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Edwardian architecture

Edwardian architecture encompasses the buildings and design practices that emerged during the reign of King Edward VII, from 1901 to 1910, though its influence extended into the early years of the subsequent reign up to the outbreak of World War I in 1914.^[1] This period marked a stylistic shift from the dense, ornate Victorian era toward more restrained, spacious, and light-filled structures, often blending historical revivals with modern conveniences to create harmonious, practical spaces.^[1] Key characteristics include the use of lighter color palettes, such as white stucco and red brick, paired with large bay windows, verandas, and terracotta detailing to maximize natural light and ventilation.^[1] Architectural styles within the Edwardian idiom drew from multiple influences, notably the Arts and Crafts movement's emphasis on craftsmanship and vernacular forms, Queen Anne revival's asymmetrical facades and gables, classical revivals like Neo-Georgian and Baroque for public and grander buildings, and international documentation such as Hermann Muthesius's Das Englische Haus (1904–1905).^[1] Interiors often featured parquet flooring, stained glass, and open-plan layouts, reflecting a growing interest in domestic comfort and suburban expansion driven by urban growth and improved transport.^[1] Prominent architects shaped this era, including Sir Edwin Lutyens, known for country houses that juxtaposed traditional exteriors with innovative internal planning, such as Marsh Court (1901) and Deanery Garden (1901).^[1] Other notable figures were C.F.A. Voysey, whose works like The Homestead (1905–1906) exemplified Arts and Crafts simplicity.^[1] Public examples include the Baroque Revival-style Admiralty Arch (1910) in London, designed by Aston Webb, and Selfridges department store (1909), designed by Daniel Burnham, showcasing the era's adaptability to commercial and monumental scales. The movement was influenced by social changes, including Liberal land reforms and publications like Country Life, which promoted rural remodeling and vernacular revival to address housing needs in expanding suburbs.^[1] Edwardian architecture thus represented a bridge to modernism, prioritizing functionality and elegance over excess, while preserving a sense of historical continuity in Britain's built environment.^[1]

Definition and Context

Period Definition

The Edwardian era in architecture is defined as the period spanning 1901 to 1910 in Britain, coinciding precisely with the reign of King Edward VII following the death of Queen Victoria. This temporal boundary marks a distinct phase in British architectural history, characterized by a shift toward more refined and optimistic designs amid growing prosperity and imperial confidence. While the core dates align with the monarch's rule, some architectural histories extend the period to 1914 to account for the gradual evolution of styles before the outbreak of World War I disrupted traditional practices.^[2] The term "Edwardian" serves as a retrospective label, applied by later historians to delineate this era's architectural output from the preceding Victorian period, which had been formally named during its time. Unlike "Victorian," which emerged contemporaneously, "Edwardian" gained prominence in post-period analyses to highlight the stylistic transition, emphasizing a break from the era's immediate past without implying a self-identified contemporary nomenclature. This retrospective framing underscores the era's role as a bridge between 19th-century eclecticism and emerging 20th-century modernism.^[2] Buildings are classified as Edwardian based on specific criteria, including the adoption of lighter, more delicate motifs that emerged in the immediate aftermath of Queen Victoria's death in 1901, reflecting a cultural move toward elegance and simplicity prior to the geopolitical upheavals of World War I in 1914. These criteria focus on designs that prioritize subtlety over the ornate heaviness of Victorian architecture, often incorporating vernacular elements and historical allusions in a less imposing manner. Key transitional examples include early 1900s townhouses in London, such as those in the nascent Hampstead Garden Suburb (initiated in 1907), which exemplify the shift through their integration of open spaces and simplified facades. Other notable transitions appear in structures like Kingsgate Castle (built 1901–1912), blending restoration techniques with new builds to evoke a seamless historical continuity.^[3]^[2]

Historical Background

The Edwardian era, spanning 1901 to 1910 during the reign of King Edward VII, marked a period of post-Victorian optimism and imperial prosperity in Britain, building on the stability of the Pax Britannica—a phase of relative global peace and British hegemony from 1815 to 1914 that facilitated expansive trade networks and economic growth.^[4] This era represented the zenith of the British Empire, with an economic boom driven by international commerce, colonial resources, and industrial output, leading to increased national wealth and a sense of gilded stability following the conclusion of the Second Boer War in 1902.^[5] Britain's manufacturing and export sectors thrived, with imperial trade contributing to a GDP expansion that underscored the country's position as a leading world power.^[6] Social transformations further shaped the environment for architectural development, as rising middle-class wealth fueled suburban expansion and a demand for comfortable domestic spaces.^[7] The burgeoning middle class, empowered by economic prosperity, sought detached homes in burgeoning suburbs like those around London, reflecting a shift toward idealized family living away from urban density.^[8] Women played a central role in the domestic sphere, managing households and family life amid evolving social norms.^[9] Politically, the era began with Edward VII's coronation in 1902, which symbolized continuity of the monarchy and empire, inspiring celebratory public works and architectural commissions to commemorate the event and reinforce imperial ties.^[10]^[11] The 1906 general election delivered a Liberal landslide victory, ushering in a reformist government that prioritized social welfare and public infrastructure, leading to increased commissions for civic buildings such as schools, post offices, and housing projects aligned with progressive policies.^[12]^[13] However, mounting pre-World War I tensions, particularly the labor unrest from 1910 to 1914 known as the Great Unrest, disrupted this momentum, with widespread strikes involving millions of workers across industries, including construction, that delayed or curtailed ambitious grand projects by 1914.^[14]^[15] These industrial disputes, driven by demands for better wages and conditions amid rising living costs, highlighted deepening class conflicts and contributed to an atmosphere of instability just before the outbreak of war.^[16]

