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Digestive enzyme

Digestive enzymes are specialized proteins produced by the gastrointestinal system that catalyze the hydrolysis of complex food molecules—such as carbohydrates, proteins, and fats—into simpler, absorbable nutrients like sugars, amino acids, and fatty acids, enabling efficient digestion and nutrient uptake by the body.^[1] These enzymes function as biological catalysts, accelerating breakdown reactions without being altered or consumed in the process, and are essential for maintaining metabolic health and preventing conditions like malabsorption.^[2] They are secreted in response to food intake and operate optimally under specific pH conditions in different parts of the digestive tract.^[1] Production of digestive enzymes occurs across multiple sites in the digestive system to ensure sequential breakdown of ingested food. In the mouth, salivary glands release salivary amylase (also known as ptyalin), which initiates carbohydrate digestion by cleaving starches into maltose and dextrins.^[2] The stomach lining's chief cells secrete pepsinogen, an inactive precursor activated by gastric hydrochloric acid into pepsin, the primary protease that begins protein digestion by hydrolyzing peptide bonds at an acidic pH of 1.5 to 2, converting proteins into smaller peptides.^[3] The pancreas, a key exocrine organ, produces digestive juice containing enzymes—including pancreatic amylase for carbohydrates, trypsin and other proteases for proteins, and lipase for fats—and bicarbonate, which is delivered to the small intestine through the pancreatic duct. The bicarbonate neutralizes stomach acid, enabling the enzymes to complete macronutrient digestion.^[1] Finally, the small intestine's brush border epithelium generates disaccharidases like lactase, sucrase, and maltase, which further break down sugars into monosaccharides for absorption.^[1]^[2] The functions of these enzymes are highly specific to nutrient types, ensuring comprehensive digestion: amylases (salivary and pancreatic) hydrolyze polysaccharides like starch into disaccharides, proteases (pepsin, trypsin, chymotrypsin) cleave polypeptide chains into peptides and free amino acids, and lipases degrade triglycerides into free fatty acids and monoglycerides, often aided by bile salts for emulsification.^[1] This coordinated enzymatic activity allows the body to extract energy and building blocks from food, with the pancreas contributing the majority of enzymes for small intestinal digestion.^[4] Disruptions in enzyme production or activity, such as in exocrine pancreatic insufficiency or lactose intolerance (due to lactase deficiency), can impair nutrient absorption, leading to symptoms like diarrhea, bloating, and weight loss, often requiring supplemental enzymes for management.^[1]

Overview

Definition and General Function

Digestive enzymes are specialized proteins that serve as biological catalysts, accelerating the hydrolysis of complex macromolecules in food—such as carbohydrates, proteins, and fats—into simpler, absorbable units including monosaccharides, amino acids, and fatty acids.^[5] This catalytic action enables the breakdown of these nutrients through the addition of water molecules to break chemical bonds, a process central to chemical digestion.^[6] In general, digestive enzymes facilitate the conversion of ingested food into forms that can be absorbed by the body, primarily supporting nutrient uptake in the small intestine after initial mechanical processing like chewing and gastric churning.^[5] Representative examples include amylase, which hydrolyzes starches into simpler sugars; proteases, which cleave proteins into peptides and amino acids; and lipases, which break down fats into fatty acids and monoglycerides following emulsification by bile salts.^[6] Without these enzymes, the digestion of complex foods would proceed too slowly to meet metabolic needs. The discovery of digestive enzymes dates to 1833, when French chemists Anselme Payen and Jean-François Persoz isolated diastase—an amylase—from malt extract, marking the first identification of an enzyme as an organic catalyst.^[7] At a fundamental level, these enzymes operate by lowering the activation energy barrier for hydrolysis reactions, thereby exponentially increasing the speed of bond cleavage while remaining unchanged and reusable throughout the process.^[8]

Classification by Substrate

Digestive enzymes are classified according to the type of substrate they target, reflecting their specificity in hydrolyzing complex macromolecules into simpler components for absorption. This classification groups them into categories such as carbohydrases, proteases, lipases, and nucleases, each addressing a distinct nutrient class like carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids, respectively.^[9] Amylases are carbohydrases that catalyze the hydrolysis of starches and glycogen, complex polysaccharides, into maltose (a disaccharide) and glucose (a monosaccharide). These enzymes initiate carbohydrate digestion by cleaving α-1,4-glycosidic bonds in amylose and amylopectin. Representative examples include salivary amylase, which begins starch breakdown in the oral cavity, and pancreatic amylase, which continues this process in the small intestine.^[10]^[11] Proteases, also known as peptidases, hydrolyze proteins into smaller peptides and eventually free amino acids by cleaving peptide bonds. They are subdivided into endopeptidases, which act internally on peptide chains, and exopeptidases, which remove amino acids from the chain ends. Key endopeptidases include pepsin, which targets proteins in acidic environments, and trypsin, which cleaves at lysine and arginine residues; an example of an exopeptidase is carboxypeptidase, which sequentially removes C-terminal amino acids.^[12]^[13] Lipases facilitate the breakdown of triglycerides, the primary form of dietary fats, into monoglycerides and free fatty acids through hydrolysis of ester bonds. This breakdown, which occurs after emulsification by bile salts, is essential for enabling their absorption. Examples encompass lingual lipase, active in the initial stages of fat digestion; gastric lipase, which operates in the stomach; and pancreatic lipase, the main enzyme for intestinal lipid hydrolysis.^[14]^[11]^[15] Nucleases play a minor role in routine digestion but degrade nucleic acids, such as DNA and RNA from dietary sources, into nucleotides by hydrolyzing phosphodiester bonds. Pancreatic deoxyribonuclease (DNase) targets DNA, while pancreatic ribonuclease (RNase) acts on RNA, contributing to the processing of nucleotide-rich foods.^[16] Other enzymes involved in digestion include phospholipases, which hydrolyze phospholipids into lysophospholipids and free fatty acids; pancreatic phospholipase A2 is a prominent example that cleaves the sn-2 acyl chain in phospholipids, aiding in the absorption of these membrane lipids.^[17]

