables real-time quantification of condensation parameters by integrating sensor inputs for temperature, humidity, and pressure, allowing automated calculation of dew points and rates with sub-second resolution.^[67] Tools like those from Campbell Scientific facilitate logging at rates up to 100 Hz, supporting error mitigation through real-time gradient corrections and outperforming pre-digital manual methods in precision and scalability.^[68]

Applications

Engineering and Technology

In engineering and technology, condensation plays a pivotal role in thermal management and resource recovery across various systems. One primary application is in heat exchangers, particularly condensers within power plants, where steam from turbines is condensed back into water to maintain cycle efficiency. In steam power plants operating on the Rankine cycle, condensers create a vacuum that lowers turbine exhaust pressure, enabling higher thermal efficiency typically ranging from 30% to 40% by facilitating energy recovery from the working fluid.^[69] Enhanced tube designs, such as those incorporating finned or low-finned surfaces, increase heat transfer rates by expanding the surface area for condensation, thereby reducing back pressure and improving overall plant performance in both fossil fuel and nuclear facilities.^[70] These designs can mitigate efficiency penalties associated with alternative cooling methods, such as air-cooled condensers, which otherwise incur a 5-10% loss compared to water-cooled systems.^[71] Condensation is also harnessed in atmospheric water harvesting technologies, especially in arid regions where traditional water sources are scarce. Atmospheric water generators (AWGs) employing Peltier cooling—thermoelectric modules that create a cold surface to induce dew formation—extract moisture from ambient air by cooling it below the dew point, leading to vapor condensation.^[72] These systems are deployed in arid regions despite lower yields in low-humidity conditions, with cooling condensation methods achieving yields of 2 to 20 liters of water per day per unit, depending on air humidity and device scale, making them viable for off-grid applications in deserts or remote areas.^[73] Thermoelectric AWGs typically operate at specific yields of 1-4 liters per kilowatt-hour, balancing energy input with potable water output for sustainable supply.^[74] In desalination processes, multi-effect distillation (MED) relies on sequential condensation stages to produce fresh water from seawater efficiently. MED systems involve multiple evaporation effects where vapor from one stage condenses in the next, transferring latent heat to evaporate more saline water at progressively lower temperatures, often below 70°C to minimize scaling.^[75] This cascading condensation enhances energy utilization, with each effect reusing the heat from the previous vapor condensation, achieving gain ratios (distillate produced per unit of steam input) of 8 to 12 in commercial plants.^[76] The process integrates well with power generation, as low-grade waste heat from turbines drives the evaporation-condensation cycles, supporting large-scale water production in coastal regions. Nanotechnology leverages condensation in aerosol synthesis routes to fabricate uniform nanoparticles with controlled properties. In gas-phase aerosol processes, precursor vapors are heated and then rapidly cooled, promoting nucleation and condensation to form nanoscale clusters that grow into particles, often in the 1-100 nm range.^[77] For core-shell nanoparticles, thermal evaporation followed by controlled condensation allows vapor deposition of shell materials onto core aerosols, enabling tailored compositions like high-entropy alloys through droplet-mediated mixing.^[78] This method ensures high purity and scalability, as seen in techniques where condensational growth produces monodisperse particles for applications in catalysis and electronics.^[79] Recent innovations in the 2020s have advanced membrane-based condensers for enhanced energy efficiency in cooling systems. These devices use selective membranes to facilitate vapor condensation while separating non-condensable gases, reducing fouling and improving heat transfer in compact designs suitable for data centers and HVAC.^[80] For instance, graphene-enhanced membranes optimize dehumidification and condensation processes in air conditioning, enabling low-energy cooling without bulk liquid handling and potentially curbing energy demands by up to 50% compared to traditional systems.^[81] Fiber membrane evaporative coolers passively condense moisture through evaporation on one side and heat rejection on the other, as demonstrated in prototypes achieving record heat fluxes over 800 W/cm².^[80]

Construction and Materials