Influences and Predecessors

Domestic and European Styles

Edwardian architecture represented a transitional phase that built upon late Victorian precedents, particularly the Queen Anne Revival and Tudor Revival styles, while introducing a more restrained aesthetic that tempered the excesses of earlier Gothic Revival elements. The Queen Anne Revival, popularized by architects like Richard Norman Shaw in the 1870s, emphasized red brickwork, white-painted woodwork, asymmetrical facades, and half-timbering, features that persisted into the Edwardian period but with simplified detailing and less ornamental exuberance to suit the era's preference for elegance over opulence. Similarly, the Tudor Revival, evoking medieval English manor houses through steeply pitched roofs, prominent gables, and exposed timber framing, continued in suburban and country homes, where Edwardian practitioners softened the more rigid Victorian interpretations by incorporating larger windows and open spatial arrangements for improved natural light. This softening of Gothic excesses—such as reduced pointed arches and intricate tracery—reflected a broader shift toward classical balance and domestic comfort, distinguishing Edwardian designs from the denser, more vertical Victorian Gothic forms.^[17] Continental European influences significantly shaped Edwardian architecture, with French Beaux-Arts principles of symmetry, grand scale, and classical ornamentation imported by British architects trained at the École des Beaux-Arts in Paris. These elements manifested in public buildings and grand residences featuring pedimented entrances, columnar orders, and balanced compositions.^[18] Complementing this, the fluidity and organic motifs of Belgian Art Nouveau, pioneered by Victor Horta in Brussels, influenced Edwardian decorative schemes through its emphasis on sinuous lines and nature-inspired forms, adopted by British designers seeking alternatives to rigid classicism.^[19] Architects trained abroad, such as Charles Rennie Mackintosh, facilitated this cross-pollination, integrating Art Nouveau's curvilinear ironwork and asymmetrical planning into urban and domestic projects.^[20] A notable adaptation of these European elements appeared in the incorporation of Art Nouveau-inspired wrought ironwork into British facades, where delicate, vine-like balustrades and gates added a touch of continental sophistication to Edwardian townhouses and commercial fronts. This stylistic borrowing enhanced the period's aesthetic without overwhelming the underlying British structure, often paired with Beaux-Arts symmetry for harmonious effect. International exhibitions played a pivotal role in disseminating these styles to British practitioners, most prominently the 1900 Paris Exposition Universelle, where Art Nouveau was showcased extensively alongside Beaux-Arts pavilions, inspiring attendees including future Edward VII and architects like Edwin Lutyens, who designed the British Pavilion in a hybrid classical mode.^[21] The event's display of French symmetry and Belgian fluidity directly informed Edwardian adaptations, fostering a cosmopolitan outlook that briefly referenced Arts and Crafts craftsmanship before evolving into more eclectic forms.^[17]

Arts and Crafts Impact

The Arts and Crafts movement originated in the philosophy of William Morris during the 1860s to 1890s, advocating for handcrafted production over industrialized manufacturing to restore dignity to labor and promote honest, natural forms in design.^[22] Morris's emphasis on simplicity, vernacular traditions, and the integration of art into everyday life critiqued the dehumanizing effects of the Industrial Revolution, laying the groundwork for Edwardian architecture's shift toward restrained, functional aesthetics.^[23] Key figures such as C.F.A. Voysey and Charles Rennie Mackintosh adapted these principles to suburban domestic architecture, favoring plain walls, steep roofs, and minimal ornamentation to evoke a sense of harmony with the landscape.^[24] Voysey's designs, rooted in English Arts and Crafts ideals, featured unadorned exteriors and robust, practical forms that influenced early 20th-century housing by prioritizing craftsmanship and regional materials.^[25] Similarly, Mackintosh's Glasgow Style incorporated Arts and Crafts tenets of total design into linear, austere suburban homes, blending simplicity with subtle geometric motifs.^[26] This influence transitioned into Edwardian practices through simplified motifs like pebbledash rendering for textured, weather-resistant walls and leaded casement windows for subtle light diffusion, commonly seen in 1900s country houses that echoed vernacular simplicity.^[27] These elements rejected ornate detailing in favor of honest expression, aligning with the movement's anti-industrial ethos.^[28] The Arts and Crafts critique of Victorian excess—characterized by over-elaborate decoration and mechanical uniformity—fostered Edwardian restraint, culminating in the "baroque" lightness of public buildings by 1905, where grand facades adopted cleaner lines and reduced ornament to convey imperial confidence with understated elegance.^[29] This evolution reflected a broader desire for balance between tradition and modernity, tempering Baroque revival with Arts and Crafts-inspired sobriety.

Core Characteristics

Aesthetic and Ornamental Features

Edwardian architecture embraced a lighter and more playful aesthetic, departing from the dense, dark brickwork typical of Victorian buildings to create a sense of brightness and openness. Facades were frequently rendered in white or pastel stucco, enhancing a "sunlit" appearance through horizontal emphasis and symmetrical compositions, particularly evident in townhouses constructed between 1901 and 1910.^[30]^[31] Prominent decorative elements included bay windows that projected outward to maximize light and views, paired with wrought-iron balconies that added delicate, airy detailing to upper stories. Ornamentation drew from the Wren Revival, featuring simplified classical pediments, swags, and garlands that evoked seventeenth-century influences while maintaining a restrained elegance.^[32]^[33] Inside, Edwardian spaces highlighted refined yet understated decoration, with herringbone parquet flooring providing geometric patterns underfoot, complemented by oak paneling on walls for warmth and texture. Stained glass windows often incorporated floral motifs, diffusing soft, colored light to enhance the period's optimistic mood.^[34]^[35]^[36] This shift toward simplicity in ornamentation reflected a brief nod to Arts and Crafts principles, prioritizing functional beauty over Victorian excess.^[30]

Structural and Spatial Elements

Edwardian domestic architecture emphasized more fluid and light-filled interiors compared to the compartmentalized spaces of the Victorian era, incorporating elements of open-plan design influenced by the Arts and Crafts movement. Homes often featured interconnected living areas with reduced partitioning, allowing for greater spatial flow, while larger sash or casement windows maximized natural light penetration and visually integrated indoor spaces with surrounding gardens.^[37] This approach created a sense of openness and connection to the outdoors, particularly in suburban villas where shallow floor plans promoted daylight throughout the day.^[37] In suburban developments, Edwardian terrace and semi-detached houses adopted practical layouts that balanced density with comfort, typically arranged in rows or pairs with front porches providing sheltered entryways and rear conservatories extending living space into the garden. These configurations supported the era's growing middle-class expansion into commuter belts, with porches often featuring arched openings or simple canopies to enhance curb appeal, and conservatories serving as transitional zones for leisure and plant cultivation.^[37] Such designs reflected a shift toward more accessible suburban living, where spatial efficiency met aesthetic aspirations for domestic retreat.^[37] Public buildings of the Edwardian period, particularly those in the Baroque style, leveraged reinforced concrete to achieve expansive interiors and wider structural spans, enabling grand civic spaces without excessive load-bearing walls. For instance, Auckland Town Hall (1911), an exemplar of Edwardian Baroque, employed reinforced concrete framing to support its domed auditorium and ceremonial halls, allowing for uninterrupted vistas and heightened ceilings that conveyed imperial scale.^[38] This innovation facilitated the construction of monumental town halls in the early 1900s, where concrete's tensile strength complemented ornate facades to symbolize civic pride and technological progress.^[39] In larger country estates, Edwardian architecture maintained a pronounced spatial hierarchy, with principal living quarters distinctly separated from service wings to uphold social distinctions and operational efficiency. Main areas, including reception rooms and family suites, were positioned for optimal views and privacy, while service wings—often extending to the rear or side—housed kitchens, staff quarters, and utility spaces, connected via discreet passages to minimize servant visibility.^[40] This layout preserved the estate's formal grandeur while accommodating the era's elaborate household management, ensuring a clear divide between public and private domains.^[40]