Enzymes in Human Digestion

Salivary Enzymes

Salivary enzymes initiate the digestive process in the oral cavity, primarily targeting carbohydrates and, to a lesser extent, lipids, within the neutral pH environment of saliva. These enzymes are secreted by the major salivary glands—parotid, submandibular, and sublingual—which produce saliva through clusters of acinar cells. The parotid glands consist predominantly of serous acini that secrete a watery, enzyme-rich fluid, while the submandibular and sublingual glands contain a mix of serous and mucous acini, contributing to both enzymatic and lubricating functions. In humans, these glands collectively produce approximately 0.5 to 1.5 liters of saliva per day, providing the medium for initial enzymatic breakdown during mastication.^[18] The primary salivary enzyme is α-amylase, also known as ptyalin, which is synthesized and secreted by the serous acinar cells of the salivary glands. This enzyme catalyzes the hydrolysis of internal α-1,4-glycosidic bonds in starch and glycogen, breaking them down into maltose and dextrins, thereby initiating carbohydrate digestion in the mouth. Salivary amylase exhibits optimal activity at a pH of 6.7 to 7.0, aligning with the neutral pH of oral saliva, but its function ceases upon reaching the stomach, where the acidic environment (pH below 4) denatures the enzyme.^[10]^[19]^[20] Lingual lipase, secreted by the serous von Ebner's glands located beneath the tongue, plays a supplementary role in lipid digestion, particularly in infants. This enzyme hydrolyzes triglycerides into diglycerides, monoglycerides, and free fatty acids, with activity that persists in the acidic conditions of the stomach due to its stability at low pH. In newborns, where pancreatic lipase levels are low, lingual lipase is crucial for initiating the breakdown of milk fats by penetrating lipid globules.^[21]^[22]^[23] Although not primarily digestive, lysozyme in saliva contributes to oral health by exerting antibacterial effects through enzymatic degradation of bacterial cell walls. Produced by acinar cells across the salivary glands, lysozyme targets peptidoglycans in gram-positive bacteria, helping to control microbial populations in the mouth without directly participating in nutrient breakdown.^[24]^[25]

Gastric Enzymes

Gastric enzymes are primarily responsible for initiating protein digestion in the stomach's acidic environment, with pepsin serving as the main proteolytic enzyme. Secreted by chief cells in the gastric mucosa as the inactive zymogen pepsinogen, it is activated upon exposure to hydrochloric acid (HCl) produced by parietal cells, which lowers the stomach pH to approximately 1.5-3.5.^[3] This activation cleaves the inhibitory peptide from pepsinogen, forming the active pepsin, an endopeptidase that preferentially hydrolyzes internal peptide bonds in proteins, particularly those involving aromatic amino acids like phenylalanine and tyrosine.^[3] As part of the aspartic protease family, pepsin targets denatured proteins, breaking them into smaller polypeptides for further digestion downstream.^[26] In addition to pepsin, gastric lipase, also secreted by chief cells, contributes to lipid digestion by hydrolyzing short- and medium-chain triglycerides into free fatty acids and mono- or diacylglycerols.98442-7/pdf) This enzyme is stable and active at the low pH of the stomach, where it plays a more prominent role in infants, accounting for up to 10-30% of total fat hydrolysis due to the immaturity of pancreatic lipase in newborns.^[27] In infants, another enzyme, gastric renin (also known as chymosin), is secreted by chief cells to coagulate milk proteins, specifically cleaving kappa-casein to form a paracasein clot that slows gastric emptying and enhances nutrient retention for digestion.^[28] This coagulation is particularly vital for milk-based diets, improving the efficiency of pepsin and lipase action on clustered proteins and fats.^[28] The gastric environment, dominated by HCl from parietal cells, not only activates pepsin but also denatures ingested proteins, unfolding their tertiary structures to expose peptide bonds for enzymatic access.^[5] This acidic milieu (pH 1.5-3.5) inhibits carbohydrate digestion, as it inactivates salivary amylase carried over from the mouth, halting starch breakdown until the contents reach the small intestine.^[5] Overall, these enzymes and the stomach's acidity prepare proteins and lipids for subsequent processing while minimizing microbial risks through the hostile pH.^[3]

Pancreatic Enzymes

The exocrine pancreas secretes a variety of digestive enzymes into the duodenum through the pancreatic duct, primarily to facilitate the breakdown of macronutrients in the neutral environment of the small intestine. These enzymes are produced by acinar cells and released as part of pancreatic juice, an alkaline fluid rich in bicarbonate that neutralizes the acidic chyme from the stomach. The pancreas produces approximately 1-2 liters of this juice per day, depending on dietary intake and hormonal signals. Secretion is regulated by cholecystokinin (CCK), which stimulates enzyme release from acinar cells in response to fats and proteins in the duodenum, and secretin, which promotes bicarbonate secretion to maintain optimal pH for enzyme activity.^[29]^[30] Pancreatic amylase, the primary enzyme for carbohydrate digestion, is secreted in its active form by acinar cells and continues the hydrolysis of starch initiated in the mouth, cleaving α-1,4-glycosidic bonds to produce maltose and other oligosaccharides. This isoform accounts for the majority of amylase activity in the small intestine, ensuring efficient starch breakdown in the presence of bicarbonate.^[10]^[4] Proteases constitute a major class of pancreatic enzymes, secreted as inactive zymogens to prevent autodigestion of the pancreas, and activated sequentially in the duodenum. Trypsinogen is converted to active trypsin by enterokinase (enteropeptidase) on the duodenal brush border; trypsin then activates chymotrypsinogen to chymotrypsin, proelastase to elastase, and procarboxypeptidases to carboxypeptidases. Trypsin and chymotrypsin are endopeptidases that cleave peptide bonds at basic (lysine, arginine) and aromatic (tyrosine, phenylalanine, tryptophan) residues, respectively, while elastase targets small neutral amino acids like alanine, and carboxypeptidases remove terminal amino acids from the carboxyl end. These actions collectively degrade proteins into peptides and amino acids.^[4]^[5] Lipases from the pancreas target dietary fats, with pancreatic lipase being the principal enzyme that hydrolyzes triglycerides into free fatty acids and 2-monoglycerides, but it requires colipase for efficient activity on emulsified fats in the presence of bile salts, which otherwise inhibit it. Phospholipase A2 complements this by cleaving the sn-2 acyl chain from phospholipids, producing lysophospholipids and free fatty acids to aid in membrane lipid digestion. These enzymes operate at the lipid-water interface in the duodenal lumen.^[4]^[31] Nucleases in pancreatic secretions include ribonuclease (RNase) and deoxyribonuclease (DNase), which degrade RNA and DNA, respectively, into nucleotides for further absorption and recycling. RNase1, a key pancreatic ribonuclease, exemplifies evolutionary adaptation for digestive function, while DNase I is secreted to process dietary nucleic acids in the small intestine. These enzymes ensure the breakdown of nucleic acids from food sources.^[32]^[33]