In building construction, interstitial condensation occurs when water vapor diffuses through permeable materials in walls or roofs and condenses within the assembly layers, often due to temperature gradients in cold climates.^[82] This buildup can compromise structural integrity if not assessed, with the Glaser method—standardized in EN ISO 13788—providing a steady-state calculation to evaluate vapor diffusion resistance and predict condensation risk by comparing saturation vapor pressure across layers. The method simplifies hygrothermal analysis by assuming one-dimensional diffusion without accounting for air leakage or dynamic effects, helping designers identify potential moisture accumulation points early in the design phase.^[83] To mitigate interstitial condensation, prevention strategies emphasize controlling vapor movement and maintaining thermal continuity. Vapor barriers, such as low-permeance polyethylene sheets installed on the warm side of insulation, restrict inward or outward diffusion depending on climate zone.^[84] Insulation types like foil-faced polyisocyanurate (polyiso) boards serve dual roles as thermal barriers and vapor retarders, with the foil facing minimizing moisture ingress while providing high R-value per inch for energy-efficient envelopes.^[85] Ventilation systems, including heat recovery ventilators (HRVs), balance indoor-outdoor air exchange to reduce humidity loads without excessive heat loss, ensuring relative humidity stays below thresholds that promote condensation.^[86] Condensation's material impacts are significant, particularly in promoting corrosion of metals like steel fasteners or framing, where liquid water initiates electrochemical reactions leading to rust and weakened connections.^[87] In organic materials, sustained high relative humidity (RH) from condensation fosters mold growth, with risks escalating above 60% RH for periods exceeding 48 hours on porous surfaces like wood or drywall.^[88]^[89] These effects underscore the need for durable, moisture-resistant assemblies to extend building lifespan. Building codes have evolved to address condensation in energy-efficient designs, with the 2021 International Energy Conservation Code (IECC) incorporating requirements for continuous insulation and air barriers to minimize thermal bridging and vapor drive in high-performance envelopes.^[90] These updates promote assemblies that prevent surface and interstitial moisture accumulation, aligning with broader goals of reducing energy use while enhancing durability. For sustainable advancements, aerogels—ultralight silica-based insulators—offer superior thermal performance (R-values up to 10 per inch) and vapor permeability control, reducing condensation risk in retrofits and green buildings through their nanoporous structure that limits heat transfer without trapping moisture.^[91]^[92]

Biological Contexts

Role in Living Systems

In living systems, condensation manifests through liquid-liquid phase separation (LLPS), a process where biomolecules such as proteins and RNAs spontaneously form dense, membraneless compartments known as biomolecular condensates. These condensates arise from multivalent, weak interactions that drive phase separation without requiring energy input beyond thermodynamic favorability, enabling dynamic organization of cellular processes.^[93] For instance, the nucleolus functions as a prominent biomolecular condensate, assembled via protein-RNA interactions that concentrate ribosomal components for ribosome biogenesis.^[94] Such structures lack lipid membranes, allowing rapid exchange of molecules and adaptability to cellular needs. Physiological water condensation occurs in respiratory systems, where exhaled air, saturated with water vapor from the lungs, cools upon leaving the body, leading to condensation along the airways and recovery of moisture to maintain hydration. In mammalian lungs, significant water vapor condensation occurs during expiration, with approximately 40% of the water added during inspiration being condensed back in the airways at rest, aiding in moisture recovery.^[95] Similarly, in plants, guttation represents a form of water release driven by positive xylem pressure from root uptake, resulting in liquid droplets exuding from leaf hydathodes, particularly under high soil moisture and low transpiration rates at night. This pressure-induced exudation, akin to a biological pressure relief, prevents tissue rupture and recycles water within the plant system.^[96] Enzymatic condensation plays a critical role in cellular division, exemplified by condensins, which are ATP-dependent protein complexes that mediate chromosome compaction during mitosis. Condensins form ring-like structures that bridge and loop DNA, progressively shortening and stiffening chromatin into compact mitotic chromosomes, essential for accurate segregation.^[97] Condensin II initiates axial rigidity in prophase, while condensin I refines compaction in prometaphase, ensuring structural integrity without topoisomerase activity in some models.^[98] Aberrant condensation contributes to pathology, particularly in neurodegenerative diseases like amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), where TDP-43 protein undergoes dysfunctional LLPS, forming persistent aggregates that disrupt RNA processing. In ALS, TDP-43 mislocalizes to the cytoplasm, where low-complexity domains drive liquid-like droplets that mature into solid inclusions, sequestering essential cellular components and promoting neuronal death.^[99] These pathological condensates, observed in over 95% of ALS cases, highlight how LLPS dysregulation shifts from functional organization to toxicity.^[100] The understanding of these processes advanced significantly in the 2010s, with seminal studies revealing membraneless organelles as widespread LLPS-driven entities, expanding from early observations of P granules in 2009 to comprehensive models of nuclear condensates by 2017. Research in the 2020s has further expanded LLPS applications, including its role in super-enhancer-driven oncogenesis and development of small-molecule regulators for phase separation in disease contexts.^[93]^[101] This era's research, including optogenetic tools and in vitro assays, established LLPS as a core mechanism for spatiotemporal control in biology.^[102]

