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Elath

Elath, also known as Eloth, was an ancient port city situated at the northern tip of the on the , in the territory of and later controlled by the Kingdom of , serving as a key maritime gateway for trade and naval operations in biblical times. Mentioned in the as a waypoint during the ' journey from the wilderness of (Deuteronomy 2:8), Elath gained prominence under King , who constructed a fleet of ships there alongside the nearby port of to facilitate expeditions to , bringing back gold, silver, ivory, apes, and peacocks every three years (1 Kings 9:26–28; 10:11, 22). The city's strategic importance persisted through subsequent periods; King Jehoshaphat of attempted to revive the fleet at Elath but suffered losses (1 Kings 22:48), while King Uzziah () successfully rebuilt and fortified it around 785–733 BCE, restoring Judah's access to commerce (2 Kings 14:22). Following the biblical era, Elath evolved into a vital hub under Ptolemaic (as ), Nabatean (as Aila), Roman, and Byzantine rule, anchoring trade routes to and beyond, remaining important through the early Islamic period until its gradual decline in the late medieval and eras. In modern times, the site corresponds to the location of , Israel's southernmost city, which was established after forces captured the area known as Um al-Rashrash from control on March 10, 1949, during in the War of Independence, transforming it into a thriving and commercial with a population of approximately 53,000 as of 2024.

and Naming

Origins of the Name

The name Elath derives from the Semitic noun 'ēlâ (אֵלָה), denoting a (Pistacia terebinthus), a resilient species adapted to arid conditions and possibly evoking the scattered groves characteristic of the Gulf of Aqaba's coastal landscape. This linguistic root underscores an ancient connection between the settlement and its natural surroundings, where such trees provided rare oases amid the desert terrain. The earliest non-biblical reference to Elath identifies it as a key trading partner with ancient Egypt's Red Sea port of Elim during the Fourth Dynasty (c. 2613–2494 BCE), facilitating exchanges of goods like frankincense, myrrh, and bitumen across the gulf. Prior to Israelite involvement, Elath emerged as an Edomite settlement, reflecting its origins within the pre-Israelite Semitic cultural sphere of the southern Transjordan region. A variant spelling, Eloth, appears in later ancient texts, maintaining the core association with the Semitic term for groves or wooded areas.

Variations Across Sources

In biblical texts, the name of the site is rendered as "Elath" in Deuteronomy 2:8, where it is mentioned alongside during the ' journey around . In other passages, such as 2 Kings 14:22 and 2 Chronicles 26:2, the form "Eloth" appears in translations like the King James Version, reflecting minor orthographic variations in English renderings of the Hebrew אֵילֹת (ʾÊlōṯ). These differences stem from the Hebrew plural form suggesting "palm groves," a denoting terebinth trees or oases. Following the biblical era, the name underwent adaptations in subsequent cultures and languages. During the , the associated port area was referred to as by the historian in his (8.6.4), linking it to Ptolemaic influences. Under Nabatean control, the settlement became known as Ayla, a form preserved in archaeological inscriptions and trade records from the region. In the and Byzantine periods, the name evolved to Aela, as attested in Latin and sources describing the site's role as a key harbor. This transitioned into Arabic as Aylah or Aila during the early Islamic era, with medieval Arabic geographers like al-Idrisi noting it as a fortified . The name Eilat directly descends from these ancient forms, revived in the 20th century for the Israeli city at the site's location.

Geography and Location

Physical Setting

Elath was situated at the northern tip of the Gulf of Aqaba, an arm of the Red Sea that facilitated maritime access to ancient trade routes extending southward. This strategic coastal position is associated with the area around the archaeological site of Tell el-Kheleifeh, at the convergence of overland paths from the Arabian interior and the sea, enhancing its role as a gateway for exchange in antiquity. The surrounding terrain consisted of an arid desert landscape within the Wadi Arabah, characterized by dry riverbeds (wadis) that occasionally channeled flash floods, alongside sandy dunes and rugged mountains. Approximately 20-30 kilometers to the north lay the Timna Valley, a key area for ancient copper mining amid similar desert formations. The coastal waters featured coral reefs, which supported marine biodiversity and likely influenced local maritime practices. Climatic conditions were hot and dry, with summer daytime temperatures reaching 40-50°C and minimal annual rainfall under 50 mm, fostering hyper-arid conditions that limited vegetation to sparse, resilient flora such as acacias and tamarisks in occasional oases. These environmental factors, while challenging for sustained , proved advantageous for port-based activities, as the reliable access to the gulf's calm waters enabled seafaring despite the harsh inland aridity.

Proximity to Modern Settlements

Ancient Elath is situated at the northern tip of the , in the area overlapping with the modern Israeli city of on the western shore and the Jordanian city of on the eastern shore. This positioning places associated ancient sites approximately 500 meters from the gulf's shoreline, highlighting their strategic maritime orientation in antiquity. The primary archaeological mound in the vicinity, Tell el-Kheleifeh, lies within Jordanian territory, immediately adjacent to the international with . Scholarly identifications of this low tell vary, with some associating it with biblical Elath and others with the nearby port of . The shared access to the from this border-straddling location has long underscored the site's role in facilitating cross-shore connectivity, a factor that continues to shape geographic interdependencies between the adjacent modern settlements. Ancient port functions at Elath were intrinsically tied to this gulf proximity, enabling trade and naval activities across regional networks.

