Early Scots

Early Scots refers to the initial written and literary phase of the Scots language, a West Germanic tongue that emerged as the vernacular of Lowland Scotland between approximately 1375 and 1450.^[1] It developed from the northern dialects of Middle English, particularly the Anglo-Danish varieties spoken in northern England and the Anglian kingdom of Bernicia, which were introduced to southeastern Scotland by Anglian settlers around the 7th century.^[2] By the 12th century, under the influence of feudal reforms initiated by King David I, English-speaking immigrants—including Anglo-Normans, Flemings, and burgesses—accelerated its spread, supplanting Scottish Gaelic as the dominant language east and south of the Highland Line.^[1] This period marks the transition from a primarily oral tradition to a burgeoning literary and administrative medium, with the first major surviving text being John Barbour's epic poem The Brus (c. 1375), which chronicles the life of Robert the Bruce and exemplifies early Scots' capacity for national narrative.^[3] Scots gained prestige in official contexts, as evidenced by its use in Acts of Parliament from 1390 onward, reflecting its role in state administration alongside Latin and French.^[4] Linguistically, Early Scots formed a dialect continuum with northern English, characterized by simplified inflections compared to Old English, a vocabulary enriched by borrowings from Old Norse (due to Viking settlements), French (via Norman influence), Latin (ecclesiastical and legal terms), and to a lesser extent Gaelic and Dutch through trade.^[2] Notable phonological features included the smoothing of certain diphthongs and the prevalence of forms like yh for the voiced palatal fricative, which varied regionally across Northern, Central, and Southern dialects.^[1] By 1450, Early Scots had established a distinct identity, setting the foundation for its expansion in the Middle Scots period (1450–1550), during which it became the court language and flourished in poetry, prose, and legal documents.^[3]

Introduction

Definition and Scope

Early Scots refers to the initial phase of the Scots language from approximately 1375 to 1450, part of the broader Older Scots period (1375–1700), representing a distinct West Germanic variety that evolved from the Northern dialects of Middle English brought to Scotland by Anglo-Saxon settlers and later reinforced by Norse influences.^[2] This period marks the transition to Scots as a national vernacular used in administration, law, and literature across much of Scotland.^[4] The period begins with the first major surviving text, John Barbour's epic The Brus (c. 1375), establishing Scots in literary use.^[4] Scholar A. J. Aitken's influential periodization divides Older Scots into Early Scots (1375–1450) and Middle Scots (1450–1700), with the latter further subdivided into Early Middle Scots (1450–1550) and Late Middle Scots (1550–1700), reflecting progressive linguistic standardization and external pressures.^[4] Geographically, Early Scots was primarily confined to the Scottish Lowlands, encompassing regions such as Lothian, the Borders, Fife, and Angus, where Anglo-Norman feudal structures facilitated its spread among urban and rural communities.^[2] It excluded the Gaelic-influenced Highlands and Islands, where Scottish Gaelic remained dominant until later centuries, creating a clear linguistic divide between the fertile low-lying areas and the more rugged northern territories.^[5] Early Scots is distinguished from both Modern Scots and Standard English as an independent language with its own evolutionary trajectory, sharing a common Old English ancestry but developing unique features through sustained contact with Old Norse, Norman French, and limited Gaelic elements, rather than being a mere dialect of English.^[6] By the 15th century, these divergences—particularly in phonology and morphology—had rendered it mutually intelligible with English but sufficiently distinct to function as Scotland's primary tongue in official contexts.^[4] Scholarship features ongoing terminological debates, with "Early Scots" sometimes applied narrowly to the 1375–1450 phase to emphasize its nascent literary attestation, while "Middle Scots" covers the subsequent era up to 1700, marked by increasing anglicization; alternatively, the umbrella term "Older Scots" encompasses the full span to highlight continuity within the broader Scots language family.^[4] The conventional starting point of 1375 aligns with the advent of extensive written records demonstrating Scots' viability as a standardized medium, distinct from contemporaneous English varieties south of the border.^[5]

