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Cyclosa

Cyclosa is a genus of orb-weaver spiders in the family Araneidae, commonly known as trashline orbweavers, first described by German arachnologist Anton Menge in 1866 with the type species Aranea conica Pallas, 1772.^[1]^[2] The genus encompasses 180 accepted species worldwide, characterized by their construction of relatively small orb webs featuring a prominent stabilimentum—a web decoration often consisting of a vertical or zigzag line of silk combined with debris such as prey remains, egg sacs, and plant matter, colloquially termed a "trashline."^[3]^[4]^[5] These spiders exhibit a pantropical distribution with extensions into temperate zones, occurring across North America, Europe, Asia, Africa, Australia, and South America, and some species have been introduced to regions like South Africa and Hawaii.^[1]^[6] Morphologically, Cyclosa species typically possess a distinctive humped or conical abdomen, with females generally larger (body length 5–20 mm) than males, and many displaying patterned coloration for camouflage among foliage.^[7]^[5] The trashline stabilimentum serves multiple hypothesized functions, including visual signaling to birds to avoid the web, attraction of insect prey, or even mimicry of predators in certain species, as evidenced by recent studies on Cyclosa from Peru and the Philippines where debris arrangements resemble larger spiders.^[4]^[8] Notable species include Cyclosa conica, widespread in the Palearctic and introduced elsewhere, and Cyclosa turbinata, common in the Americas, both exemplifying the genus's web-building behavior and ecological role as predators of flying insects.^[7]

Taxonomy and etymology

Historical description

The genus Cyclosa was first described by the German arachnologist Anton Menge in 1866, drawing on extant spiders collected from European localities, particularly in Prussia.^[9] This initial characterization highlighted the distinctive orb-weaving habits and morphological features of the group within the orb-weaver spiders, marking an early effort to delineate it from broader categories of araneid taxa.^[1] Menge's work, published in the Schriften der Naturforschenden Gesellschaft in Danzig, laid the foundational taxonomy for the genus amid the 19th-century surge in arachnological studies of regional and fossil faunas. The type species for Cyclosa is Aranea conica Pallas, 1772, which Menge subsequently placed in the new genus, with later synonymy under Epeira conica reflecting transitional classifications in early arachnology.^[10] This designation by monotypy underscored the conical abdominal form and web-building traits central to the genus's identity.^[11] Cyclosa belongs to the family Araneidae, a placement consistent since its inception.^[1] The etymology of Cyclosa derives from the Greek words kyklos (circle) and ao (to move), alluding to the circular motion employed by these orb-weavers in spinning their characteristic radial webs.^[2] During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, taxonomic revisions by prominent arachnologists such as Tamerlan Thorell and Eugène Simon refined the genus's boundaries, distinguishing it from the more inclusive Epeira through detailed morphological and distributional analyses. Thorell's 1870 contributions, for instance, addressed species placements like C. conica, while Simon's comprehensive catalogs in the 1880s and 1890s solidified Cyclosa as a coherent entity amid ongoing synonymies and regional descriptions.^[12]

Classification within Araneidae

Cyclosa is classified within the family Araneidae, commonly known as orb-weaver spiders, and is placed in the subfamily Araneinae.^[13] This subfamily encompasses genera characterized by typical orb web construction and shared morphological features such as the arrangement of spinnerets and chelicerae.^[14] Phylogenetic analyses, including molecular studies from the 2010s, have positioned Cyclosa within a clade that includes genera like Araneus and Neoscona, supported by shared traits such as orb web building and genitalic structures.^[15]^[13] A 2019 multilocus phylogeny confirmed Araneidae as monophyletic, with Cyclosa emerging as basal within Araneinae relative to Araneus and Neoscona, based on analyses of five genes across 158 taxa.^[14] Earlier cladistic work in 1997 further delineated Araneinae as one of two major clades in Araneidae, emphasizing evolutionary relationships tied to web architecture.^[15] The genus Cyclosa, established by Menge in 1866 with Aranea conica as the type species, currently comprises 180 valid species (as of November 2025) according to the World Spider Catalog, which resolves synonyms such as Parazygia Caporiacco, 1955, and Turckheimia O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1889, as junior synonyms of Cyclosa.^[1] Recent taxonomic updates include descriptions of new species from Asia, notably several from Xishuangbanna, Yunnan Province, China, published in late 2024 (Mi et al., 2024), and Cyclosa alba from Japan (Suzuki et al., 2025), expanding the genus's diversity in tropical regions.^[16]^[1] These additions highlight ongoing refinements in Araneidae classification through field collections and morphological analyses.^[1]