Adaptations and Implications

Plants have evolved various mechanisms to manage condensation, balancing water conservation with the risks posed by excess moisture, such as rot and fungal infections. This adaptive response is particularly evident in crops like cucurbits, where heavy dew combined with warm temperatures promotes bacterial and fungal decay.^[103] In arid environments, desert plants such as cacti employ specialized trichomes on spines and pads to capture and absorb dew, channeling water droplets toward the plant base for root uptake and storage, thereby enhancing survival in low-precipitation regions.^[104] For instance, the glochids of Opuntia stricta facilitate dew harvesting through their microstructure, allowing coalescence and absorption at the trichome base.^[105] Animals exhibit analogous strategies to either repel or exploit condensate, often through surface modifications that influence water interaction. Insect exoskeletons frequently feature hydrophobic coatings derived from cuticular hydrocarbons, mimicking the lotus effect to promote rapid shedding of water droplets and prevent submersion or microbial adhesion in humid conditions.^[106] This superhydrophobicity, observed in species like drain flies, enables survival in perpetually wet environments by minimizing wetting and facilitating self-cleaning.^[107] Conversely, some amphibians, such as tree frogs (Litoria caerulea), actively utilize condensation for hydration; their permeable skin allows direct water uptake from dew forming on cooler body surfaces during nocturnal activity, compensating for limited free water availability in dry seasons. This passive collection mechanism is crucial in tropical habitats where frogs cool below ambient dew point temperatures, promoting condensate formation and absorption. Microbial communities in biofilms depend on available moisture to prevent desiccation and sustain quorum sensing, a density-dependent communication process essential for coordinated behaviors like virulence and matrix production. This moisture-dependent process enhances biofilm stability and resilience in fluctuating wet-dry cycles, as seen in built and natural interfaces.^[108]^[109] Ecologically, condensation via dew plays a pivotal role in nutrient cycling, particularly in forests where it dissolves atmospheric ions and deposits them onto foliage and soil, augmenting throughfall inputs and supporting microbial decomposition.^[110] In such systems, seasonal dew formation contributes to base cation and nitrogen recycling, influencing soil fertility and plant growth in nutrient-limited stands. However, excess condensation in humid conditions can exacerbate disease spread by mobilizing fungal spores; jumping-droplet condensation on infected leaves ejects pathogens like Fusarium graminearum, creating secondary infection foci and amplifying epidemics in crops and wild plants.^[111] Recent studies highlight implications for biodiversity under climate change, where altered condensation patterns—driven by shifting humidity and temperature regimes—disrupt moisture-dependent ecosystems. In the 2020s, research indicates that increased vapor pressure deficits in some regions reduce dew formation, stressing dew-reliant species and contributing to habitat loss, while heightened humidity elsewhere promotes pathogen proliferation, leading to biodiversity declines in forests and arid zones.^[112] These changes, as documented in IPCC assessments, underscore vulnerabilities in moisture-sensitive biomes, with potential cascading effects on species interactions and ecosystem services.^[112]

References

[1]
Physical Equilibria - Chemistry 302
The reverse transition of a gas going to a liquid is condensation. Since condensation is simply the reverse of vaporization, the changes in enthalpy and entropy ...
[2]
Condensation and the Water Cycle | U.S. Geological Survey
Condensation is the process by which water vapor in the air is changed into liquid water; it's the opposite of evaporation. Condensation is crucial to the water ...Missing: phase | Show results with:phase
[3]
Evaporation Rates, Condensation Rates, and Relative Humidity
"Net" condensation means that the condensation rate exceeds the evaporation rate causing liquid water droplets to form.
[4]
Condensation - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Condensation defines as a procedure through which a change of phase occurs from the vapour state to the liquid when the vapour temperature decreases below its ...
[5]
CH103 - Chapter 7: Chemical Reactions in Biological Systems
Since water is also a by-product of these reactions, they are also commonly referred to as condensation reactions. As we have seen in Chapter 6, the formation ...