Intestinal Enzymes

Intestinal enzymes, primarily embedded in the microvilli of the brush border on enterocytes in the duodenum and jejunum of the small intestine, perform the terminal stages of digestion by hydrolyzing small peptides, disaccharides, and nucleotides derived from prior luminal breakdown by pancreatic enzymes.^[34] These membrane-bound hydrolases are integral to the apical surface of epithelial cells, increasing surface area and facilitating direct nutrient release into the cytosol for immediate absorption via adjacent transporters.^[35] Their activity ensures that complex digestive products, such as oligosaccharides and oligopeptides from pancreatic secretions, are converted into absorbable monomers.^[36] Disaccharidases represent a key group of these brush border enzymes, targeting the final hydrolysis of disaccharides into monosaccharides. Maltase, part of the maltase-glucoamylase complex, cleaves maltose into two glucose molecules, while sucrase, within the sucrase-isomaltase complex, hydrolyzes sucrose into glucose and fructose; these enzymes are highly expressed along the small intestine to process starches and sugars.^[36] Lactase, a distinct β-galactosidase, breaks down lactose into glucose and galactose, predominantly active in the jejunum during early life but often reduced in adults.^[34] Deficiencies in these enzymes, such as lactase non-persistence, impair monosaccharide production and lead to osmotic issues, though detailed clinical impacts are addressed elsewhere.^[36] Peptidases in the brush border complete protein digestion by further degrading oligopeptides into free amino acids. Aminopeptidase, an exopeptidase anchored to the membrane, sequentially removes amino acids from the N-terminal end of peptides, acting on tri- and tetrapeptides from pancreatic endopeptidase action.^[37] Dipeptidase, also membrane-bound, specifically hydrolyzes dipeptides into individual amino acids, ensuring comprehensive liberation for uptake.^[38] These enzymes are abundant in the jejunal brush border, optimizing the absorption of dietary proteins by generating substrates for amino acid transporters like PEPT1.^[37] Nucleoside phosphorylase, specifically purine nucleoside phosphorylase (PNP), contributes to nucleotide catabolism by phosphorolytically cleaving purine nucleosides into purine bases and ribose-1-phosphate at the apical enterocyte surface.^[39] This enzyme, located in the brush border, processes nucleosides from dietary or pancreatic sources, facilitating base salvage and sugar release for metabolic use or absorption.^[39] Overall, these intestinal enzymes enable efficient nutrient uptake by coupling hydrolysis directly to transport mechanisms, preventing luminal accumulation of indigestible remnants.^[35]

Mechanisms and Regulation

Enzyme Activation and Inhibition

Digestive enzymes are primarily secreted in inactive precursor forms known as zymogens to prevent premature activity and potential damage to producing cells.^[3] This activation occurs through proteolytic cleavage, which removes inhibitory peptides and exposes the active site, ensuring enzymes become functional only in the appropriate digestive compartment. For instance, pepsinogen, the zymogen of pepsin secreted by gastric chief cells, undergoes partial activation in the acidic environment of the stomach due to hydrochloric acid, followed by autocatalytic cleavage by nascent pepsin molecules to yield the fully active pepsin.^[3] This process is crucial for initiating protein digestion in the gastric lumen without harming the gastric mucosa.^[40] In the pancreas, zymogens such as trypsinogen are stored in granules to avoid auto-digestion of pancreatic tissue, a risk posed by their potent proteolytic activity.^[41] Upon release into the duodenum, trypsinogen is specifically cleaved by enterokinase (also known as enteropeptidase), an enzyme on the intestinal brush border, to generate active trypsin; this initial activation step safeguards against intracellular or premature conversion.^[41] Once formed, trypsin initiates a proteolytic cascade by activating other pancreatic zymogens, including chymotrypsinogen to chymotrypsin and proelastase to elastase, thereby amplifying the digestive response to dietary proteins. This sequential activation ensures efficient breakdown of complex substrates in a controlled manner.^[42] Enzyme inhibition mechanisms complement activation to maintain homeostasis and prevent excessive proteolysis. The pancreatic secretory trypsin inhibitor (SPINK1), secreted alongside zymogens, rapidly binds to and inhibits trypsin, blocking unintended activation of other zymogens and protecting pancreatic acinar cells from autodigestion.^[43] Additionally, cholecystokinin (CCK), a hormone released in response to luminal nutrients, stimulates pancreatic enzyme secretion but participates in negative feedback regulation; as active enzymes accumulate in the intestine, they signal reduced CCK release from duodenal I-cells, thereby limiting further enzyme output to match digestive needs.^[44] For lipid digestion, pancreatic lipase requires colipase, a coenzyme that binds to the enzyme's C-terminal domain in the presence of bile salt-emulsified fats, inducing a conformational change that displaces bile salts from the substrate interface and restores lipase activity.^[45] This interaction exemplifies allosteric regulation, where colipase stabilizes the catalytically competent form of lipase without direct involvement in hydrolysis.^[46]

Environmental Factors Influencing Activity

The activity of digestive enzymes is profoundly influenced by the pH environment within the gastrointestinal tract, where each enzyme exhibits a specific optimal pH for maximal catalytic efficiency. Salivary amylase operates most effectively at a near-neutral pH of approximately 6.7, aligning with the salivary conditions in the oral cavity.^[5] In contrast, pepsin achieves peak activity at an acidic pH of around 2, which is maintained by the secretion of hydrochloric acid from gastric parietal cells.^[3] Pancreatic enzymes, including proteases like trypsin and lipases, function optimally in the slightly alkaline milieu of the duodenum at pH 7-8, a gradient established by the neutralization of gastric acid through bicarbonate ions secreted by the pancreas.^[4] Brush border enzymes in the small intestine, such as disaccharidases, display optima in the range of pH 6-7, reflecting the pH gradient along the small intestine, which ranges from about 6 in the duodenum to 7-8 in the ileum.^[47] These pH variations ensure compartmentalized digestion, preventing premature or inefficient substrate breakdown.^[5] Temperature also modulates digestive enzyme performance, with human enzymes adapted to the physiological core body temperature of 37°C for optimal reaction rates.^[47] At this temperature, molecular collisions facilitate efficient catalysis without compromising enzyme structure.^[48] However, exposure to temperatures exceeding 45°C induces denaturation, disrupting the enzyme's tertiary structure and rendering it inactive, as seen in conditions like fever or external heat stress. Substrate availability further governs enzyme activity by determining the accessibility of macromolecules for hydrolysis. Bile salts, produced by the liver, emulsify dietary lipids into smaller micelles, dramatically increasing the surface area available for pancreatic lipases to act upon triglycerides.^[49] This process is essential, as undigested lipid globules would otherwise limit lipase-substrate interactions.^[50] Peristaltic contractions in the gut enhance mixing of chyme, promoting homogeneous distribution of substrates and enzymes to sustain continuous digestion.^[51] Inorganic cofactors are critical for the structural integrity and catalytic function of select digestive enzymes. Zinc ions serve as an essential cofactor for carboxypeptidase, stabilizing the active site and enabling the cleavage of C-terminal amino acids from peptides during intestinal protein digestion.^[52] Calcium ions contribute to lipid digestion by forming insoluble salts with free fatty acids, preventing product inhibition of lipases.^[53] Deficiencies in these cofactors can impair overall digestive efficiency by reducing enzyme-substrate affinity.^[54]