Morphology and identification

Adult morphology

Adult Cyclosa spiders display characteristic orb-weaver morphology, characterized by a compact body structure adapted for web-building. Females are typically larger than males, with body lengths ranging from 3 to 15 mm, while males measure 2 to 10 mm; both sexes feature a globular abdomen and relatively slender legs suited for navigating orb webs.^[17]^[18] The cephalothorax is broader than long, convex in profile, and marked by a distinct U-shaped cervical groove separating the narrow cephalic region from the wider thoracic area; it bears eight eyes arranged in two recurved rows, with the posterior median eyes closely spaced, and small, porrect chelicerae equipped with a few teeth on the promargin and retromargin.^[17] The abdomen is often humpbacked or conical, extending posteriorly and covered in fine hairs that contribute to its textured appearance; spinnerets are prominent and ventrally positioned, facilitating silk production for web construction and decorations.^[18]^[17] Coloration across the genus is predominantly cryptic, featuring shades of brown, gray, or silvery hues that blend with foliage, often accented by banded patterns on the legs; select species exhibit silver-white patches on the abdomen, enhancing camouflage against predators.^[17] Sexual dimorphism is pronounced, with females possessing a larger body size and a well-developed epigyne for egg-laying, whereas males have relatively enlarged pedipalps modified as sperm transfer organs, along with a more compact overall form.^[17] The prominent spinnerets underscore their role in producing the silk used for both orb webs and associated stabilimenta.^[19]

Variations among species

Cyclosa species exhibit considerable morphological diversity, particularly in body size and abdominal shape, which are key for taxonomic identification. For instance, Cyclosa turbinata females measure 3.3–5.2 mm in total length, featuring a bulbous abdomen with two prominent forward-facing dorsal humps near the anterior end, while males are smaller at 2.1–3.2 mm and lack these humps but display a variable posterior lobe.^[20] In contrast, Cyclosa bifida has a more elongated, cylindrical abdomen ending in an upward-pulled hump, with females reaching 10–15 mm in total length, including a cephalothorax of about 2.5–3 mm and abdomen of 8–12 mm.^[18] These variations in abdominal contour—from humped and bulbous to slender and tapered—reflect adaptations for camouflage and are prevalent across the genus, aiding species delineation in regional faunas.^[17] Coloration and patterning further highlight interspecies differences, often enhancing crypsis in natural habitats. Cyclosa longicauda possesses an exceptionally elongated abdomen that mimics twigs or debris, with a mottled brown pattern that blends into surrounding vegetation.^[21] Similarly, Cyclosa argenteoalba displays a distinctive silvery dorsum with black markings, conferring a metallic sheen that contrasts with the more subdued, variegated brown-and-white patterns seen in C. turbinata females.^[17] Such diversity in abdominal patterning, from twig-like elongation to reflective silver tones, underscores the genus's evolutionary divergence in visual deception strategies.^[22] Leg morphology varies notably in banding and coloration, contributing to identification challenges. In C. turbinata males, legs are orange with a single wide black band on the front pair, while females show less pronounced striping; C. bifida legs are moderately long, yellow with alternating brownish-black bands, and covered in silvery hairs and spines.^[20]^[18] Tropical species like C. bifida often exhibit more vibrant banding compared to temperate counterparts, though overall patterns range from plain to heavily striped across the genus.^[18] At the microscopic level, genital structures provide the most reliable diagnostic traits for distinguishing Cyclosa species. Female epigynes differ in scape width and shape—for example, the scape in C. argenteoalba is as broad as the epigyne itself, whereas in C. octotuberculata (a close relative) it is slender and wrinkled.^[17] Male palpal bulbs show variation in embolus morphology, such as the long, thin, and rostriform embolus in C. octotuberculata versus twisted forms in other congeners, enabling precise taxonomic separation.^[17]^[23] These subtle differences in epigyne and embolus configuration are critical for resolving cryptic species complexes within the genus.^[24]