[6]
Lesson 2.3: Changing State—Condensation
Jul 19, 2024 · Condensation is the process in which molecules of a gas slow down, come together, and form a liquid. · When gas molecules transfer their energy ...Missing: physics | Show results with:physics
[7]
Robert Boyle's landmark book of 1660 with the first experiments on ...
Jan 1, 2005 · Boyle reported 43 separate experiments, which can conveniently be divided into 7 groups. The first experiments were on the “spring of the air,” ...
[8]
Pumped Up | Science History Institute
Jul 18, 2014 · In the mid-17th century Robert Boyle, with the help of Robert Hooke, set about building an air pump and with it a whole system of experimental natural ...Missing: condensation vapor
[9]
Saturated Vapor Pressure - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Saturated vapor pressure is the pressure of vapor molecules when evaporation equals condensation, indicating saturated vapor. It's the point of equilibrium ...
[10]
Clapeyron Equation - SERC (Carleton)
Aug 10, 2007 · The Clapeyron equation (also called the Clausius-Clapeyron equation) relates the slope of a reaction line on a phase diagram to fundamental thermodynamic ...
[11]
5.9 An Unusual Way to Make Precipitation in Mixed-Phase Clouds
Recall from Lesson 4 that the vapor pressure over supercooled liquid water is greater than the vapor pressure over ice at the same temperature.
[12]
Vapor Pressure
As the temperature of a liquid or solid increases its vapor pressure also increases. Conversely, vapor pressure decreases as the temperature decreases. The ...
[13]
Overview: Homogeneous nucleation from the vapor phase—The ...
Sep 21, 2016 · In the classical model, clusters of the new phase are viewed as stationary droplets whose free energy is the sum of volume and surface ...
[14]
[PDF] Lecture 12: Heterogeneous Nucleation: a surface catalyzed process
Heterogeneous nucleation occurs much more often than homogeneous nucleation. Heterogeneous nucleation applies to the phase transformation between any two phases ...
[15]
[PDF] Homogeneous Nucleation of Vapor Condensation. I ...
Homogeneous nucleation is a phase transition from vapor to liquid without foreign bodies, blocked by an activation-free-energy barrier.
[16]
[PDF] Factors influencing the contribution of ion-induced nucleation ... - ACP
Apr 21, 2010 · The direct effect is due to scattering and ab- sorption of solar radiation by atmospheric aerosol particles. (e.g. Myhre et al., 2009) whereas ...Missing: supersaturation | Show results with:supersaturation
[17]
The Collision and Coalescence Process!
As the cloud droplets experience millions of collisions, they sometimes join together (or coalesce) and form larger cloud droplets. The larger cloud droplets ...
[18]
Cloud Droplet Size Distributions Governed by Condensation ...
The purpose of this paper is to further explore the factors contributing to collision–coalescence growth and its influence on the droplet size distribution.B. Steady-State Solution · 4) Dimensionless Drizzle... · 6. DiscussionMissing: gravity Brownian
[19]
Evaporation/Condensation Process - an overview - ScienceDirect.com
The condensation–evaporation process is characterized by a one-to-one correspondence and is reversible depending linearly on changes in RH. In the intermediate ...
[20]
Water Vapor Adsorption–Desorption Hysteresis Due to Clustering of ...
Sep 12, 2024 · Evaporation from the filled pores does not take place reversibly but requires a lower saturation ratio S than for condensation, hence a ...
[21]
Young Equation - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Young's equation is defined as a model that describes the equilibrium of surface tensions acting on a stable droplet on a smooth, rigid surface, relating the ...
[22]
How the change of contact angle occurs for an evaporating droplet
Aug 7, 2025 · These results indicate that the submicron-sized impurities cause the decrease in contact angle. Also, we found that a number of attached thin ...
[23]
Non-equilibrium Thermodynamics for Evaporation and Condensation
Non-equilibrium thermodynamics gives dynamic boundary conditions for transport of heat and mass into and through surfaces far from reversible conditions.
[24]
DEW AND FROST DEVELOPMENT
Warm and moist soils will help with the formation of dew as the soil cools overnight. The cooling of warm and moist soil during the night will cause ...
[25]
Lecture 15: Condensation: Dew, Fog, and Clouds
Dew is more likely to form on nights that are clear and calm than on nights that are cloudy and windy. This is because clear nights allow objects near the ...Missing: overnight climates
[26]
[PDF] The Importance of Understanding Clouds
When a parcel cools to its dew point, cloud droplets begin form- ing as the excess water vapor condenses on the largest aerosol particles. As the parcel keeps ...