Digestive Enzymes in Non-Human Organisms

In Plants

Unlike animals, plants do not possess a centralized digestive system; instead, their digestive enzymes function in localized compartments such as vacuoles and the apoplast to mobilize stored reserves during processes like seed germination, leaf senescence, and cell wall remodeling. These enzymes facilitate the breakdown of complex macromolecules into simpler forms for nutrient recycling and growth support, often in response to developmental cues or environmental stresses. For instance, in barley malting used for brewing, enzymes are activated during germination to degrade storage compounds, producing fermentable sugars essential for the process.^[55] Amylases are prominent among plant digestive enzymes, particularly in starch-rich storage organs. Alpha-amylase, synthesized in the aleurone layer of germinating cereal seeds such as rice and barley, is secreted into the endosperm where it hydrolyzes internal α-1,4-glycosidic bonds in starch, releasing maltose and dextrins that fuel early seedling growth.^[56] Beta-amylase, abundant in storage tissues like potato tubers and wheat seeds, acts as an exo-enzyme, cleaving maltose units from the non-reducing ends of starch chains, contributing to starch mobilization during dormancy release or stress responses.^[57] These enzymes align with broader amylase classifications, where alpha-amylases perform random endohydrolysis and beta-amylases yield primarily maltose. Proteases in plants primarily operate within vacuoles to degrade proteins during senescence and nutrient remobilization. Vacuolar cysteine proteases, such as those in the vacuolar processing enzyme (VPE) family, initiate the breakdown of storage proteins and damaged cellular components in senescing leaves, enabling the translocation of amino acids to growing tissues or seeds.^[58] This process is crucial for resource efficiency, as seen in tobacco and Arabidopsis where senescence-associated vacuoles accumulate and digest chloroplast proteins.^[59] Cellulases and hemicellulases, produced endogenously by plants, aid in cell wall autolysis and modification rather than bulk digestion. Plant cellulases from glycoside hydrolase family 9 (GH9) remodel cellulose microfibrils during cell expansion, fruit softening, and abscission, facilitating tissue restructuring without complete degradation.^[60] Hemicellulases, including xylanases and xyloglucanases, similarly modify hemicellulosic components like xylans and xyloglucans in the cell wall matrix, supporting growth and defense responses.^[61] Carnivorous plants, such as pitcher plants (Nepenthes), sundews (Drosera), and Venus flytraps (Dionaea), secrete digestive enzymes into specialized trap structures to break down captured insect or small animal prey, supplementing nutrient uptake in nutrient-poor soils. These enzymes include proteases (e.g., aspartic and cysteine proteases), nucleases, phosphatases, amylases, and lipases, which function in acidic fluids to hydrolyze proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids into absorbable nutrients.^[62] Lipases in plants target lipid reserves in seeds, enabling oil mobilization during germination. In oilseed species like Arabidopsis, the triacylglycerol lipase SDP1 hydrolyzes storage lipids in oil bodies, releasing fatty acids that are β-oxidized in peroxisomes to provide carbon and energy for post-germinative growth.^[63] This process is conserved across oil-rich seeds, including soybeans, where lipases like GmSDP1 regulate fatty acid composition and seedling vigor.^[64]

In Other Animals

In herbivores, particularly ruminants such as cows, the digestion of cellulose—a major component of plant cell walls—is facilitated by cellulase enzymes produced by symbiotic gut microbes rather than by the host animal itself. These microorganisms, residing in the rumen, break down complex carbohydrates into volatile fatty acids that serve as the primary energy source for the host. In symbiotic contexts, rumen microbes produce cellulases and hemicellulases to hydrolyze plant cell walls, converting recalcitrant polysaccharides like cellulose and hemicellulose into volatile fatty acids for host energy.^[65] Foregut fermenters, including ruminants, also produce amylase enzymes to hydrolyze starches, complementing the microbial degradation of fibrous materials.^[66] Carnivores display elevated activity of proteases and lipases to efficiently process protein- and fat-rich diets, with notably low or absent amylase production. For instance, cats, as obligate carnivores, lack salivary amylase, relying instead on pancreatic amylase for limited carbohydrate breakdown further along the digestive tract.^[67] This adaptation reflects their evolutionary specialization for meat-based nutrition, minimizing the need for starch-digesting enzymes.^[68] In insects, chitinases play a crucial role in digesting chitin, the polysaccharide forming their exoskeletons and peritrophic matrices in the gut, aiding in molting and nutrient absorption from chitinous diets. These enzymes, belonging to the glycoside hydrolase family 18, are secreted in the midgut and contribute to immune defense as well as structural remodeling.^[69] Termites, for example, exhibit midgut proteases that work alongside symbiotic bacteria to degrade lignocellulose, with the bacteria providing essential enzymes for cellulose hydrolysis while host proteases target proteins in the wood substrate.^[70] Fish demonstrate dietary adaptations in their digestive enzymes, with species possessing stomachs secreting pepsin—an acidic protease—for initial protein breakdown in the gastric environment. In contrast, stomachless fish, such as certain cyprinids, rely on alkaline proteases like trypsin and chymotrypsin in the intestine to initiate and complete protein digestion under neutral to basic conditions.^[71] Evolutionary pressures related to diet have driven gene duplications in digestive enzymes across mammals, enhancing adaptation to specific food sources. Starch-consuming mammals, such as dogs post-domestication, show increased copy numbers of the amylase gene (AMY2B), correlating with higher salivary amylase activity and improved starch digestion compared to wild carnivorous ancestors.^[72] These duplications, occurring independently in lineages with starch-rich diets, illustrate how genomic variation supports dietary shifts without altering enzyme function.^[73]