Historical Significance

Early Scots served as a vital symbol of Scottish nationhood during the late medieval period, embodying cultural and political independence in the face of English influence. As the language of parliament and early literature, it fostered a distinct Scottish identity, particularly evident in foundational works like John Barbour's The Brus (c. 1375), which laid the groundwork for later literary developments by makars such as William Dunbar and Robert Henryson in the Middle Scots period. Following the Union of the Crowns in 1603, when James VI acceded to the English throne, Middle Scots continued to represent Lowland Scottish culture amid growing Anglicization pressures, maintaining its role in local governance and poetry as a marker of national resilience.^[7]^[8] Political events, including the Wars of Independence (1296–1328), accelerated the linguistic divergence of Scots from southern English varieties by reinforcing cultural and administrative separation. These conflicts, culminating in victories like Bannockburn in 1314, promoted the use of northern English dialects in Scotland as a means of asserting autonomy, leading to distinct phonological and lexical developments that solidified Scots as a separate tongue by the late 14th century. This separation was further entrenched through Scotland's independent institutions, such as the parliament, which adopted Scots for statutes from 1390 onward, distinguishing it from the evolving English of England.^[9]^[7]^[5] The legacy of Early Scots endures in modern Scots and Scottish English, shaping regional dialects and preserving unique elements in everyday usage. It contributes to the vocabulary of contemporary Scottish English, particularly in rural and legal contexts, where terms like "kirkyard" (cemetery) and "sheriff" retain Early Scots roots within Scotland's mixed legal tradition. Additionally, countless place names across Scotland, such as "Dundee" (from Gaelic but influenced by Scots forms) and "Aberdeen" (mouth of the Don, with Scots orthography), reflect its enduring impact on toponymy, serving as linguistic fossils of medieval settlement patterns.^[2]^[10]^[11] Scholarly recognition of Early Scots as a full-fledged literary language gained momentum in the 19th and 20th centuries through philologists like Sir James Murray, whose 1873 work The Dialect of the Southern Counties of Scotland mapped its dialects and argued for its independent literary heritage, influencing later dictionaries. Murray's efforts, alongside the establishment of projects like the Dictionary of the Older Scottish Tongue (initiated in 1925), spurred revival initiatives that highlighted Early Scots' contributions to European literature, countering earlier dismissals as mere dialect. These endeavors underscored its status as a vehicle for high culture, paving the way for modern appreciation in education and heritage preservation.^[12]^[8]

Historical Development

Origins from Middle English

Early Scots emerged as a distinct linguistic variety through its descent from the Northern Anglian dialect of Old English, introduced by Angle settlers who arrived in southeastern Scotland around the sixth century CE. These early Germanic speakers established communities in regions like Lothian, gradually expanding northward and displacing or coexisting with indigenous Celtic languages. This foundational layer provided the core vocabulary and grammatical structure that would characterize Scots.^[2] Significant influences from Old Norse further shaped this evolving dialect during the Viking settlements of the eighth through eleventh centuries, when Norse raiders and settlers established communities particularly in the Northern Isles, western coastal areas, and parts of Lothian. These interactions introduced loanwords, especially in everyday lexicon related to seafaring, agriculture, and governance, as well as syntactic features that reinforced the northern Germanic traits of the language. Place-name evidence, such as the Norse-derived suffix -by (e.g., "Laxobister" in Shetland), attests to this enduring Scandinavian impact on the linguistic landscape.^[2] The transition from Middle English to Early Scots accelerated after 1100, coinciding with the Norman Conquest of England in 1066, which prompted migrations of northern English speakers into southern Scotland seeking opportunities under the feudal reforms of King David I (r. 1124–1153). This period saw the anglicization of the Scottish Lowlands, as Anglo-Norman elites imported English-speaking administrators, burghers, and clergy, blending Northern Middle English dialects with local varieties and accelerating the shift away from Gaelic dominance in administrative and urban contexts. Key divergences included the retention of northern phonological and morphological features, such as the Northern Present Tense rule, distinguishing Scots from southern Middle English forms.^[13]^[2] The earliest written attestations of Early Scots appear in the fourteenth century, primarily in glosses within Latin charters and the advent of vernacular poetry. Notable examples include the Scone Gloss, a pre-1360 annotation in a Latin document featuring Old Norse-influenced terms, marking one of the first vernacular intrusions into formal records. The most substantial early literary evidence is John Barbour's epic poem The Brus (c. 1375), composed in a northeastern dialect and chronicling the life of Robert the Bruce, which demonstrates the language's maturity for narrative and historical expression. These texts reflect Scots' growing role in legal and cultural documentation by the mid-fourteenth century.^[2]^[13] Regional variations in Early Scots' origins are evident between eastern and western dialects, with the eastern varieties (centered in Lothian) showing stronger continuity with pure Anglian Old English due to early settlement patterns and proximity to Northumbrian influences. In contrast, western dialects, particularly in the southwest, exhibit greater Old Norse integration from prolonged Viking presence, resulting in distinct lexical borrowings and phonetic shifts. These differences arose from uneven settlement histories and language contact, laying the groundwork for dialectal diversity.^[2]