[27]
Aerosols and Their Importance | Earth - NASA
Aerosols are largely responsible for the creation of clouds by acting as cloud condensation 'nuclei, or a sort of foundation for clouds to accumulate water on.
[28]
A review on factors influencing fog formation, classification ...
The formation of fog droplets requires aerosol, humidity, and cooling. Aerosols present in the atmosphere act as CCN; their size and chemical property influence ...
[29]
CLOUD DEVELOPMENT
Dust is needed for condensation nuclei, sites on which water vapor may condense or deposit as a liquid or solid. Certain types and shapes of dust and salt ...Missing: global annual
[30]
Volume of Earth's Annual Precipitation - The Physics Factbook
"Because 1000 mm = 1 m, the total volume is (1 m) × (5.1 × 1014 m2), which is 5.1 × 1014 m3." 5.1 × 1014 m3. Precipitation is the product of any condensation ...Missing: 5.05 × | Show results with:5.05 ×
[31]
https://www.weather.gov/source/zhu/ZHU_Training_Page/fog_stuff/Dew_Frost/Dew_Frost.htm
[32]
The Orographic Effect | EARTH 111: Water: Science and Society
The orographic effect occurs when air masses are forced to flow over high topography. As air rises over mountains, it cools and water vapor condenses. As a ...Missing: factors influencing
[33]
[PDF] Near-surface warming reduces dew frequency in China - OSTI
Compared with the 1960s, the mean dew frequency in the 2000s 133 decreased, respectively, from 82.8 to 59.6, 49.9 to 29.7, and 31.6 to 15.7 days yr-1, or 134 ...
[34]
Crude Oil Refining | EBF 301 - Dutton Institute
This involves heating crude oil to about 350 degrees Celsius, to turn it into a mixture of gases. These are piped into a tall cylinder, known as a fractional ...
[35]
Cloud Chamber | Harvard Natural Sciences Lecture Demonstrations
When charged particles ionize a supersaturated vapor, a trail of ions is left in the path of the particles. The ions act as condensation nuclei (for the alcohol ...
[36]
CVD | Applied Materials
CVD is a process in which a substrate is exposed to one or more volatile precursors that react or decompose on the substrate surface to produce the desired ...
[37]
Chemical Vapor Deposition Physics - MKS Instruments
Any process in which a thin solid film is formed on a substrate by the surface-mediated reaction of adsorbed precursors from the gas phase.
[38]
[PDF] Carbon Capture Technology Compendium 2020
Jul 31, 2020 · ... Post-Combustion Solvent Technologies ... DOE/NETL is evaluating various post-combustion novel concepts for large-scale CO2 capture or compression.
[39]
Full article: Heterogeneous condensation process observed by ...
Condensation mechanisms. In Part 3.3, it is clearly found that the growth rate of the droplet decreases with the increase of the droplet size. When the droplet ...2.2. Experimental Apparatus · 4. Theoretical Analysis · 4.2. Condensation Mechanisms
[40]
New microscope technique reveals details of droplet nucleation
Dec 2, 2020 · The initiation of droplet and bubble formation on surfaces can now be directly imaged, allowing for design of more efficient condensers and boilers.
[41]
Drop size measurement techniques for sprays: Comparison of ...
Jan 6, 2021 · For the laser diffraction technique, we use a Malvern Spraytec with a 750 mm lens that can detect droplets from 2 μm to 2000 μm. The Spraytec ...INTRODUCTION · Liquids · Measurement and analysis... · Laser diffraction vs...
[42]
Chilled Mirror Hygrometer Technology, a Fundamental First ...
Dew points above ambient can be measured by heating the chilled mirror and associated components. Chilled mirrors can be, and are, constructed as an insertion ...
[43]
Chilled Mirror Dew Point Hygrometers | SHINYEI Technology
Optical condensation hygrometry is a precise technique for determining the water vapor content is gases by directly measuring dew point or frost temperatures.
[44]
Humidity Academy Theory 6: How Capacitive Sensors Measure ...
The capacitive humidity sensor consists of a hygroscopic dielectric material placed between a pair of electrodes that forms a small capacitor.
[45]
Fundamentals of Monitoring Condensation and Frost/Ice Formation ...