Clinical and Therapeutic Aspects

Deficiencies and Disorders

Exocrine pancreatic insufficiency (EPI) is a condition characterized by inadequate production and secretion of pancreatic digestive enzymes, leading to impaired digestion and absorption of nutrients, particularly fats, proteins, and carbohydrates.^[74] The primary causes in adults include chronic pancreatitis, which damages pancreatic tissue through repeated inflammation, and in children, cystic fibrosis, a genetic disorder that obstructs pancreatic ducts with thick mucus.^[74] Common symptoms encompass steatorrhea—characterized by foul-smelling, greasy, floating stools due to fat malabsorption—along with diarrhea, abdominal bloating, flatulence, unintended weight loss, and nutritional deficiencies.^[75]^[76] Lactase deficiency, resulting in lactose intolerance, arises from insufficient lactase enzyme activity in the small intestine, preventing the breakdown of lactose into absorbable sugars.^[77] This can be primary or genetic, as in adult-type hypolactasia, where lactase production naturally declines after weaning due to a genetic polymorphism affecting the LCT gene, or secondary, often following gastrointestinal infections, celiac disease, or other injuries to the intestinal mucosa that temporarily reduce enzyme levels.^[78] Symptoms typically manifest 30 minutes to two hours after consuming lactose-containing dairy products and include abdominal bloating, cramping, flatulence, nausea, and watery diarrhea.^[77] Globally, lactose malabsorption affects approximately 68% of the population, with higher prevalence in Asian, African, and Native American groups compared to those of Northern European descent.^[79] Other notable deficiencies include congenital sucrase-isomaltase deficiency (CSID), a rare autosomal recessive genetic disorder caused by mutations in the SI gene, leading to impaired digestion of sucrose and starches.^[80] Affected individuals experience chronic watery diarrhea, abdominal pain, bloating, and excessive gas, particularly after ingesting sucrose-rich foods, with symptom severity varying based on residual enzyme activity.^[81] Pepsinogen deficiencies are uncommon and primarily associated with atrophic gastritis, a chronic inflammatory condition often linked to autoimmune destruction of gastric parietal cells or Helicobacter pylori infection, resulting in reduced pepsinogen secretion and impaired protein digestion in the stomach.^[82] Diagnosis of these deficiencies relies on non-invasive tests tailored to the suspected enzyme. For EPI, the fecal elastase-1 test measures pancreatic elastase levels in stool, with values below 200 μg/g indicating insufficiency due to its stability and correlation with pancreatic function.^[74] Breath tests, such as the hydrogen or methane breath test after lactose ingestion, detect undigested carbohydrates fermented by gut bacteria, confirming lactase deficiency through elevated gas production.^[83] Similar breath tests can assess sucrase-isomaltase function using sucrose challenges, while low serum pepsinogen I levels and a reduced pepsinogen I/II ratio support diagnosis of atrophic gastritis-related deficiencies.^[82] Consequences of these enzyme deficiencies stem from chronic malabsorption, disrupting nutrient uptake and leading to systemic effects. In EPI, fat malabsorption predominates, causing steatorrhea and deficiencies in fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and K), which can manifest as night blindness, osteomalacia, neuropathy, and coagulopathies, respectively.^[84] Lactase deficiency and CSID result in carbohydrate malabsorption, leading to osmotic diarrhea and potential calcium malabsorption, exacerbating risks for osteoporosis, while overall protein and carbohydrate deficits contribute to muscle wasting, fatigue, and growth impairment in children.^[85] Untreated, these lead to broader malnutrition, including deficiencies in water-soluble vitamins and minerals like iron and B12.^[86]

Supplements and Treatments

Pancreatic enzyme replacement therapy (PERT) is the primary treatment for exocrine pancreatic insufficiency (EPI), a condition often associated with cystic fibrosis or chronic pancreatitis, where the pancreas fails to produce sufficient digestive enzymes. PERT typically involves pancrelipase formulations, such as Creon, which contain a combination of lipase, protease, and amylase derived from porcine pancreas to aid in the digestion of fats, proteins, and carbohydrates, respectively.^[87] Dosing is individualized and based primarily on lipase units, with recommended starting doses of 30,000–40,000 USP units of lipase per main meal and 15,000–20,000 units per snack, adjusted according to dietary fat content and patient response to optimize nutrient absorption.^[88] This therapy is taken with meals to mimic natural enzyme release and has been shown to improve malabsorption, reduce steatorrhea, and enhance nutritional status in affected individuals.^[89] Lactase supplements, consisting of the enzyme beta-galactosidase, are widely used to manage lactose intolerance by breaking down lactose in dairy products into simpler sugars that can be absorbed. These over-the-counter (OTC) preparations, available as chewable tablets, capsules, or drops, are taken immediately before or with lactose-containing meals to prevent symptoms like bloating, diarrhea, and abdominal pain.^[90] Clinical studies demonstrate that exogenous beta-galactosidase significantly reduces hydrogen breath excretion—a marker of undigested lactose fermentation—and alleviates gastrointestinal symptoms in lactose-intolerant adults.^[91] Efficacy varies by enzyme dose and individual lactase deficiency severity, but it provides a practical alternative to dietary lactose restriction without altering food choices.^[92] For congenital sucrase-isomaltase deficiency (CSID), enzyme replacement therapy with sacrosidase (Sucraid), a recombinant sucrase enzyme derived from yeast, is the standard treatment. This FDA-approved oral solution is taken with sucrose-containing meals to hydrolyze sucrose into glucose and fructose, reducing symptoms such as diarrhea, bloating, and abdominal pain. Dosing is typically 1 mL (8,500 international units) before each meal and snack containing sucrose, with studies showing significant improvement in disaccharide absorption and symptom relief.^[80]^[93] Broad-spectrum OTC digestive enzyme supplements often include plant-derived proteases like bromelain from pineapple and papain from papaya, combined with other enzymes such as amylase or cellulase, marketed for mild indigestion, bloating, or occasional digestive discomfort. These mixtures aim to enhance overall protein and carbohydrate breakdown in the gut, potentially aiding those without diagnosed deficiencies.^[94] However, evidence for their effectiveness in treating indigestion is limited, with some studies suggesting modest symptom relief from bromelain's anti-inflammatory properties, though results are inconsistent and not superior to placebo in many cases.^[95] Emerging approaches to digestive enzyme supplementation include microbiome-modulating therapies that indirectly support enzyme activity through gut bacteria, such as probiotics or synbiotics designed to enhance endogenous enzyme production in dysbiotic states.^[96] The efficacy of PERT is well-established for EPI, where it improves fat absorption by up to 80% and resolves symptoms like weight loss and diarrhea in most patients.^[97] In contrast, broad-spectrum enzyme supplements show limited evidence for irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), with some trials indicating minor reductions in bloating but no consistent overall benefit compared to standard treatments.^[98]