Key Periods and Influences

The Early Scots period, spanning approximately 1375 to 1450, marked the emergence of Scots as a literary and administrative language. This phase saw Scots gain traction in courtly literature, with works like John Barbour's The Brus (c. 1375) establishing it as a vehicle for national narrative distinct from northern Middle English.^[14] Scots also appeared in administrative records, such as parliamentary documents from 1390, signaling a shift from Latin and French dominance in official contexts.^[3] External influences significantly shaped Early Scots' vocabulary and structure during this time. French loanwords, introduced via the Auld Alliance (beginning 1295), enriched formal and cultural lexicon, with borrowings like delitabill (delightful) and plesance (pleasure) appearing in courtly texts.^[15]^[16] Latin contributions from church and scholarly traditions influenced legal and religious terminology, as seen in early administrative uses by the early fifteenth century.^[3] Dutch and Low German elements entered through Hanseatic trade networks, contributing everyday terms such as yai (yes) and carpyng (gossip), reflecting commercial ties from the medieval period.^[14]^[17] Sociolinguistic shifts further molded Early Scots' trajectory. By the mid-fifteenth century, increased use in burgh courts and parliament contributed to its growing prestige, with orthographic variations emerging through vernacular documentation.^[3]

Linguistic Structure

Phonology

The phonology of Early Scots, spanning the 14th and 15th centuries, featured a consonant inventory that preserved several features from its Old English and Northern Middle English origins while undergoing simplifications. Notably, the voiceless velar fricative /x/ was retained, as heard in words like nicht (night), distinguishing Scots from southern English varieties where it was lost.^[18] Initial clusters such as /kn-/ were pronounced as spelled, with retention of the initial stop, resulting in pronunciations like /kniçt/ for knicht (knight).^[19] Fricatives included the voiceless labiovelar approximant /ʍ/, realized as [xʍ] or [hw], maintaining the distinction in words like quhat (what) from quhair (where).^[18] Other consonants, such as /r/, were typically articulated as a strong alveolar trill, with palatal sounds /ɲ/ and /ʎ/ appearing in loanwords from French and Gaelic, later evolving to /nj/ and /lj/.^[19] The vowel system comprised five short monophthongs—/ɪ, ɛ, a, ɔ, ʊ/—along with a range of long vowels and diphthongs, reflecting a more conservative profile than contemporary southern English.^[18] Diphthongs such as /ai/ (e.g., tyme, time) and /au/ (e.g., haufe, half) were prominent, often arising from earlier monophthongs or borrowings.^[19] The Great Vowel Shift exerted milder effects in Scots compared to English, with front long vowels raising (e.g., Middle English /iː/ to /ei/ in tyde, tide, but retaining /iː/ in some contexts) while back vowels like /uː/ remained monophthongal without diphthongization, as in doon (down).^[19] This partial participation preserved distinctions lost in southern varieties, influenced by the Scottish Vowel Length Rule, which lengthened vowels before voiced fricatives, /r/, or in open syllables.^[18] Prosody in Early Scots emphasized stress on root syllables, following patterns inherited from Middle English, with the Scottish Vowel Length Rule further conditioning length in stressed positions.^[19] Intonation contours showed subtle influences from Norse in northern varieties, contributing to a more level stress pattern differing from the rising-falling intonations of southern English, though documentation remains limited.^[20] Dialectal variations marked Early Scots phonology, particularly between eastern dialects (e.g., Angus) and southern ones (e.g., Lothian). In eastern varieties, vowel 7 (/yː/ from Old Norse /y:/) often unrounded to /iː/, while southern dialects exhibited rounding in vowel 17 (/a/) and mergers like vowel 3 with 2 or 4.^[18] The /r/ sound, a trill across dialects, showed potential for stronger apical realization in eastern areas versus lighter tapping in southern ones, though evidence is inferential from later attestations.^[19]