Key Figures and Practices

Prominent Architects

Sir Edwin Lutyens (1869–1944) was a leading figure in Edwardian architecture, renowned for his country houses that skillfully merged Arts and Crafts principles with classical symmetry and formal layouts.^[41] His design for Deanery Garden (1901) exemplified this approach, featuring vernacular materials, intricate detailing, and harmonious integration with the landscape, commissioned by Edward Hudson of Country Life magazine.^[42] Throughout the Edwardian era (1901–1914), Lutyens's portfolio expanded to include numerous domestic commissions that emphasized comfort, craftsmanship, and subtle grandeur.^[43] Post-1910, he shifted toward larger imperial projects, such as the planning of New Delhi starting in 1911, where he incorporated Edwardian Baroque elements adapted to a colonial context.^[44] Mackay Hugh Baillie Scott (1865–1945) pioneered innovative domestic architecture during the Edwardian period, focusing on integrated interiors that prioritized functionality and aesthetic harmony.^[45] His work at Blackwell (completed around 1900 but emblematic of early Edwardian style) showcased built-in furniture, inglenook fireplaces with decorative tiling, and open-plan spaces that blurred boundaries between rooms, reflecting a commitment to the home as a total artistic environment.^[46] Baillie Scott's designs from 1901 to 1914 emphasized simplicity, natural materials, and custom fittings, influencing the broader Arts and Crafts legacy in suburban housing.^[47] C.F.A. Voysey (1857–1941) was a prominent Arts and Crafts architect whose Edwardian designs emphasized simplicity, craftsmanship, and harmony with the natural environment. His house The Homestead (1906) in Frinton-on-Sea featured characteristic plain brick walls, a steep roof, and functional interiors, exemplifying the transition toward more restrained domestic forms.^[48] W.H. Romaine-Walker (1854–1940) contributed to Edwardian architecture through restorations and country houses that blended historical revival with modern conveniences. Notable was his remodeling of Kingsgate Castle (1901–1912) for Lord Avebury, incorporating Jacobean-style elements and practical additions like a motor house.^[1] Charles Holden (1875–1960) contributed to Edwardian architecture through public buildings that introduced early functionalist tendencies, prioritizing practical form over ornamentation.^[49] Notable early works include the Belgrave Hospital for Children (1903) and the Central Reference Library in Bristol (1906), where he employed clean lines, efficient spatial organization, and restrained detailing suited to institutional needs.^[49] His career in the Edwardian era (1901–1914) bridged traditional and emerging modern approaches, particularly in urban infrastructure.^[50]

Building Firms and Collaborations

During the Edwardian period, architectural firms and partnerships were instrumental in scaling up projects through coordinated efforts, often blending British traditions with international expertise to meet the demands of expanding urban commerce and suburbs. Firms specializing in commercial buildings frequently adopted the Edwardian Baroque style for its grandeur and adaptability to large-scale facades, enabling the construction of iconic department stores that symbolized economic prosperity. A notable example is the partnership behind London's Selfridges department store, completed in 1909, where the Chicago-based firm D. H. Burnham & Co. collaborated with British architects Francis Swales and Frank Atkinson to integrate American Beaux-Arts planning with local engineering needs, resulting in a steel-framed structure that influenced subsequent retail designs.^[51] Similarly, the firm of John Belcher and John James Joass executed the expansive Whiteley's department store in Bayswater from 1908 to 1912, employing Portland stone and steel framing to achieve an opulent Edwardian Baroque exterior that expanded the original Victorian site into a multi-level retail complex. In residential development, speculative builders drove mass housing initiatives, standardizing Edwardian terraces for the growing middle class in outer London. The Reader Brothers, operating from 1898 to 1939, exemplified this approach by constructing semi-detached and terraced homes in areas like Muswell Hill and Finchley, often one project at a time to mitigate financial risk while adhering to Arts and Crafts-inspired detailing for market appeal.^[52] The First World War disrupted these operations profoundly; many firms, including smaller partnerships reliant on pre-war commissions, dissolved post-1914 as architects and engineers were conscripted, labor shortages mounted, and building materials were redirected to the war effort, effectively curtailing the Edwardian style's dominance.^[53]

Materials and Techniques

Common Materials

Edwardian architecture frequently employed red brick as a primary material, valued for its affordability and structural reliability in both urban and suburban contexts. This was often augmented with terracotta dressings, which added decorative elements like cornices, arches, and panels while enhancing durability through their weather-resistant, fired clay composition. The combination provided a warm, reddish hue that contrasted effectively with urban surroundings, and terracotta's smooth surface repelled soot and grime prevalent in early 20th-century cities.^[54] Glazed terracotta, known as faience, emerged as a favored material for decorative panels during the Edwardian period, offering vibrant, glossy finishes in colors like oxblood red and green that withstood environmental exposure better than unglazed alternatives. Its use allowed for intricate, hygienic ornamentation on building facades, particularly in public structures. Notable examples include the oxblood faience cladding on Edwardian London Underground stations, which contributed to their distinctive, bold aesthetic.^[55] A revival of timber framing characterized many suburban Edwardian homes, adopting mock-Tudor styles to evoke historical charm through exposed dark-stained beams. These frames were typically filled with plaster infill, creating white-painted panels that accentuated the black-and-white contrast and lent a cozy, vernacular appearance to residences.^[56] Architects shifted from the heavier cast iron frameworks of the Victorian era to lighter steel structures in Edwardian designs, which provided greater tensile strength and reduced weight for supporting expansive building envelopes. This innovation facilitated larger glazed areas, such as expansive shop windows and bay designs that flooded interiors with natural light and promoted openness in commercial and domestic spaces.^[57]^[58] Stucco, a rendered plaster finish, was applied aesthetically to smooth surfaces and mimic finer stonework in Edwardian facades.