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Intestinal Proteases - PMC - NIH
Over 500 proteases have been described in humans attributing to nearly 2% of the total genome. Proteases can be classified as endopeptidases and exopeptidases ...
[13]
Protease - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Proteases can be classified into exopeptidases and endopeptidases, in which the former cleave N- or C-terminal peptide bonds and the latter break internal ...
[14]
Biochemistry, Lipase - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Jun 26, 2023 · Lipases are a family of enzymes that break down triglycerides into free fatty acids and glycerol. There are expressed and active in multiple ...
[15]
Chemical Digestion and Absorption: A Closer Look - Lumen Learning
Two types of pancreatic nuclease are responsible for their digestion: deoxyribonuclease, which digests DNA, and ribonuclease, which digests RNA. The nucleotides ...
[16]
Intestinal lipid absorption - PMC - PubMed Central - NIH
The digestion of PLs is carried out primarily by pancreatic phospholipase A2 (pPLA2) and other lipases secreted by the pancreas in response to food intake.Missing: phosphatases | Show results with:phosphatases
[17]
Anatomy, Head and Neck, Salivary Glands - StatPearls - NCBI
May 29, 2023 · The parotid contains serous acini and makes watery serous saliva. The submandibular and sublingual glands contain mucous and serous acini; ...
[18]
Salivary Amylase: Digestion and Metabolic Syndrome - PMC - NIH
This review will consider the impact of salivary amylase on oral perception, nutrient signaling, anticipatory metabolic reflexes, blood sugar, and its clinical ...
[19]
Gastrointestinal Function - PMC - PubMed Central - NIH
The optimal pH for amylase activity is approximately 7, and activity therefore terminates when the enzyme mixes with acidic gastric contents.
[20]
The role of lingual lipase in neonatal fat digestion - PubMed
Lingual serous glands (von Ebner) contain a potent lipase that hydrolyses triglycerides to a mixture of partial glycerides (di- and monoglycerides), glycerol ...Missing: function | Show results with:function
[21]
Lingual lipase activity in the orosensory detection of fat by humans
Unlike pancreatic lipase, lingual lipase in human infants can penetrate milk fat globules and initiate lipid digestion. Also, infants have low pancreatic lipase ...
[22]
Lingual lipase in cystic fibrosis. Quantitation of enzyme activity ... - NIH
The low postprandial duodenal pH enables lingual lipase to act not only in the stomach but to continue the hydrolysis of dietary fat in the upper small ...
[23]
The power of saliva: Antimicrobial and beyond - PMC - NIH
Nov 14, 2019 · In fact, saliva is rich with effectors that exert direct antimicrobial activity, such as enzymatic breakdown of bacterial cell walls by lysozyme ...
[24]
4.2 Digestion and Absorption – Nutrition and Physical Fitness
Saliva contains mucus that moistens food and buffers the pH of the food. Saliva also contains lysozyme which has antibacterial action. It also contains an ...
[25]
Pepsinogen - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Pepsinogen is a powerful and abundant protein digestive enzyme secreted by the gastric chief cells as a proenzyme and then converted by gastric acid.
[26]
Comparison of lipases for in vitro models of gastric digestion
Aug 12, 2016 · In infants gastric lipase hydrolyses 10–30% of TAGs, however, gastric lipase is also thought to play a critical role in enabling pancreatic ...
[27]
Chymosin (Rennin) and the Coagulation of Milk
It turns out that many proteases are able to coagulate milk by converting casein to paracasein and alternatives to chymosin are readily available. "Rennet" is ...
[28]
Molecular Mechanism of Pancreatic and Salivary Glands Fluid and ...
The human pancreas secretes 1–2 L of pancreatic juice per day. The pancreatic juice is a alkaline, isotonic fluid. The acini secrete isotonic, plasma-like ...Missing: daily | Show results with:daily
[29]
Regulation of Whole-Organ Pancreatic Secretion - NCBI - NIH
The secretin, in turn, interacts with its specific GPCRs on the pancreatic ductal cell to cause the fluid and bicarbonate secretion. Secretin is released from ...
[30]
Role of Colipase, Phospholipase A2, and Bile Salts - PubMed
The inhibition of lipase activity could be overcome by addition either of colipase or of pancreatic phospholipase A2. Colipase enhanced triglyceride hydrolysis ...Missing: function | Show results with:function
[31]
Evolutionary and Functional Novelty of Pancreatic Ribonuclease
May 27, 2014 · Pancreatic ribonuclease (RNASE1) is a digestive enzyme that has been one of the key models in studies of evolutionary innovation and ...
[32]
Deoxyribonucleases and Their Applications in Biomedicine - PMC
The pancreatic type of DNase I is secreted as a component of pancreatic juice into the small intestine. This enzyme is more sensitive to pH changes than the ...Missing: RNase | Show results with:RNase
[33]
Small Intestinal Brush Border Enzymes
Jan 23, 2025 · Maltase-glucoamylase and sucrase-isomaltase are closely related enzymes embedded in the brush border membrane that execute the terminal stages of digestion.Missing: phosphorylase | Show results with:phosphorylase
[34]
Intestine Brush Border - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Intestine Brush Border is defined as the site within the intestinal mucosa where peptides are hydrolyzed to amino acids, aiding in the absorption of ...
[35]
Chapter 16 Production and gene expression of brush border ...
This chapter reviews the expression of intestinal brush-border disaccharidases (maltase-glucoamylase, sucrase-isomaltase, lactase, and trehalase) and ...Missing: phosphorylase | Show results with:phosphorylase
[36]
The Influence of Peptidases in Intestinal Brush Border Membranes ...
Oct 7, 2020 · This pilot study investigates the activity of brush border enzymes on undigested whey protein hydrolysate (WPH) and on simulated intestinal digested (ID) whey ...
[37]
Brush Border - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
The brush border peptidases can hydrolyze peptide bonds with proline at the C-terminal. Of the cytoplasmic peptidases, the most abundant is a dipeptidase that ...
[38]
Functional Analysis of Purine Nucleoside Phosphorylase as a Key ...
In this study, we sought to identify the role of PNP in ribavirin phosphorolysis in the human small intestine, and to clarify the effect of the single ...
[39]
Mechanism of activation of the gastric aspartic proteinases
Upon ingestion of food, each of the zymogens is released into the gastric lumen and undergoes conversion into active enzyme in the acidic gastric juice.<|separator|>
[40]