Orthography

Early Scots orthography emerged in the mid-14th century, closely resembling that of northern Middle English but with distinct conventions that reflected regional phonological features, such as the use of to represent the voiceless labiovelar fricative /ʍ/, as in quhat for "what."^[21] Similarly, the digraph denoted the velar fricative /x/, seen in words like nicht for "night," while retaining Middle English digraphs such as for the long vowel /u:/, as in hous for "house."^[21] These spellings appeared consistently in early manuscripts, including literary and administrative texts, and served to distinguish Scots from contemporaneous English varieties.^[22] The orthography also employed archaic letters inherited from Old English and Middle English, notably thorn <þ> for the interdental fricative /θ/ or /ð/, as in þe for "the," and yogh <ȝ> for /ɣ/ or /x/, as in ȝit for "yet" or nicht variants.^[21] Standardization efforts in the 15th century were significantly influenced by Chancery Scots, the variety used in royal and legal documents, which promoted more uniform spelling practices across official correspondence and acts of parliament to facilitate administrative consistency.^[3] This form, emerging in the late 14th century and peaking in the 15th, drew on southeastern Scots dialects and emphasized clarity in legal texts, though regional variations persisted.^[3] Manuscripts from this period were typically written in Secretary hand, a cursive script introduced in the late 15th century that became prevalent for legal and administrative purposes in Scotland, characterized by its flowing letter forms adapted for speed and legibility in document production.^[23]

Lexicon and Morphology

Vocabulary Sources

The vocabulary of Early Scots (c. 1375–1450) is predominantly Germanic in foundation, with the largest component derived from Old English (Anglian dialects) and supplemented by Old Norse influences, together accounting for approximately 43% of the lexicon according to analyses of the Dictionary of the Older Scottish Tongue (DOST; 1375–1700), which includes Early Scots texts.^[24] This core base includes everyday terms such as bairn (child) from Old English bearn and hals (neck) from Old English heals, reflecting the Anglian settlement in lowland Scotland.^[17] Old Norse contributions, estimated at 8.4%, enriched basic and legal vocabulary through Viking contacts, exemplified by kirk (church) from Old Norse kirkja and law (law) from Old Norse lagu.^[24] These Germanic elements provided the structural backbone, with phonological adaptations like the retention of /k/ in kirk distinguishing Early Scots from southern Middle English forms.^[25] Romance borrowings constituted a significant portion, particularly from Old French and Anglo-Norman due to feudal and administrative ties, comprising about 27.6% of the vocabulary and focusing on governance and culture.^[24] Terms like ashet (serving dish) from French assiette and fee (feudal estate) from Old French fief illustrate this influx, often entering via the Auld Alliance and Norman influences.^[26] Latin loans, around 8.4%, arrived primarily through ecclesiastical channels, such as session (church assembly) from Latin sessio, enhancing religious and scholarly domains.^[24] Additional influences were minor but notable in specific contexts. Middle Dutch and Flemish borrowings, totaling 2.2%, stemmed from trade and immigration, including crag (neck) from Middle Dutch krage.^[24] Scottish Gaelic contributions were minimal at 0.6%, largely confined to highland-lowland interactions, with few examples in Early Scots texts.^[24] The lexicon showed particular enrichment in legal and administrative semantic fields, driven by Scotland's independent institutions, where Norse birlaw (local by-law court, from Old Norse byrlög) coexisted with French-derived terms like baillie (bailiff) and Gaelic tocher (dowry).^[14] This blend underscored Early Scots' role as a distinct vernacular for governance, distinct from English developments.^[17]