Construction Innovations

During the Edwardian era, the integration of electric lighting and indoor plumbing into domestic architecture represented a pivotal shift toward modern conveniences, particularly in middle-class homes. These features became increasingly common in new urban and suburban dwellings, transitioning from luxury amenities in upper-class residences to more widespread elements, though full standardization occurred later. Electric lighting replaced gas and oil lamps, reducing fire hazards and enabling brighter, more flexible interior spaces, while plumbed systems provided reliable hot and cold water supply along with sanitation facilities like indoor bathrooms and WCs. This adoption was driven by expanding municipal infrastructure and affordable electrification, allowing architects to design homes with dedicated wiring and pipework integrated into walls and floors from the outset.^[59]^[60]^[61] A key structural innovation was the widespread use of Portland cement in concrete foundations, which diminished dependence on timber framing in larger buildings and supported the era's emphasis on durability and scale. Invented in the early 19th century but refined for mass production by the late Victorian period, Portland cement enabled strong, weather-resistant bases that could bear heavier loads without the rot-prone vulnerabilities of wood. In domestic and commercial projects, this material facilitated deeper excavations and more uniform settling, contributing to the longevity of Edwardian structures amid growing urbanization. As detailed in studies of British building practices, firms like Hodkin and Jones employed Portland cement extensively around 1900 for artificial stone blocks and reinforced foundations, often concealing concrete elements behind traditional facades to blend innovation with aesthetic continuity.^[62]^[63] Prefabrication techniques emerged as an efficiency booster for suburban expansions during the Edwardian era, involving off-site production of standardized components like pre-cast concrete blocks and modular timber frames to cut construction timelines and costs. Influenced by the Garden City movement, these methods supported the development of planned communities, marking an early step toward industrialized housing in Britain.^[64] Regulatory advancements in the 1900s further drove safety enhancements, particularly fireproofing measures in public buildings, responding to urban fire risks and mandating non-combustible materials. London's revised building laws permitted steel and concrete skeleton frames, which isolated structural elements from flames and allowed for taller, safer edifices like offices and institutions. Innovations such as hollow tile arches and Fawcett's ventilated concrete floors provided compartmentalization against fire spread, with regulations emphasizing incombustible construction for high-occupancy spaces. These changes, informed by international examples like U.S. fire reports, ensured Edwardian public architecture prioritized occupant protection without compromising design ambitions.^[65]

Regional Variations and Examples

United Kingdom and Ireland

Edwardian architecture in the United Kingdom and Ireland manifested prominently in both civic monuments and domestic developments, reflecting the era's imperial confidence and social aspirations. A quintessential civic example is Admiralty Arch in London, completed in 1910, which exemplifies Edwardian Baroque style through its grand triumphal form, Portland stone facade, and ornate sculptural details commemorating Queen Victoria.^[39]^[66] Commissioned by King Edward VII, the arch links The Mall to Trafalgar Square and served as government offices, blending ceremonial grandeur with practical functionality in a manner typical of the period's public buildings.^[67] In domestic contexts, Hampstead Garden Suburb in north London represents a pioneering effort in planned housing from 1907 through the 1920s, emphasizing garden city principles with low-density layouts, Arts and Crafts influences, and communal green spaces to promote healthier suburban living.^[68] This development, initiated by Henrietta Barnett and designed with input from architects like Raymond Unwin, featured semi-detached homes with features such as bay windows, tiled roofs, and integrated landscaping, setting a model for middle-class suburban expansion.^[69] The suburban spread in England during this period was marked by rapid housing growth, driven by urbanization, improved rail links, and rising middle-class demand; census data indicate that the total number of inhabited houses in England and Wales increased from 6,260,852 in 1901 to 7,141,781 in 1911, reflecting approximately 881,000 new homes built amid this expansion.^[70] Much of this construction occurred on London's periphery and in other industrial cities, favoring semi-detached and terraced formats that incorporated Edwardian stylistic elements like mock-Tudor detailing and spacious interiors. In Ireland, Edwardian architecture appeared in civic structures that adapted classical revivalism to local contexts, such as the Government Buildings in Dublin, where construction began in 1904 under British administration. This complex, designed in Edwardian Baroque style, features neoclassical columns, domes, and pediments blended with ornate motifs evoking Irish heritage, housing key public offices and symbolizing administrative continuity.^[71] Preservation efforts in the 21st century have safeguarded many Edwardian examples across the UK and Ireland, with numerous structures, including suburban homes and civic edifices, designated as Grade II listed for their architectural and historical significance, ensuring protection against demolition or insensitive alterations.^[72]^[73]

Australia and New Zealand

In Australia and New Zealand, Edwardian architecture adapted British prototypes to the challenges of colonial environments, emphasizing lightweight materials like weatherboard cladding and corrugated iron roofs to withstand seismic activity, high winds, and humid climates. Following Australia's Federation in 1901, this period saw a surge in nation-building projects that blended imperial grandeur with local motifs, such as native flora in decorative elements. The style, often termed Federation architecture in Australia, prioritized symmetry, red brick exteriors, and terracotta tiles while simplifying ornate Victorian details for practicality.^[74]^[75] Prominent Australian examples include the Queen Victoria Building in Sydney, constructed between 1898 and 1907 under architect George McRae, which showcases Romanesque Revival features like copper-sheathed domes, stained-glass windows, and arched colonnades as a transitional hallmark of the Edwardian era's opulence. In Melbourne, Flinders Street Station (completed 1910) represents Edwardian Baroque at its most elaborate, with its terracotta-clad facade, mansard roofs, and sculptural details evoking London's stations while incorporating Australian motifs. These structures highlighted the use of reinforced concrete and steel framing innovations suited to urban growth.^[76]^[77]^[78] In New Zealand, Edwardian influences manifested in timber villas and public halls, particularly in Wellington, where weatherboard construction and low-pitched roofs addressed the region's temperate, rainy conditions. Domestic examples include the matching pair of Edwardian villas at 274 and 276 The Terrace (circa 1910), featuring bay windows, timber porches, and simplified half-timbering inspired by English Tudor styles for middle-class residences. Public buildings like the Wellington Opera House (1911–1914), designed by William Pitt and Albert Liddy, exemplify Edwardian Baroque with its asymmetrical facade, classical pediments, and ornate interior plasterwork, serving as a cultural hub. The former Public Trust Office Building (1908) further demonstrates the style's blend of Renaissance and Baroque elements in concrete and stone, emphasizing corner towers and balustrades for civic prominence.^[75]^[79]^[80] Post-Federation suburban development boomed in the 1910s, with Melbourne's bungalows fusing Edwardian symmetry and Arts and Crafts simplicity—evident in low-slung forms, exposed brickwork, and verandas shaded by wide eaves—to promote outdoor living in Australia's warmer zones. In New Zealand, similar adaptations appeared in Wellington's timber-framed suburbs, where iron roofs and elevated foundations mitigated flooding, fostering a distinctly Oceanic interpretation of Edwardian domesticity.^[81]^[75]