Trypsinogen - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Cleavage of trypsinogen can be brought about by trypsin itself at a low rate and much more efficiently by the intestinal protease, enterokinase, a large protein ...
[41]
Complex Formation of Human Proelastases with ... - PubMed Central
Physiological activation of protease zymogens is initiated by enteropeptidase-mediated activation of trypsinogen to trypsin followed by trypsin-mediated ...Missing: cascade | Show results with:cascade
[42]
Pancreatic secretory trypsin inhibitor - NIH
Pancreatic secretory trypsin inhibitor (PSTI), also known as serine protease inhibitor Kazal type I(SPINK1), binds rapidly to trypsin, inhibits its activity.
[43]
Colipase - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Colipase is a protein that removes the inhibiting effect of bile salts on lipase enzymes, allowing for efficient fat digestion in the small intestine.
[44]
Biochemical properties of pancreatic colipase from the common ...
May 8, 2011 · Pancreatic colipase is a required co-factor for pancreatic lipase, being necessary for its activity during hydrolysis of dietary triglycerides in the presence ...Missing: allosteric | Show results with:allosteric
[45]
Factors affecting enzyme activity - Student Academic Success
Pepsin is found in the stomach, which has a low pH due to the hydrochloric acid. Salivary amylase is found in the mouth, which is neutral. Pancreatic lipase ...
[46]
Effect of Temperature on Enzymatic Reaction - Creative Enzymes
The optimum temperature for most enzymes is about 98.6 degrees Fahrenheit (37 degrees Celsius). There are also enzymes that work well at lower and higher ...
[47]
15.3 Digestive System Processes – Concepts of Biology
Maltase breaks down maltose into glucose. Other disaccharides, such as sucrose and lactose are broken down by sucrase and lactase, respectively. Sucrase breaks ...Missing: review | Show results with:review
[48]
Digestive System Processes | Biology for Majors II - Lumen Learning
By forming an emulsion, bile salts increase the available surface area of the lipids many fold. The pancreatic lipases can then act on the lipids more ...
[49]
Unit 7: The Digestive System – Douglas College Human Anatomy ...
Mechanical Digestion: Within a few moments after food after enters your stomach, mixing waves begin to occur at intervals of approximately 20 seconds. A mixing ...Part 2: Digestive System... · Digestive Processes · Lipid Digestion
[50]
Personalizing Protein Nourishment - PMC - NIH
... calcium and zinc. As these minerals are necessary cofactors for digestive enzymes (e.g., alkaline phosphatase, carboxypeptidases and aminopeptidases) ...
[51]
6. essential nutrients - minerals
Through its role in enzyme activation, calcium stimulates muscle contraction (ie. promotes muscle tone and normal heart beat) and regulates the transmission ...
[52]
Zinc Enzymes - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Zinc enzymes refer to a group of enzymes that contain zinc atoms in their structure and are involved in various metabolic functions.
[53]
Barley Protein Properties, Extraction and Applications, with a Focus ...
Jun 16, 2021 · These enzymes play a crucial role in the brewing process, degrading malt carbohydrates to fermentable sugars [17,20]. The application of a ...
[54]
The α-Amylase Induction in Endosperm during Rice Seed ... - NIH
During cereal seed germination, α-amylase in the aleurone layer plays an important role in hydrolyzing the endosperm starch into metabolizable sugars, which ...
[55]
Beta-Amylase - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Beta-amylase is arguably the most important enzyme as it cleaves two bound glucose molecules (maltose) from the reducing end of the chain.
[56]
A unique mechanism for protein processing and degradation ... - NIH
3B), demonstrating the role of VPEγ in AtFruct4 breakdown. To confirm that the degradation of AtFruct4 was related to senescence and not to the developmental ...
[57]
Senescence‐associated proteases in plants - Wiley Online Library
Jan 13, 2012 · ... Senescence-associated vacuoles are involved in the degradation of chloroplast proteins in tobacco leaves. Plant J 56: 196–206. 10.1111/j.1365 ...
[58]
Origin, evolution, and divergence of plant class C GH9 ...
Endogenous cellulases in animals: isolation of beta-1, 4-endoglucanase genes from two species of plant-parasitic cyst nematodes. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A ...
[59]
Industrial Use of Cell Wall Degrading Enzymes: The Fine Line ... - NIH
In this regard, “attacking” organisms evolved different enzymes specialized in cell wall degradation, named as Cell Wall Degrading Enzymes (CWDEs). Intriguingly ...
[60]
Starch and Cellulose Degradation in the Rumen and Applications of ...
Nov 3, 2022 · This review will summarize the ruminal microbes and enzymes involved in starch and cellulose degradation.
[61]
Seed storage oil mobilization is important but not ... - PubMed
Triacylglycerol (TAG) is a major storage reserve in many plant seeds. We previously identified a TAG lipase mutant called sugar-dependent1 (sdp1) that is ...
[62]
Soybean (Glycine max L.) triacylglycerol lipase GmSDP1 regulates ...
Jun 20, 2019 · This study demonstrates that the GmSDP1 proteins regulate both the TAG content and fatty acid composition of soybean seeds during grain filling.Introduction · Results · Seed Yield And Oil Content...<|separator|>
[63]
Gut Microbiota and Their Role in Health and Metabolic Disease of ...
Aug 4, 2021 · For this reason, ruminants maintain a symbiotic relation with microorganisms that are capable of producing enzymes to degrade plant polymers.
[64]
Starch and Cellulose Degradation in the Rumen and Applications of ...
Nov 3, 2022 · The ruminal digestion of starch and cellulose is achieved by microorganisms and digestive enzymes. In order to improve their digestibility, the ...Starch And Cellulose... · 3. Cellulose Degradation · 3.1. Cellulolytic Organisms...
[65]
Cats and Carbohydrates: The Carnivore Fantasy? - PMC - NIH
Amylase is found in the feline pancreas and chyme; however, the intestinal amylase activity is low compared to other animals [20,21]. In addition, pancreatic ...
[66]
Cats: obligate carnivore (Proceedings) - DVM360
Salivary amylase, the enzyme used to initiate digestion of dietary starches is absent in cats, and intestinal amylase appears to be exclusively derived from ...
[67]
The biology of insect chitinases and their roles at chitinous cuticles
Because of their enzymatic role in chitin hydrolyzation, insect GH18 chitinases have essential functions in molting, cell proliferation, immune defense, and ...
[68]
Dual origin of gut proteases in Formosan subterranean termites ...