Grammatical Features

Early Scots noun morphology underwent significant simplification from its Middle English antecedents, with grammatical gender largely lost by around 1400, shifting to a system of natural gender based primarily on the sex of the referent for animates and neuter for inanimates.^[27] Plural formation standardized on the suffix -s or -is, as in buik (book) becoming buikis (books), though some nouns retained zero plurals (e.g., folk for people) or irregular mutations (e.g., fute to fete, feet).^[28] The genitive case, indicating possession, typically employed -is or -s, yielding forms like kingis (of the king), while periphrastic constructions with prepositions such as of began to emerge for certain relational nouns by the late fourteenth century.^[28] The verb system in Early Scots retained a distinction between strong and weak conjugations but showed innovations in tense formation influenced by northern varieties. In the present indicative, the third-person singular ending -s generalized across all persons in many contexts, exemplified by I/you/he gangs (I/you/he goes or walks), reflecting the spread of the northern -s form beyond the traditional paradigm.^[29] Past tenses followed strong verbs with ablaut (vowel alternation), such as sing to sang (sang), or weak verbs with dental suffixes like -it or -ed, as in walk to walkit (walked).^[28] This system allowed for flexible periphrastic constructions, particularly with auxiliaries like hae (have) for perfect tenses, though simple forms predominated in literary texts. Pronoun developments in Early Scots marked a transition toward modern forms, with the neuter third-person singular hit simplifying to it and the third-person plural object form thaim evolving into them by the later period, influenced by phonetic reduction and analogy with English.^[28] Possessives like thair (their) paralleled these shifts, while first- and second-person forms remained stable as I/me/my and thou/you/thi. These changes facilitated clearer reference in narrative prose and verse, integrating borrowed vocabulary into standard pronominal patterns without major disruptions. Syntactic structures in Early Scots emphasized verb prominence and relative clause formation distinct from southern English contemporaries. Questions typically featured subject-verb inversion, as in Gangs thow hame? (Do you go home?), placing the verb before the subject without a dedicated auxiliary in simple cases.^[29] Relative pronouns favored quhilk for both human and non-human antecedents, as analyzed in detailed studies of texts from 1375 to 1500, allowing constructions like the man quhilk spak (the man who spoke).^[30] Adverbial placement was more flexible than in English, often fronting elements for emphasis (e.g., Incontinent thairefter in comes the king, immediately thereafter the king enters), contributing to rhythmic variation in poetry and prose.