Fundamentals of monitoring condensation and frost/ice formation in cold environments using thin-film surface-acoustic-wave technology.
[46]
Influence of ultrasonic power on condensation heat transfer ...
This paper studied the effect of ultrasound on distribution characteristics of condensate droplets on a vertical metal surface.<|separator|>
[47]
The History of the Hygrometer - ThoughtCo
Feb 20, 2019 · Leonardo da Vinci built the first hygrometer in the 1400s. Francesco Folli made a more practical one in 1664. Saussure used human hair in 1783. ...<|separator|>
[48]
What is a Psychrometer and How to Use One - Parameter
Aug 17, 2023 · Digital Psychrometers use electronic sensors to measure both temperatures and humidity directly. These devices provide a digital readout of the ...
[49]
Humidity Calibration Services at NIST
Aug 28, 2015 · Humidity calibration services at NIST are performed with its primary standard humidity generator, the Hybrid Humidity Generator (HHG).Missing: condensation | Show results with:condensation
[50]
[PDF] Calibration of Hygrometers with the Hybrid Humidity Generator
The NIST Hybrid Humidity Generator (HHG) generates frost/dew points from –70 °C to +85 °C using two-pressure and divided-flow techniques.
[51]
[PDF] Equations for the determination of humidity from dewpoint ... - CORE
This is known as Magnus' formula. Equation (9) is the basis for the expressions developed herein for absolute humidity , relative humidity, and vapor ...
[52]
[PDF] Application Note Dew-point Calculation
Dew-point is calculated using relative humidity and temperature. A simple program uses equation (3) to calculate it. Example: 10% RH, 25°C = -8.77°C dew point.
[53]
[PDF] Dewpoint and Vapor Pressure Deficit Equations
Dew point temperature is Tdew = (237.3*X) / (17.269-X), where X=ln(Rh/100)+((17.269*Tair)/(237.3+Tair)), and Tair is air temperature. Vapor Pressure Deficit = ...
[54]
[PDF] Evaporation & Condensation at a Liquid/Vapor Interface
The Schrage equation [12, p. 27] (Hertz-Knudsen-Schrage equation) estimates the evaporation/condensation mass flux and is derived solely from statistical ...
[55]
Evaporation into vacuum: Mass flux from momentum flux and the ...
Feb 20, 2009 · The classical Hertz–Knudsen equation is based on the computation of the mass flux ... On the negative mass flows in evaporation and condensation ...
[56]
Coefficient of Performance (COP) heat pumps - Grundfos
When calculating the COP for a heat pump, the heat output from the condenser (Q) is compared to the power supplied to the compressor (W). COP = |Q| W. COP is ...Missing: contexts | Show results with:contexts
[57]
COP calculation and monitoring in HVAC applications
Apr 13, 2016 · The COP is defined by the ratio heat dissipation and electrical power intake. It's like the efficiency of the machine, but higher than 100%.Missing: contexts | Show results with:contexts<|separator|>
[58]
Uncertainty analysis of condensation heat transfer benchmark using ...
Six sources of uncertainty were considered here, including the inlet velocity/temperature/turbulent intensity, outlet pressure and condensation heat transfer ...
[59]
A Monte Carlo Approach to Uncertainty Analysis for Measurements ...
Jul 14, 2025 · These results are then used to assess the uncertainty in the outer tube wall temperature and wall surface temperature gradient, and the ...
[60]
CR1000X: Measurement and Control Datalogger - Campbell Scientific
The CR1000X world-class, accurate, rugged, and reliable environmental datalogger is an ideal choice for applications requiring between four and 10 sensors.
[61]
Kaye ValProbe RT (Real Time-RF) - Wireless Data Logger Product ...
Rating 5.0 (1) Kaye ValProbe RT (Real-Time) is a cutting-edge wireless thermal validation system tailored to meet the thermal validation and regulatory requirements.
[62]
Understanding the Role of Steam Condensers in Power Generation
Rating 4.5 (98) Feb 7, 2024 · Steam condensers transform steam to liquid, enabling reuse, creating a vacuum for efficient energy extraction, and improving thermal efficiency ...
[63]
Enhanced Condenser Tube Designs Improve Plant Performance
Apr 1, 2010 · Enhanced condenser tube designs can significantly improve the heat rate and performance of fossil and nuclear plants.
[64]
Achieving near-water-cooled power plant performance with air ...