Other Commonwealth Nations

In South Africa, Edwardian architecture manifested in residential designs adapted to the subtropical climate of regions like Johannesburg, where houses from the early 1900s incorporated wide verandas to provide shade and promote airflow amid warm temperatures. These features drew from British colonial traditions, blending symmetrical facades with practical elements like iron lacework on verandas to suit local conditions. A notable example is Stonecrest, an unaltered Edwardian Arts and Crafts mansion on Johannesburg's Westcliff Ridge, constructed around 1902, which exemplifies the era's emphasis on original wood paneling and bay windows while integrating climate-responsive verandas.^[82]^[83]^[84] Precursor designs for major public structures also reflected Edwardian influences, as seen in the Union Buildings in Pretoria, commissioned in 1909 and designed by architect Sir Herbert Baker to symbolize the unification of South Africa's colonies following the 1910 formation of the Union. The project's planning and initial construction phases, spanning 1910 to 1913, incorporated neoclassical elements with local adaptations, such as broad colonnades evoking imperial grandeur while addressing the highveld's environmental demands. This design served as a foundational model for subsequent South African civic architecture, emphasizing symmetry and permanence in the Edwardian idiom.^[85]^[86] In India, Edwardian-era extensions to colonial infrastructure often employed the Indo-Saracenic style, fusing Victorian Gothic Revival with Mughal and Hindu motifs to create hybrid forms suited to the subcontinent's cultural landscape. The Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Terminus (CST) in Bombay, originally constructed in the late 19th century, underwent modifications and expansions in the early 1900s that reinforced its Indo-Saracenic character, including ornate domes, pointed arches, and intricate stonework that blended European symmetry with indigenous decorative elements. These updates, completed around the 1900s, highlighted the persistence of revivalist styles into the Edwardian period, prioritizing monumental scale and climatic resilience through features like high vaults for ventilation.^[87]^[88] Malaysian and Singaporean colonial bungalows from the 1910s exemplified tropical adaptations of Edwardian architecture, incorporating elevated structures and attics to enhance natural ventilation in humid equatorial conditions. Known as black-and-white houses, these residences featured pitched roofs with wide overhanging eaves, timber framing painted in contrasting monochrome, and spacious verandas that echoed Edwardian domestic symmetry while mitigating heat and rainfall. Examples from this period, such as those built for British administrators, often included attic spaces designed for air circulation, drawing on tropical Edwardian principles to maintain comfort without mechanical cooling.^[89] In Sri Lanka, tea estate mansions constructed between 1905 and 1914 blended Edwardian symmetry with local materials like teak, creating hybrid colonial residences that supported the burgeoning plantation economy. These bungalows, built for British managers on estates in the central highlands, typically adopted balanced facades, gabled roofs, and interior teak paneling to evoke imperial elegance while accommodating misty, temperate hill climates. A representative instance is an Edwardian mansion dating to approximately 1906, constructed with imported Burmese teak for its durability and aesthetic warmth, illustrating the era's fusion of formal proportions with regionally sourced woods for longevity in humid environments.^[90]^[91]

International Adaptations

Edwardian architecture, characterized by its lighter, more eclectic interpretation of Baroque and classical forms compared to the heavier Victorian styles, found adaptations outside the British Empire through transatlantic and colonial exchanges. In Argentina, particularly in Buenos Aires during the early 1900s, the style manifested in opulent palacios that blended Edwardian eclecticism with local grandeur, often under the influence of British architects who contributed to the city's cosmopolitan building boom. For instance, the Palacio Balcarce (1913) in the Recoleta neighborhood exemplifies this, featuring ornate facades and interior detailing that echo Edwardian Baroque elements like simplified cornices and ironwork balconies, designed by British architect Walter Bassett Smith to suit the tastes of elite Argentine families.^[92] Similarly, the Retiro Train Station (completed 1915), engineered by British firms such as Easton, Mason & Company, incorporated Edwardian motifs including grand domes and steel-framed structures that symbolized industrial progress and imperial elegance adapted to South American contexts.^[93] In Canada, Edwardian influences appeared in public architecture with Beaux-Arts integrations, particularly in Ottawa's Parliament Hill expansions during the 1910s. The East Block addition (1910–1913), overseen by the Department of Public Works, combined neo-Gothic foundations with Beaux-Arts symmetry and classical pediments, creating a hybrid that reflected Edwardian preferences for balanced, monumental forms suited to federal institutions. This design emphasized functional layouts with limestone interiors and steel framing, marking a shift toward more restrained ornamentation while maintaining imperial symbolism.^[94]^[95] Adaptations in Asia, amid British colonial outposts, included simplified Baroque elements in utilitarian structures. In Hong Kong, Edwardian-era colonial buildings from the 1900s onward featured Queen Anne Revival and Edwardian Baroque styles, with examples like the Former Central Magistracy (1914) showcasing red-brick facades, arched windows, and verandas adapted for tropical climates. Customs houses and marine buildings, such as the early 20th-century extensions to the Harbour Office, employed these motifs—ornate yet practical porticos and iron railings—to denote authority in trade hubs.^[96]^[97] In Taiwan, under Japanese colonial rule from 1895, Western influences filtered through Japanese interpretations, yielding buildings with Edwardian-like restraint in the 1900s; the Kaohsiung Customs House (built 1911–1917) integrated simplified classical columns and barrel vaults, drawing indirectly from British colonial models via Japanese architects trained in Western styles.^[98] Across the United States' East Coast, Edwardian style contributed to transatlantic exchanges in mansion design around 1900–1910, where British-trained firms introduced lighter, more open plans to Gilded Age opulence. Mansions like those in Newport, Rhode Island—such as The Elms (1901) by Horace Trumbauer, who drew from British country house traditions—featured Edwardian elements including expansive terraces, Palladian windows, and subdued classical detailing that emphasized comfort over Victorian excess, facilitating cultural flows between London and New York elites.^[99]^[100]