Distribution and ecology

Worldwide distribution

The genus Cyclosa is native to all continents except Antarctica, with its global presence spanning diverse biogeographic realms including the Palearctic, Nearctic, Neotropical, Afrotropical, Indomalayan, and Australasian regions.^[1] The highest species diversity is concentrated in tropical areas, particularly in Asia, the Americas, and Africa, reflecting a pan-tropical distribution pattern.^[4] Asia serves as a hotspot for the genus. As of 2025, the World Spider Catalog recognizes 180 valid species worldwide.^[4] A November 2025 study described the new species Cyclosa inca from Peru, contributing to Neotropical diversity.^[4] Several Cyclosa species have been introduced outside their native ranges through human-mediated trade routes. Notably, C. conica, originally from Eurasia, has established populations in North America, where it was likely transported via commerce.^[25] Endemism is prominent on isolated islands, such as Madagascar, home to species like C. hova.

Habitat selection

Cyclosa spiders primarily select habitats in shrublands, forests, and gardens, where they position their webs in low vegetation, typically 1-2 meters above the ground to optimize prey interception in these structured environments.^[4]^[26] Species such as Cyclosa longicauda and Cyclosa inca favor floodplain forests and secondary rainforests, often along trails or in coffee plantations, reflecting a preference for areas with moderate structural complexity and insect abundance.^[4] These spiders show notable adaptation to disturbed habitats, thriving in urban edges, parks, yards, and agricultural fields where human activity increases prey availability through edge effects and vegetation diversity.^[27]^[28] For instance, Cyclosa conica is commonly observed on bushes and trees in damp, shady urban-adjacent woodlands, demonstrating resilience to moderate disturbance levels that enhance foraging opportunities without overwhelming web stability.^[27] Cyclosa species exhibit vertical stratification across microhabitats, with some, like Cyclosa argenteoalba, occupying open understory sites near forest floors, while others extend into canopy layers in more stratified forests, enabling coexistence from humid tropical lowlands to arid subtropical regions.^[29]^[30] This stratification supports their broad ecological tolerance, as seen in distributions spanning moist Amazonian forests to drier field edges.^[4] In areas of sympatry, multiple Cyclosa species coexist within the same habitats, such as forest edges or grasslands, by partitioning resources through differences in web height or stabilimentum decoration types, which reduce interspecific competition for prey.^[29] Studies of co-occurring species like Cyclosa octotuberculata, Cyclosa argenteoalba, and Cyclosa sedeculata highlight how such niche segregation in shared shrubland or woodland settings promotes community stability.^[29]