Jul 25, 2016 · Power plants using air-cooled condensers suffer a 5–10% plant-level efficiency penalty compared to plants with once-through cooling systems or wet cooling ...
[65]
Sustainable Atmospheric Water Generator for Hydroponic Farming
A thermoelectric cooling system may be used to extract water from the atmosphere. Heat pumps based on the thermoelectric (Peltier) effect are referred to as " ...
[66]
[PDF] 4684-Article Text-26704-1-2-20230518.docx
Among the various types of AWG systems, cooling condensation systems have the highest water yield, ranging from 2 to 20 liters per day. These systems use a.Missing: Peltier | Show results with:Peltier
[67]
https://www.campbellsci.com/cr1000x
[68]
Multiple Effect Distillation (MED) - Veolia Water Technologies
A Multi Effect Desalination MED unit is an evaporator where sea water is evaporated in one or more ( up to 14 ) evaporation stages at low temperature (< 70°C )
[69]
Multiple Effect Distillation - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Multiple Effect Distillation (MED) is a desalination method using heat and electricity to produce potable water through multiple stages of evaporation and ...
[70]
Design of Nanomaterial Synthesis by Aerosol Processes - PMC
This review provides an access point for engineers to the multiscale design of aerosol reactors for the synthesis of nanomaterials.
[71]
A thermal evaporator for aerosol core-shell nanoparticle synthesis
A thermal evaporator was designed for aerosol core-shell nanoparticles generation. A model with evaporator residence time was used to analyze the condensation.
[72]
[PDF] Aerosol Synthesis of High Entropy Alloy Nanoparticles
Dec 9, 2020 · Here, we report an aerosol droplet-mediated technique toward scalable synthesis of HEA nanoparticles with atomic-level mixing of immiscible ...
[73]
New Cooling Tech Could Curb Data Centers' Rising Energy Demands
Jun 13, 2025 · The technology features a specially engineered fiber membrane that passively removes heat through evaporation.
[74]
Graphene Membrane Technology Halves Air Conditioning Energy ...
Oct 11, 2025 · A new graphene composite membrane removes humidity without condensation, cutting the energy demand of conventional air conditioning by 50%.
[75]
https://www.veoliawatertechnologies.com/en/technologies/multiple-effect-distillation-med
[76]
Moisture control design has to respond to all relevant hygrothermal ...
Originally, the steady-state calculation method in EN ISO 13788 was developed by Glaser [23] to determine the risk of interstitial condensation in the envelope ...
[77]
[PDF] Building Moisture and Durability - HUD User
The goal was to determine whether a particular assembly was susceptible to interstitial condensation as moisture diffused from the inside to the outside.
[78]
[PDF] Moisture Resistant Homes - HUD User
The vapor barrier will prevent moisture vapor from adding to the building interior moisture load and also serve as a break to the capillary movement of moisture ...
[79]
[PDF] Guide to Insulation Sheathing - eere.energy.gov
Facings on the insulation board, such as aluminum foil, will slow this process down as the diffusion can only occur out the edges of the product and not through ...
[80]
Condensation Control in Attics and Roofs in Cold Weather
Use balanced ventilation (such as an HRV- or ERV-based system) and minimize exhaust or supply-only fans. Use well-sealed ducts rather than framing cavities to ...
[81]
CBD-20. Corrosion in buildings - NRC-IRC - MIT
In cases where structural steel is exposed to water, either from rain penetration or from condensation of water vapour, corrosion does occur and may endanger ...Missing: induced | Show results with:induced
[82]
Mold Course Chapter 9: | US EPA
Dec 20, 2024 · Relative humidity greater than 60 percent is likely to result in condensation in the building, which can lead to mold growth.
[83]
[PDF] Indoor Air Quality in Commercial and Institutional Buildings - OSHA
Clean and dry any damp or wet building materials and furnishings within 24 to 48 hours after detection to prevent the growth of mold.
[84]
[PDF] Preliminary Energy Savings Analysis: 2021 IECC for Residential ...
In essence, the design building thermal envelope can be 85 percent as efficient as the 2021 IECC prescriptive envelope. Homes employing on-site renewable ...Missing: condensation | Show results with:condensation
[85]
Berkeley Lab Awarded DOE Grants for Greener Buildings
Sep 14, 2016 · Aerogel is an emerging insulation technology with low thermal conductivity—about twice as good as conventional insulation. However, because it ...Missing: condensation | Show results with:condensation
[86]
Insulating materials based on silica aerogel composites - NIH
Oct 29, 2024 · This paper focuses on the most recent advances in silica aerogel-based composite research, and indicates novel applications as insulation materials.