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Jan 26, 2023 · The Edwardian era saw countless courageous women rise up and shatter social mores – at home, at work and in public life.
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[PDF] The coronation: History and ceremonial - UK Parliament
Apr 29, 2025 · The contemporary form of the coronation dates from 1902, when King Edward VII was crowned. It consists of a state procession from Buckingham ...
[12]
Coronation Buildings - Story of Leicester
The Coronation Buildings marks both the Coronation of Edward VII in 1902 and Britain´s strong ties to its Victorian Empire.Missing: impact | Show results with:impact
[13]
Liberal Landslide: The 1906 General Election - History Today
The general election of 1906 produced a remarkable transformation of the political scene in Britain. An era of Conservative and Unionist hegemony ended.
[14]
[PDF] The New Liberalism, the New Journalism and Emotion in Edwardian ...
Between 1906 and 1914 the new Liberal government paved the way for a more socially active state by passing welfare reforms and reducing the House of Lords'.Missing: architecture | Show results with:architecture
[15]
The history of strikes in the UK - Office for National Statistics
Sep 21, 2015 · A widespread workers' consciousness formed in the UK from the peak of the Chartist movement in the 1830s, leading to a wave of strikes in 1842.Missing: impact building Edwardian
[16]
Trade Unions Labour unrest
The war years 1914-18 saw a marked decline in industrial action. Strikes were prohibited under the 1915 Munitions of War Act (see Table 1) but union membership, ...Missing: labor construction
[17]
Britain's Great Labor Revolt Was a High Point of Working-Class Power
Jun 23, 2023 · Britain was rocked by an unprecedented upsurge of labor militancy. Millions of workers began to learn their own strength and posed a major challenge to the ...Missing: Pre- architecture
[18]
[PDF] Fin de rêve: Reactions in the British, French, and American Press to ...
Apr 29, 2011 · The commercial importance of the Exposition was not lost on the British either. The Prince of Wales, who would, in 1901, become King Edward VII ...Missing: Edwardian | Show results with:Edwardian
[19]
E. W. Godwin and Modernism - Bard Graduate Center
17 The piece was included in a groundbreaking exhibition of Victorian and Edwardian decorative arts that was held at the Victoria and Albert Museum in 1952.
[20]
(PDF) Introduction: Edwardian Art and its Legacies - Academia.edu
See Richard Fellows, Edwardian Architecture. Style and Technology (London: Lund Humphries, 1995) and Lynne Walker, 'Architecture and Design: Heart of Empire ...<|separator|>
[21]
E. W. Godwin and Modernism - Bard Graduate Center
The orthodox construction of Godwin as a Modernist designer picks up on the rhetoric of design as an autonomous activity and the designer as somehow divorced ...
[22]
Edwardian Baroque Architecture - Tuscan Foundry
Jan 9, 2023 · This baroque revival of the early 20th century happened during the Edwardian era 1901–1910 and the reign of King Edward VII, although the period ...
[23]
What Was the 1900 Paris Exposition? (with 5 Amazing Attractions)
Mar 21, 2023 · ... British Pavilion for the 1900 Paris Exposition, designed by Sir Edward Landseer Lutyens. Pavilions were an important part of the 1900 Paris Expo ...
[24]
https://www.architectural-review.com/essays/reputations/cfa-voysey-1857-1941
[25]
History of The Arts and Crafts Movement - William Morris Lamp
The movement was primarily led by William Morris, who disliked the mass production of furniture as the result of the Industrial Revolution. Instead, he wanted ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[26]
CFA Voysey (1857–1941) - The Architectural Review
Aug 24, 2015 · Charles Francis Annesley Voysey (1857-1941) is an architect whose reputation has fallen between two stools, largely due to an issue of classification.
[27]
Voysey's architecture
This paper deals with the architecture of CFA Voysey in the context of the English Arts & Crafts of which he was perhaps the greatest force.
[28]
Charles Rennie Mackintosh - The Art Story
Nov 9, 2018 · Charles Rennie Mackintosh, Scottish Architect, Designer, and Painter. Born: June 7, 1868 - Glasgow, Scotland. Died: December 10, 1928 - London, England.
[29]
Edwardian Pebbledash and Roughcast
The Arts and Crafts movement that ensued adopted the palette of materials and forms popularised by Shaw, including tall chimneys, small-paned windows, clay ...Missing: simplified | Show results with:simplified
[30]
A guide to UK house styles, eras and architectural features
Oct 14, 2022 · Leaded casement windows, sometimes arranged as bays or in dormers. Stained glass was also popular. "Arts & Crafts windows were typically ...
[31]
https://www.ornamentalist.net/2009/04/exterior-color-two-stucco-edwardians.html
[32]
Exploring Architecture: Discover the Secrets of Edwardian Homes
Art nouveau style, which embraces floral designs and motifs, also influenced wallpaper designs ... Many Edwardian homes also feature multipaned leaded windows.Missing: rendering | Show results with:rendering
[33]
Exterior Color: Two Stucco Edwardians - The Ornamentalist
The result is a calm, period-style facade with elegant detail. Here is another Edwardian-era stucco and wood house with some similar issues: Cole Street ...Missing: bay wrought- balconies motifs swags garlands<|control11|><|separator|>
[34]
Identifying Georgian, Victorian and Edwardian period architecture
May 16, 2019 · The eclectic mix of influences means that from the exterior, Edwardian homes might be identified by Dutch gables, deep bay windows, sash windows ...
[35]
[PDF] WALWORTH ROAD HISTORIC AREA ASSESSMENT
Jun 27, 2015 · 3.17 According to Edwardian Architecture by Stuart Gray this ... 3.23 No 26 was built in red brick circa 1900 in a Wren-revival style ...
[36]
Homes through the ages: Tudor, Georgian, Victorian, Edwardian
Sep 9, 2016 · Half-timbered with white-painted wattle and daub painted walls, these houses had steeply-pitched roofs and small-paned casement windows, often ...
[37]
Design History: Edwardian - Eve Waldron Design
Apr 25, 2024 · Edwardian architecture is an architectural style popular during the reign of King Edward VII of the United Kingdom (1901 to 1910). Architecture ...
[38]
Exploring Edwardian Residential Architecture In Toronto - Urbaneer
Sep 29, 2022 · Instead, there was a movement to built-in benches, shelving, and cabinetry, simple but cheery – often floral – stained glass patterns and coved ...
[39]
[PDF] Domestic 3: Suburban and Country Houses - Historic England
Status in Victorian and Edwardian Architecture (1999). Cruickshank, D, A Guide to the Georgian Buildings of. Britain and Ireland (1985). Franklin, J, The ...
[40]
[PDF] Reinforced Concrete in the Architecture of Auckland's Town Hall ...
Both buildings were constructed on a triangular site, in the style of Edwardian. Baroque. Facades of Auckland Town Hall were modelled unpretentiously, with a ...
[41]
Edwardian neo-baroque: five of the best examples | Architecture