Literature and Usage

Major Literary Works

The earliest major literary work in Early Scots is John Barbour's The Brus, a narrative epic poem composed around 1375 that chronicles the life of Robert the Bruce and the Scottish Wars of Independence.^[31] Spanning approximately 13,000 lines, it blends historical chronicle with romance elements, emphasizing themes of freedom, chivalry, and national loyalty in the vernacular tongue of lowland Scotland.^[31] Barbour, as Archdeacon of Aberdeen, drew on eyewitness accounts and earlier sources to create the first substantial surviving text in Scots, establishing a foundation for patriotic vernacular literature.^[31] In the early 15th century, James I of Scotland contributed The Kingis Quair, a dream-vision poem dated to circa 1424, which reflects his experiences of captivity in England and his courtship of Lady Jane Beaufort.^[32] Written in rhyme royal stanzas (ababbcc), the work draws heavily on Chaucerian models such as The Book of the Duchess and Troilus and Criseyde, incorporating motifs of lovesickness, fortune's wheel, and Boethian consolation to explore personal and philosophical themes.^[32] As one of the earliest compositions by a monarch in Scots, it exemplifies the adoption of English courtly traditions into Scottish poetic forms.^[32] Another significant work is Andrew of Wyntoun's Orygynale Cronykil of Scotland (c. 1420), a verse chronicle in eight books covering world history up to the reign of James I.^[33] Written by the prior of Loch Leven, it provides a rhymed historical narrative drawing on earlier Latin sources like Fordun, while incorporating Scots vernacular for accessibility, and includes unique details on Scottish events, folklore, and genealogy. This text represents an important bridge between epic poetry and chronicle tradition in Early Scots.^[33] Early Scots literature was dominated by poetry, particularly epic and chronicle forms that fused indigenous traditions with influences from English and Latin sources, as seen in the works of Barbour, James I, and Wyntoun.^[5] Prose was limited during this period, with literary examples emerging more fully in the later Middle Scots era. Drama was not a prominent form in surviving Early Scots texts. Beyond literature, Early Scots saw increasing usage in administrative and legal contexts, marking its prestige as a language of governance. From 1390 onward, Acts of Parliament and other official documents began to be recorded in Scots rather than solely in Latin or French, reflecting its role in state administration.^[5] For instance, a 1390 jury decree from Perth is among the earliest surviving legal texts in Scots, demonstrating the language's practicality for judicial proceedings.^[5] This vernacular shift under the Stewart kings helped solidify Scots as the dominant tongue in Lowland Scotland's bureaucracy.

Sample Texts and Examples

One representative example from Early Scots poetry is an excerpt from John Barbour's The Bruce (c. 1375), the earliest major work in the language, which exemplifies its phonological and lexical features through octosyllabic couplets. The opening lines of Book I read:

Storys to rede ar delitabill,
Suppos that thai be nocht bot fabill:
Than suld storys that suthfast wer,
And thai war said on gud maner,
Have doubill plesance in heryng.
The fyrst plesance is the carpyng,
And the tothir the suthfastnes
That schawys the thing rycht as it wes.^[34]

Here, phonological traits include the retention of Old English /x/ in "suthfast" (true, from OE sōþfæst) and the use of /y/ diphthongization in "fyrst" (first), reflecting northern Middle English influences, while rhymes like "delitabill:fabill" demonstrate assonant patterns common in Early Scots verse.^[35] Vocabulary draws from native Scots roots, such as "carpyng" (narration or storytelling) and "suthfastnes" (truthfulness), alongside borrowings like "maner" from Anglo-French, illustrating the language's mixed Germanic-Romance lexicon. Later in the poem, forms like "quhar" (where, showing /hw/ retention) and "knichtis" (knights, plural with -is ending) further highlight orthographic conservatism and morphological simplicity compared to southern English.^[34]^[36] To illustrate further, an excerpt from Andrew of Wyntoun's Orygynale Cronykil (c. 1420) shows the chronicle style in rhyming couplets, describing the Battle of Bannockburn:

Off Bannokburn the gret melle
Wes foucht betuix Scottis and Inglis men;
The Scottis men thair gat the victory,
And slew off Inglismen mony thowsand.^[37]

This passage features typical Early Scots morphology, such as "thair" (their/there) and "gat" (got), with vocabulary like "melle" (mêlée, from French) blending native and borrowed terms. The rhyme and meter maintain narrative flow, emphasizing historical events in accessible verse. To illustrate linguistic features in administrative usage, consider a simplified excerpt from a 1397 Act of Parliament concerning archery practice, one of the early vernacular laws:

It is statut and ordanit that wapinschawingis be haldin... ilk man abill of body pas furth in feir of wer with bow and schevis.^[5]

Here, "statut" (statute, from Latin/French), "wapinschawingis" (weapon-showings, native compound), and "schevis" (sheaves, plural) showcase the language's adaptation for legal clarity, with simplified inflections aiding readability in official contexts. These samples underscore Early Scots' vitality as both a literary and administrative medium, bridging oral traditions with written forms through its adaptive phonology, lexicon, and syntax.^[35]