Behavioral traits

Web architecture and stabilimenta

Cyclosa spiders, belonging to the family Araneidae, construct small to medium-sized orb webs that are typically vertical in orientation and measure 10-30 cm in diameter. These webs feature a classic orb structure composed of non-sticky radial threads extending from a central hub and a sticky capture spiral that winds concentrically around the radials to ensnare prey. The webs are generally rebuilt daily, allowing the spiders to maintain optimal tension and stickiness for effective foraging.^[31]^[32] The construction process follows a standardized sequence observed in araneid orb weavers. It begins with the laying of frame threads to outline the web's perimeter and anchor points, followed by the attachment of radial threads from the hub outward. An auxiliary spiral of temporary non-sticky silk is then spun to provide a scaffold for the final sticky capture spiral, which replaces the auxiliary as the spider moves inward. Stabilimenta, the distinctive decorative elements, are incorporated toward the end of construction or retained from previous webs, often along the central axis.^[33]^[4] Stabilimenta in Cyclosa webs are characteristically linear arrangements, often called "trashlines," composed of prey remains, egg sacs, silk tufts, or detritus such as plant material, aligned along the hub-to-spoke axis near the center where the spider rests. These decorations vary by species and conditions; for instance, in Cyclosa insulana, linear stabilimenta measure about 2.25 mm in length and incorporate debris like insect exuviae, while circular silk variants may form semicircles across radials in windy environments. In some species like Cyclosa ginnaga, discoid silk stabilimenta mimic bird droppings in appearance, with sizes around 0.63 cm² and spectral properties that blend the spider's silver body with the web decoration.^[34]^[35] The functions of these stabilimenta are multifaceted and context-dependent. They often provide camouflage by concealing the spider amid debris, reducing predation risk through masquerade as unpalatable bird droppings or larger threats, as seen in species where decorations resemble bigger spiders. Additionally, silk-based stabilimenta reflect ultraviolet (UV) light more intensely than other web silks, potentially attracting UV-sensitive prey like flies to the web. Some forms, such as circular stabilimenta in exposed sites, reinforce web integrity against wind, acting as mechanical supports rather than visual signals. Evidence from field studies shows decorated webs capture more insects in certain contexts, though the balance between attraction and defense remains debated across species.^[35]^[4]^[36]^[34]^[37]

Predation strategies

Cyclosa spiders employ a sit-and-wait predation strategy, relying on their orb webs to intercept flying insects. Prey detection occurs primarily through mechanoreceptors on the spider's legs, which sense vibrations generated by struggling insects entangled in the web's sticky spiral threads. In species such as Cyclosa octotuberculata, spiders enhance detection efficiency by adjusting radial thread tension, pulling vertical radii more strongly (mean displacement 3.11 mm) than horizontal ones (2.63 mm), thereby focusing sensory attention on vertical web sectors where prey retention is higher due to gravity.^[38] The typical diet consists of small flying insects, predominantly Diptera (flies, comprising up to 79% of interceptions in Cyclosa confusa), along with Lepidoptera (moths) and Coleoptera (beetles).^[39] Upon detecting vibrations, the spider rapidly orients toward the prey by plucking web radii to pinpoint its location and rushes from its nearby retreat to the capture site. If the web's adhesive properties retain the insect long enough—typically seconds to minutes—the spider bites the prey, injecting paralytic venom via its chelicerae to immobilize it. This process is highly efficient, with C. octotuberculata achieving successful captures in 92 out of 175 observed interceptions (approximately 53%), particularly in the lower web half where web area and gravitational retention favor prey entrapment.^[38]^[40] Following immobilization, the spider envelops the prey in silk for transport if necessary and injects digestive enzymes that liquefy the insect's internal tissues, allowing the spider to consume the resulting nutrient-rich fluid through its sucking mouthparts. This external digestion minimizes energy expenditure and maximizes nutrient extraction. Predation efficiency is further bolstered by strategic web placement near insect flight paths, such as forest edges or vegetation trails, where prey abundance is high; field studies indicate that such positioning can double interception rates compared to suboptimal sites.^[40]^[41]