Sep 10, 2011 · Edwardian neo-baroque: five of the best examples · 1. County Hall, London · 2. Admiralty Arch, London · 3. Bristol Museum and Art Gallery · 4. Port ...Missing: lightness 1905 Crafts
[42]
[PDF] SERVANTS' PASSAGE: Cultural identity in the architecture of ...
Mar 1, 2020 · Spatial analysis techniques are employed to reveal a more complex service story, in both British and American houses and within Anglo-American ...
[43]
The rise and fall and rise of Edwin Lutyens - The Architectural Review
Apr 6, 2018 · Hudson commissioned Lutyens to design him a house – Deanery Gardens – and premises in Covent Garden for the magazine. Subsequently he asked ...
[44]
BIOGRAPHY - 20th-CENTURY ARCHITECTURE
Lutyens built Deanery Gardens (1901) in Berkshire for Edward Hudson, the owner of Country Life magazine, for whom he also built an office in Covent Garden ...
[45]
Edwin Lutyens architect, England buildings
Jul 13, 2025 · The famous Edwardian formal garden, designed by architect Sir Edwin Lutyens and planted by Gertrude Jekyll. The Victorian Shrubbery and ...
[46]
Edwin Lutyens and the Shaping of New Delhi | DailyArt Magazine
Jul 10, 2025 · Explore how Edwin Lutyens blended colonial ambition with Indian design to shape New Delhi, the heart of India's political life.
[47]
Baillie Scott, Mackay Hugh (M.H.) 1865 - 1945 | AHRnet
Mackay Hugh Baillie Scott [commonly known as MH Baillie Scott] was born in Beard's Hill, St. Peter's, near Ramsgate in Kent, England, on 23 October 1865.Missing: tiled | Show results with:tiled
[48]
Blackwell by Mackay Hugh Baillie Scott - The Victorian Web
May 19, 2013 · Built as a holiday home for the rich Manchester brewer Sir Edward Holt (1849-1928), Blackwell has sweeping views across to the Coniston Fells.Missing: 1901 | Show results with:1901
[49]
https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2007/oct/16/architecture1
[50]
Charles Holden's key projects | Architecture | The Guardian
Oct 16, 2007 · Charles Holden's key projects ; Belgrave Hospital for Children (London, 1903). ; Central Reference Library (Bristol, 1906). Holden getting into ...Missing: Edwardian 1901-1914
[51]
Charles Holden: London Transport's architect
Holden introduced the roundel to station architecture which greatly assisted passengers in identifying stations at street level. Tooting Bec station on the ...
[52]
Holden, Charles Henry 1875 - 1960 | AHRnet
In his work on the London Underground Stations, Holden's influence extended to the design of all parts of the buildings including the decoration of the ...
[53]
Selfridges, Non Civil Parish - 1357436 - Historic England
Built in four main phases: the eastern nine bays built in 1906 to 1909 to the design of the architects D H Burnham and Co, Francis Swales, and Frank Atkinson, ...
[54]
The Case of the Reader Brothers 1898-1939 in Greater London - jstor
Jan 5, 2023 · In the early 1900s, they built their business as speculative house builders, typically constructing one house at a time in today's North London.
[55]
Part One: British architecture before the Great War
Nov 11, 2014 · Alan Powers' two-part historical essay reveals World War One's repercussion on the maturation of Modernism and encourages us to re-evaluate ...
[56]
Victorian and Edwardian Terracotta Buildings
The earliest use of terracotta was as hollow pots filled with concrete or as solid blocks, and constructed in the same manner as brick or stone masonry. Whilst ...
[57]
[PDF] Changing London | Historic England
Each of the two most prevalent types of listed stations on the network made extensive use of decorative tiles and faience. The Edwardian oxblood faience.
[58]
Our Heritage - Liberty
Records show more than 24,000 cubic feet of ships timbers were used including their decks now being the shop flooring: The HMS Impregnable - built from 3040 100 ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[59]
Guide to Edwardian houses | Strutt & Parker
London's garden suburbs. Hampstead Heath, Blackheath, Dulwich and Richmond have many examples of Edwardian architecture. St Albans.Missing: townhouses | Show results with:townhouses
[60]
From the archive: 100 years of steel in architecture
Apr 5, 2016 · Steel gave strength, allowed the creation of flexible open-plan interiors and allowed high-rise steel-framed buildings to be constructed at ...
[61]
Victorian and Edwardian London at the Dawn of the Steel Age
Apr 8, 2014 · This book helps bring into focus some of the lesser-appreciated aspects of London's Victorian and Edwardian building art.Missing: transitional | Show results with:transitional
[62]
Electrifying: The story of lighting our homes | Science Museum
Jan 28, 2020 · Gas lighting at home was increasingly popular among the middle classes in the 19th century, although it was usually frowned upon in bedrooms ...
[63]
Antique lighting for your period home - Mr Victorian
Sep 20, 2019 · Gas lighting was ahead in urban working and middle-class homes thanks to the invention of coin-operated gas meters. In contrast, the upper ...Missing: domestic | Show results with:domestic
[64]
Houses in Fin-de-Siècle Britain: Floor Plans and the Layouts of ...
Mar 24, 2016 · The floor plans of Late Victorian and Edwardian houses began to reflect the continually increasing standards of living and the rise of new ...Missing: country spatial hierarchy wings
[65]
[PDF] Hodkin and Jones: a Legacy Cast in Stone
The study investigates the use of concrete in domestic buildings in Britain during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, using Hodkin and Jones as a case ...
[66]
The Development of Portland Cement
Portland cement was simple to use: mix one part cement with three parts sand, add the water and the resulting mortar would be hard by the next day.
[67]
A short history of prefabrication - Prefab Museum
Jun 13, 2018 · Prefabrication is a method of producing standardised components off-site in a factory or workshop, that can be fitted together on-site.
[68]
History of The Suburb
Henrietta Barnett set up the first Hampstead Garden Suburb Trust as a development vehicle. Building in the Suburb was begun in 1907, and the development quickly ...
[69]
[PDF] The Development of Fireproof Construction in Great Britain and 7
The British engineer Charles Sylvester, commenting on developments in structural fire protection in an 1819 parnphlct, wrote that before the introdurtion of the ...
[70]
Admiralty Arch: A London Landmark - World City Trail
Dec 28, 2024 · Architectural Features. Admiralty Arch exemplifies the Edwardian Baroque architectural style, a blend of classical forms and lavish decoration.
[71]
https://www.visitdublin.com/government-buildings
[72]
The Strutt & Parker Guide to Edwardian Architecture & Landscaping
The key feature encapsulated by an Edwardian property is that of spaciousness and light. Large, airy rooms, partnered with wide hallways, elegant staircases and ...Missing: definition | Show results with:definition
[73]
Garden Suburbs: Architecture, Landscape and Modernity 1880-1940
Sep 10, 2013 · Hampstead worked, partly because of Henrietta Barnett's driving force and contacts, and partly because of Unwin's designs, which achieved an ...
[74]
Total Number of Dwelling Houses for England and Wales, Great ...