[87]
Liquid–liquid phase separation in human health and diseases - Nature
Aug 2, 2021 · Considerations and challenges in studying liquid-liquid phase separation and biomolecular condensates. Cell 176, 419–434 (2019). Article CAS ...
[88]
Emergent microenvironments of nucleoli - PMC - PubMed Central
Spontaneous driving forces give rise to protein-RNA condensates with coexisting phases and complex material properties. Proceedings of the National Academy ...
[89]
Water and heat exchanges in mammalian lungs | Scientific Reports
Apr 24, 2023 · Moreover, on expiration, a significant condensation of water occurs, as the dimensionless water vapor concentration at the top of the trachea ...
[90]
Guttation - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
The water under pressure may be in the xylem during root pressure conditions and guttation may enable continued supply of fluid enriched with useful organic ...
[91]
Bridging condensins mediate compaction of mitotic chromosomes
Nov 17, 2023 · We show that binding of bridging condensins leads to the formation of shorter and stiffer mitotic-like cylinders without requiring any additional energy input.
[92]
Contrasting roles of condensin I and condensin II in mitotic ...
Mar 15, 2012 · We conclude that condensin II is required primarily to provide rigidity by establishing an initial chromosome axis around which condensin I can ...
[93]
The role of liquid–liquid phase separation in aggregation of the TDP ...
These combined results strongly suggest that LLPS may play a major role in pathological TDP-43 aggregation, contributing to pathogenesis in neurodegenerative ...
[94]
Liquid-Liquid Phase Separation of TDP-43 and FUS in Physiology ...
TDP-43 and FUS are two such RNA-binding proteins that mislocalize and aggregate in patients of ALS and FTD. They have similar domain structures that provide ...Abstract · Functional Role of Phase... · Aberrant Phase Transition and...
[95]
Membraneless organelles in health and disease - Nature
Nov 18, 2024 · This review offers an overview of the discovery and current understanding of MLOs and biomolecular condensate in physiological conditions and diseases.
[96]
[PDF] CUCURBIT DISEASE - Amazon AWS
Infection and disease development are favored by high relative humidity, heavy dew formation or rainfall, combined with warm temperatures. The bacterium is.
[97]
Hydraulic Strategy of Cactus Trichome for Absorption and Storage of ...
Oct 18, 2017 · This paper proposes a new bio-inspired technique for dew collection based on information about the water management strategies of cactus.
[98]
Glochids microstructure and dew harvesting ability in Opuntia stricta ...
Tiny droplets coalesce with each other, becoming larger drops and become absorbed by trichomes at the base of glochids. This ability of dew harvesting ...
[99]
Staying Dry and Clean: An Insect's Guide to Hydrophobicity - NIH
The superhydrophobic nature of the lotus leaf is caused by the combination of hierarchical structures which trap air underneath the water droplets, as well as ...
[100]
How drain flies manage to almost never get washed away - PMC
Oct 20, 2020 · We have studied how drain flies survive in wet conditions and manage many water related threats. Like many other insects, superhydrophobicity is ...Missing: shed | Show results with:shed
[101]
1 Introduction | Microbiomes of the Built Environment
Condensation due to temperature gradients can also bring moisture to ... biofilms, quorum-sensing processes can lead to dominance by initial colonists.Missing: wet | Show results with:wet
[102]
Understanding bacterial biofilms: From definition to treatment ...
The process of bacterial biofilm formation is influenced by temperature and blood pH changes, nutrient content, quorum sensing, Brownian motion, and surface ...
[103]
Impact of seasonality and forest stand age on ion deposition in ...
This study examines the critical interaction between seasonal precipitation variability and forest maturity in determining ion deposition patterns in ...
[104]
Synergistic dispersal of plant pathogen spores by jumping ... - PNAS
Aug 20, 2021 · We showed that jumping-droplet condensation alone can liberate spores from a diseased leaf, enabling the possibility of multiple disease foci ...
[105]
[PDF] Chapter 4: Land Degradation - IPCC
May 26, 2020 · theme for current global efforts on combating land degradation, climate change and loss of biodiversity,. 13 as well as facilitating land ...