Reproductive behaviors

Males of the genus Cyclosa typically initiate courtship by approaching the female's web and producing vibratory signals through plucking, bobbing, or jerking on guylines or a specialized mating thread, which transmits vibrations to alert the female.^[42] These signals may be accompanied by pedipalp displays, with multiple males sometimes competing by cutting rivals' guylines to disrupt their signals.^[42] In some species, such as Cyclosa argenteoalba, males construct a mating thread from which they send tapping and jerking signals to gain female acceptance.^[43] Female responses vary, ranging from indifference to approaching the male or aggressively chasing intruders, potentially leading to grappling or rejection.^[42] Sperm transfer occurs through successive insertions of the male's pedipalps, each equipped with an embolus, into the female's separate spermathecae, often requiring at least two insertions per mating bout.^[43] In Cyclosa argenteoalba, this process can culminate in female genital mutilation, where the male removes part of the female's genitalia after contralateral insertions to prevent remating, though such extreme measures are not universal across the genus.^[43] Post-mating cannibalism is rare in Cyclosa compared to other orb-weavers like Argiope, with males often escaping unharmed after brief copulations lasting seconds to minutes.^[44] Following mating, females lay eggs in silk sacs containing 50–200 eggs per sac, depending on species and conditions, such as approximately 196 eggs in Cyclosa caroli or 50–70 in Cyclosa argenteoalba.^[45] These sacs are typically attached to vegetation or incorporated into the web's trashlines or stabilimenta for camouflage among debris.^[46] Females produce multiple sacs over their reproductive period, with the first often the largest.^[45] Parental care in Cyclosa involves females guarding egg sacs by remaining nearby on the web for several weeks until hatching, protecting them from predators.^[47] Upon emergence, spiderlings disperse primarily via ballooning, using silk threads to catch wind currents.^[48] Adults have a lifespan of 1–2 years, with reproduction confined to a single season, after which females typically die post-egg-laying.^[49] Sexual dimorphism, with males smaller than females, facilitates male mobility during mate-searching while females focus on web maintenance and reproduction.^[50]

Diversity and notable species

Species count and endemism

The genus Cyclosa comprises 180 accepted species as of November 2025.^[1] Diversity within the genus is unevenly distributed across regions, with hotspots concentrated in tropical and subtropical areas. Approximately 60 species occur in Asia, particularly in countries such as India and China, while around 50 species are found in the Americas, spanning North, Central, and South America. Africa hosts about 30 species, predominantly in tropical regions, whereas Europe has comparatively low diversity with roughly 10 species, mostly in southern and Mediterranean areas.^[1]^[17] Patterns of endemism are pronounced in isolated tropical habitats, underscoring the genus's sensitivity to geographic barriers. Recent taxonomic efforts have expanded knowledge of endemism in Southeast Asia, including descriptions of new species from Yunnan Province, China, in 2024, such as Cyclosa anjing and others from Xishuangbanna.^[1]^[51] No Cyclosa species are currently assessed as globally threatened on the IUCN Red List; however, local populations face risks from habitat loss driven by deforestation, agriculture, and urbanization in tropical ranges.

Profiles of selected species

Cyclosa argenteoalba is distributed across East Asia, including Japan, Korea, China, Taiwan, and the Russian Far East.^[52] This species exhibits a distinctive dorsal abdomen with varying ratios of silver and black coloration, where individuals with more silver are often less effective at capturing prey but may benefit from reduced predation risk.^[53] It constructs orb webs featuring stabilimenta, such as linear or zigzag silk decorations, which may serve defensive functions by deterring predators.^[54] When parasitized by the ichneumonid wasp Reclinervellus nielseni, C. argenteoalba displays altered behavior, including an upward-facing posture and construction of atypical webs, linked to elevated levels of 20-hydroxyecdysone hormone.^[55] Cyclosa mulmeinensis, native to Southeast Asia including Singapore, Myanmar, and surrounding regions, is known for its antipredator decorations composed of prey remains, eggsacs, and detritus arranged in conspicuous patterns resembling spider silhouettes to deter attackers.^[56]^[57] These decoys, built from silk and debris, function as visual distractions rather than camouflage, potentially increasing survival by drawing predator attention away from the spider.^[58] The species' web decorations highlight a risky yet effective strategy in tropical habitats where predation pressure is high.^[59] Cyclosa turbinata occurs throughout North America, from the United States to Panama and the West Indies, inhabiting diverse environments like forests and shrublands.^[26] Characterized by a humped abdomen with two prominent dorsal tubercles, it constructs vertical trashlines in its orb web using prey remains, leaf fragments, and other detritus to provide effective camouflage against visual predators.^[20] These decorations not only conceal the spider but also incorporate indigestible prey parts, reducing web maintenance needs while bolstering crypsis.^[60] Cyclosa longicauda is found in the Neotropics, particularly in Peru and surrounding Amazonian regions of South America.^[6] This species features an elongated, tail-like abdomen that aids in twig mimicry, allowing it to blend seamlessly with surrounding vegetation. Its stabilimenta, constructed from silk and detritus, can reflect ultraviolet light, potentially attracting pollinating insects as prey while serving as anti-predator decoys resembling larger spiders.^[4]