Graph and download economic data for Total Number of Dwelling Houses for England and Wales, Great Britain (A02136GB37000A554NNBR) from 1875 to 1915 about ...Missing: suburban 1901-1911
[75]
Government Buildings - Visit Dublin
The Government Buildings is a fine example of Edwardian architecture built by the British administration in Ireland, with the foundation stone laid in 1904.
[76]
What Are Listed Buildings? | Historic England
Feb 11, 2025 · Listed buildings are buildings of special architectural or historic interest with legal protection. The record of each listed building is hosted on the ...
[77]
The Victorian Society advice about Listed buildings
The criteria for listing buildings built between 1840 and 1914 are very strict, and if a building cannot meet them it is refused for listing.Missing: preservation | Show results with:preservation
[78]
An overview of Federation Architecture - RTF | Rethinking The Future
Generally speaking, the Federation style is the Australian version of the Edwardian and is deferred primarily on Australian motifs, flora, and geometric designs ...
[79]
Early 20th-century domestic architecture
Sep 18, 2014 · Architect-designed houses of the Edwardian period (1902–10) were often grand in scale. Some featured boards fixed to exterior walls to suggest the half- ...
[80]
About - QVB
The elaborate Romanesque architecture was specially planned for the grand building so the Government could employ many out-of-work craftsmen - stonemasons, ...
[81]
AUSTRALIA - 20th-CENTURY ARCHITECTURE
The ornate Flinders Street Station (1911, Melbourne), by J.W. Fawcett and H.P.C. Ashworth, was an Edwardian Baroque masterpiece and emulated not only buildings ...
[82]
Federation architecture | The Dictionary of Sydney
Federation architecture · The YMCA Building, Pitt Street c1930 · Architectural plans for Toxteth Park Hotel, Westmoreland Street, Forest Lodge, 7 June 1906.
[83]
Houses - Wellington City Heritage
Nov 27, 2017 · The houses at 274 and 276 The Terrace are a matching pair of Edwardian villas. They are a good representative example of middleclass housing.
[84]
The Opera House - Wellington City Heritage
Jun 22, 2017 · This Edwardian Baroque building's classical elements form a well-proportioned asymmetrical facade. The interior features a sumptuous decorative scheme.Missing: 1906 | Show results with:1906
[85]
1910s architecture in Australia: house styles and influences
Jan 21, 2022 · Step back in time and explore the charm of 1910s houses in Australia. See how these historic homes retain their beauty while embracing ...
[86]
Stonecrest: A Tour Of The Historic Edwardian Home
one of the most beautifully unaltered Edwardian Arts and Crafts homes on the Westcliff Ridge in Johannesburg — is named after the ...
[87]
Architecture through the ages: SA's most fascinating building styles
Oct 16, 2025 · With the arrival of British colonial rule came an explosion of ornament and grandeur. Iron lacework verandas, turrets, clock towers, and Gothic ...<|separator|>
[88]
Edwardian Villa in Johannesburg South Africa - Pinterest
Jul 21, 2022 · Explore Annabelle Desfontaines's historic villa in Westcliff, Johannesburg, South Africa built in 1902. Discover charming English cottage ...Missing: verandas | Show results with:verandas
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https://www.roots.gov.sg/stories-landing/stories/black-and-white-houses-in-singapore/story
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The Birth of the Union Buildings - Pretoria - The Heritage Portal
On the 26th November 1910 the cornerstone of the Union Building was laid by the Duke of Connaught.Missing: precursor Edwardian
[91]
[PDF] Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus (formerly Victoria Terminus )
Jul 7, 2004 · new style called Indo-Saracenic architecture. ... The century old railway station, an excellent architectural blend of Victorian Gothic.
[92]
When European and Indian influences merged at railway stations
The main characteristic of Indo-Saracenic design were bulbous onion shaped domes, overhanging eaves, pointed and cusped arches, domed kiosks, many miniature ...
[93]
Black and White Houses in Singapore - Roots.sg
Jul 24, 2024 · Over time, other influences, such as tropical Edwardian, trickled into the architectural lexicon of Singapore's black and white houses. The ...Missing: Malaysia 1910s
[94]
Black and white bungalow - Wikipedia
Such houses typically have a pitched roof with wide overhanging eaves due to the rainy tropical condition, and the high roof also allows for good ventilation ...Missing: Edwardian attics 1910s
[95]
Exploring An 118 Year Old Edwardian Mansion In Sri Lanka
Oct 31, 2018 · Records indicate that two shiploads of teak were imported from Burma for its construction. The entire building is characterized by intricate ...Missing: tea symmetry 1905-1914
[96]
[PDF] 1 CEYLON TEA TRAILS The Bungalows & The Planters By Royston ...
The first tea was planted in 1867. Bungalows were built, and planters' wives managed staff and gardens. The first coffee planters started in 1861.
[97]
Palacio Balcarce, Buenos Aires. This 1913 mansion in the Recoleta ...
Mar 9, 2019 · This 1913 mansion in the Recoleta neighbourhood, was designed by British architect Walter Bassett Smith (1859-1932) for José González Balcarce ( ...Restoration of Romanelli House in Buenos Aires, ArgentinaTe largest mansion in South America: Located in Buenos Aires city ...More results from www.facebook.com
[98]
City Travel Guide: Architecture in Buenos Aires
Apr 27, 2023 · The massive Retiro Station was completed in 1915 and was designed by British architects and engineers who were primarily responsible for ...
[99]
History, Art and Architecture Parliamentary buildings - Past
The facade was made of the same Nepean sandstone, but the building frame was steel, the interior was dominated by limestone and marble instead of flammable wood ...
[100]
Parliament Hill, East Block - Parcs Canada
The East Block was built in 1859-65 to the designs of Thomas Stent and Augustus Laver, architects. It was enlarged in 1910-1913 by the Department of Public ...
[101]
[PDF] Hong Kong Colonial Architecture, 1841-1997
Mar 23, 2015 · This refers to colonial architecture developed in Hong Kong through the reign of King Edward VII (1901- 1910) and World War I (1914-1918).
[102]
Architectural development of Hong Kong, China - RTF
The Edwardian era in Hong Kong refers to the colonial architecture that emerged during the reign of King Edward VII (1901-1910) and World War I.Missing: Taiwan customs
[103]
[PDF] Victorian Influence and the Red House in Taipei
Jan 5, 2014 · Nagano and the Taiwan Sotokufu also attest to Japanese colonial architecture in Taiwan implanting Victorian philosophy, both in spirit and style ...
[104]
The American Country House - Edwardian Promenade
Apr 20, 2009 · The American country house, as an unique, individual entity, developed in their fullest form after 1885.
[105]
From colonial to craftsman homes: How 18 popular American ...
Dec 12, 2022 · New Jersey Real Estate Network compiled a list describing the evolution of 18 popular architectural styles that have shaped US cities and towns.Missing: trained | Show results with:trained