Midgut extracts showed the highest protease activity followed by the protozoa extracts. High level of protease activity was also detected in protozoa culture ...
[69]
(PDF) Enzymatic digestion in stomachless fishes: How a simple gut ...
Aug 6, 2025 · In the majority of fish species, trypsin and chymotrypsin stand out as the primary alkaline digestive proteases responsible for initiating the ...
[70]
Independent amylase gene copy number bursts correlate ... - eLife
May 14, 2019 · We found that mammals consuming a broad-range diet also express on average a thousand-fold higher amylase activity in their saliva (~243.6 units ...
[71]
Independent amylase gene copy number bursts correlate with ... - NIH
May 14, 2019 · Pajic et al. analyzed the genomes of a range of mammals and found that the more starch a species had in its diet, the more amylase gene copies ...
[72]
Pancreatic Insufficiency - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Sep 14, 2025 · The 2 principal causes of EPI are chronic pancreatitis in adults and cystic fibrosis in children.[1] Other causes include recurrent acute ...
[73]
Exocrine Pancreatic Insufficiency (EPI) - Cleveland Clinic
A lack of digestive enzymes causes exocrine pancreatic insufficiency (EPI). People with pancreatitis and cystic fibrosis are most at risk.
[74]
Exocrine Pancreatic Insufficiency Clinical Presentation
Mar 1, 2024 · The major symptoms of exocrine pancreatic insufficiency (EPI) include steatorrhea and weight loss. The most common symptomatic complaint is steatorrhea.
[75]
Lactose Intolerance - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
Aug 6, 2025 · Lactose intolerance is a clinical syndrome characterized by gastrointestinal symptoms, such as bloating, abdominal pain, flatulence, nausea, ...
[76]
Update on lactose malabsorption and intolerance - Gut
Lactose intolerance (LI) is defined as the onset of abdominal symptoms such as abdominal pain, bloating and diarrhoea after lactose ingestion by an individual ...Lactase Deficiency And... · Genetics · Secondary Lactose...
[77]
Country, regional, and global estimates for lactose malabsorption in ...
Jul 7, 2017 · The global prevalence estimate of lactose malabsorption was 68% (95% CI 64-72), ranging from 28% (19-37) in western, southern, and northern Europe to 70% (57- ...<|separator|>
[78]
Congenital Sucrase-Isomaltase Deficiency - Symptoms, Causes ...
Feb 7, 2018 · Symptoms are variable among affected individuals but usually include watery diarrhea, abdominal swelling (distension) and/or discomfort, among ...
[79]
Congenital sucrase-isomaltase deficiency - Orphanet
Mildly affected individuals may present with irritable bowel syndrome and loose/frequent stools. Symptom severity depends on residual sucrase and isomaltase ...
[80]
Atrophic Gastritis - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Pepsinogen Levels. Low pepsinogen 1 levels and a low pepsinogen 1/pepsinogen 2 ratio can predict advanced atrophic gastritis and should be followed by endoscopy ...
[81]
Exocrine Pancreatic Insufficiency Workup - Medscape Reference
Mar 1, 2024 · A simple sensitive test for carbohydrate malabsorption is the hydrogen breath test, in which patients are given an oral solution of lactose.
[82]
Overview of Malabsorption - Gastrointestinal Disorders
May 4, 2022 · Unabsorbed fats trap fat-soluble vitamins ... Most tests for malabsorption assess fat malabsorption because it is relatively easy to measure.
[83]
Malabsorption Syndromes - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
Jul 7, 2025 · Fat malabsorption ranks among the most common malabsorption syndromes and results from impairments in fat digestion and absorption. Lipid ...
[84]
Malabsorption - IFFGD
... deficient absorption of fat-soluble vitamins or dietary deficiency. ... Diseases of the pancreas can cause severe malabsorption of fats and carbohydrates.
[85]
Pancrelipase Therapy - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Apr 16, 2025 · Pancrelipase is a combination of lipase, protease, and amylase enzymes used to treat exocrine pancreatic insufficiency due to cystic fibrosis and other ...
[86]
Pancreatic Enzyme Replacement Therapy: A Concise Review - PMC
Starting doses of pancreatic enzyme replacement therapy should be at least 30–40,000 IU with each meal and 15–20,000 IU with snacks. pancreatic enzyme ...Missing: pancrelipase | Show results with:pancrelipase
[87]
Evaluation and Management of Exocrine Pancreatic Insufficiency (EPI)
Treatment of confirmed EPD involves exogenous pancreas enzyme replacement therapy (PERT) titrated to eradicate symptoms, normalize fat-soluble vitamin levels, ...
[88]
Effect of lactase on symptoms and hydrogen breath levels in lactose ...
Dec 1, 2020 · Orally supplemented lactase enzyme significantly reduced the clinical symptoms and hydrogen breath excretion in patients with lactose intolerance.
[89]
Comparative effects of exogenous lactase (beta-galactosidase ...
Microbial-derived beta-galactosidase (beta-gal) enzyme preparations improve in vivo lactose digestion and tolerance through enhanced gastrointestinal digestion ...
[90]
Management and treatment of lactose malabsorption - PMC - NIH
Effective reduction of lactose malabsorption and milk intolerance by direct addition of beta-galactosidase to milk at mealtime. Gastroenterology. 1984;87 ...
[91]
Digestive Enzyme Supplementation in Gastrointestinal Diseases - NIH
Digestive enzymes are produced and secreted by the gastrointestinal system to degrade fats, proteins, and carbohydrates, to accomplish the digestion and, ...Pancreatic Enzyme... · Table 1 · Rational Design Of An Enzyme...
[92]
Should You Add Enzyme Supplements to Your Shopping List? Mayo ...
Aug 4, 2014 · They help us digest food. There are clearly medical reasons to use enzymes. If a patient's pancreas isn't working, for example, that patient may ...
[93]
The gut microbiota-immune-brain axis: Therapeutic implications - PMC
These therapies focus on modulating the gut microbiota to influence immune responses and brain function, with probiotics, prebiotics, synbiotics, postbiotics, ...
[94]
Recent advances in host-focused molecular tools for investigating ...
Mar 28, 2024 · The gene targets and signaling responses downstream gut microbiota are identified by genetically modified mice and host-derived organoid. The ...
[95]
Pancreatic enzyme replacement therapy in subjects with exocrine ...
Feb 9, 2024 · Recommended dosage of PERT. The European guidelines for the therapy of chronic CP recommend treating subjects with CP and EPI with enzyme ...
[96]
The effect of adding pancreatin to standard otilinium bromide and ...
Oct 21, 2024 · In conclusion, pancreatic enzyme replacement therapy may alleviate IBS symptoms and improve patients' quality of life by correcting digestive ...