References

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None
### Summary of Reproductive Behaviors in Cyclosa insulana (Araneae, Araneidae)
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[51]
Life-history variation in closely related generalist predators living in ...
Cyclosa argenteoalba showed distinguishing reproduc- tive traits: shorter time to maturation, larger reproductive effort, larger relative clutch size, decreased ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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SEXUAL CANNIBALISM, SIZE DIMORPHISM, AND COURTSHIP ...
Cyclosa caroli. 6.0. 3.0 c. 7,11. Cyclosa insulana. 6.5. 3.5 c. 11, this study ... Comparative studies ofthe courtship and mating behavior of tropical araneid ...
[53]
Description of six new genera and twenty species of the orb-weaver ...
Jan 23, 2025 · Six new genera and twenty species, including sixteen new, of the family Araneidae from Xishuangbanna, Yunnan, south-west China are described.
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Cyclosa argenteoalba - NMBE - World Spider Catalog
Jun 11, 2025 · Taxon details. Family: Araneidae / Genus: Cyclosa. Cyclosa argenteoalba Bösenberg & Strand, 1906. Rank: Species ...
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Body-colour variation in an orb-web spider and its effect on ...
Aug 7, 2025 · Cyclosa argenteoalba has silver- and black-coloured areas on its dorsal abdomen, with the ratio of these two colours varying continuously among ...
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(PDF) Do stabilimenta in orb webs attract prey or defend spiders?
Aug 9, 2025 · This study was designed to test both hypotheses simultaneously in Cyclosa argenteoalba by examining whether spiders change web decorations ...Missing: silver posture
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Proximate mechanism of behavioral manipulation of an orb-weaver ...
Feb 3, 2017 · Here, we report that Cyclosa spider species exhibiting modified behavior presented higher 20-OH-ecdysone levels than parasitized spiders ...
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Cyclosa mulmeinensis (Thorell, 1887) - NMBE - World Spider Catalog
Jul 29, 2018 · Detailed taxonomic information about the spider families.
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A risky defence by a spider using conspicuous decoys resembling ...
We investigated a conspicuous antipredator behaviour in the orb spider, Cyclosa mulmeinensis, which adds decorations composed of prey pellets and eggsacs to its ...
[60]
(PDF) Detritus decorations of an orb-weaving spider, Cyclosa ...
Aug 6, 2025 · Many species of the orb-web spider genus Cyclosa often adorn their webs with decorations of prey remains, egg sacs and/or plant detritus ...
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Detritus decorations of an orb-weaving spider, Cyclosa ...
Jun 15, 2009 · Spiders of the genus Cyclosa (Araneae: Araneidae) decorate their webs with not only silk but also prey remains, egg sacs and plant detritus ...
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Cyclosa (Trashline orbweavers) | Humboldt Life - Lost Coast Outpost
Cyclosa, also called trashline orbweavers, is a genus of orb-weaver spiders first described by Anton Menge in 1866. Widely distributed worldwide, spiders of ...