Biblical References

Mentions in the Torah and Early Texts

In Deuteronomy 2:8, Elath is referenced as a key geographical point during the ' journey after their wilderness wanderings, where they skirted the territory of by turning from the road leading from Elath and toward the wilderness of . This passage portrays Elath as the northern endpoint of the route along the , marking the boundary between Edomite lands and the path taken by the to avoid conflict. Elath serves as a in the narrative of route, situated at the conclusion of the post-wilderness travels in the context of the Pentateuchal accounts according to the late date theory ( BCE). This positioning underscores its role as a transitional from the southern desert regions into areas closer to the , emphasizing geographical constraints on the migration. Elath is closely linked to , often treated as a paired or adjacent port in early texts, particularly in the itinerary of stations outlined in Numbers 33:35–36, where the camped at Ezion-geber before proceeding to Kadesh in the . Scholarly debate exists on whether Elath and Ezion-geber represent the same site or distinct locations near the head of the .

References in the Books of Kings and Chronicles

In the Books of Kings and Chronicles, Elath is prominently featured in narratives concerning the united monarchy under and subsequent military struggles in the divided kingdoms, emphasizing its role as a strategic port. The earliest references occur during 's reign, linking Elath to maritime endeavors. In 1 Kings 9:26, it is stated that "King also built ships at , which is near Elath in , on the shore of the ," positioning the site as a key hub for naval construction and trade with regions like . A parallel account in 2 Chronicles 8:17 records that "Then went to and Elath on the coast of ," underscoring the king's direct involvement in establishing control over these coastal locations for . These passages illustrate Elath's proximity to and its integration into Judah's early imperial ambitions. Subsequent mentions in the divided kingdom period highlight Elath's contested status amid Edomite revolts and regional conflicts. Following the death of King Amaziah, 2 Kings 14:22 attributes to his son (also called ) the action of rebuilding the city: "He was the one who rebuilt Elath and restored it to after Amaziah rested with his ancestors," signifying a Judean effort to reassert dominance after Edomite incursions. This event is corroborated in 2 Chronicles 26:2, which states identically, "He was the one who rebuilt Elath and restored it to after Amaziah rested with his ancestors," reinforcing the Chronicler's emphasis on royal achievements in fortifying southern borders. The final biblical reference in these books depicts Elath's loss during the . In 2 Kings 16:6, it is recounted that "At that time, king of recovered Elath for by driving out the people of . Edomites then moved into Elath and have lived there to this day," marking the expulsion of Judean forces under King and the subsequent Edomite resettlement, which severed Judah's access to the . This verse underscores the geopolitical vulnerabilities of the port in the face of Aramean aggression.

Historical Development

Edomite Origins and Israelite Conquest

While the copper mines were active under Edomite control in the 10th century BCE, with archaeological evidence indicating that had developed into an organized polity by the late 11th to early 10th centuries BCE and peak copper activity during this period supporting extensive trade networks, there is no evidence of a contemporary settlement at Elath. production at Timna exceeded local needs and was exported to regions including and the . According to biblical accounts, the site's incorporation into Israelite territory occurred through King David's conquest of circa 1000 BCE, where David established garrisons across the region to assert oversight. This military campaign, referenced in the historical books of the , marked the transition from Edomite autonomy to Israelite dominance, allowing access to Edom's southern resources. However, archaeological evidence for Israelite control at Elath in the 10th century BCE is lacking, with the earliest significant occupation at the associated site of Tell el-Kheleifeh dating to the BCE. Biblical accounts describe Elath's strategic location on the Red Sea as enhancing its value for regulating trade routes connecting Arabia's incense and spice caravans with African commodities across the gulf. Under Israelite control following the conquest, this oversight is said to have bolstered regional influence over maritime and overland exchanges.

Solomonic Expansion and Trade Role

During the reign of King Solomon (c. 970–930 BCE), biblical accounts describe Elath, alongside the nearby port of Ezion-Geber, emerging as a critical maritime hub following David's earlier conquest of Edom, which secured Israelite control over the northern Red Sea coast. Solomon constructed a fleet of ships at Ezion-Geber, which is beside Elath on the shore of the Red Sea in the land of Edom, enabling direct access to international trade routes. This initiative marked a significant expansion of Israelite naval capabilities, transforming the region into a base for long-distance voyages. However, archaeological evidence does not confirm a 10th-century BCE port at the site. The fleet's primary expeditions targeted , a distant source of wealth, where the ships exported —likely smelted from regional mines—and returned laden with , including 420 talents of (approximately 12,600–14,300 kilograms, depending on the talent weight of 30–34 kg) in a single voyage, as well as spices and other valuables. These "ships of " undertook journeys lasting about three years, importing not only but also silver, , apes, and peacocks, which underscored the exotic scope of the . To bolster these operations, formed a with Hiram, , who supplied seasoned Phoenician sailors and cedar timber essential for shipbuilding, leveraging Tyre's maritime expertise to navigate the challenging and beyond. Biblical accounts portray this Red Sea access as fueling an economic boom for the United Monarchy, positioning Elath-Ezion-Geber as a gateway for commerce with regions such as (via ), , and , where spices, gold, and other commodities flowed into Israelite markets, enhancing Solomon's legendary wealth and influence. The influx of these goods not only enriched the royal treasury but also supported grand construction projects, illustrating Elath's pivotal role in Solomon's commercial empire.

Later Ancient History

Conflicts in the Divided Kingdom Period

During the Divided Kingdom period, Elath experienced shifting control amid conflicts between the kingdoms of and , as well as pressures from and . Following the establishment of Elath as a key port under Solomon's united , the site became a focal point of territorial disputes after the kingdom's division around 930 BCE. Edom asserted temporary independence from Judah around 848–841 BCE during the reign of Joram, regaining autonomy in the southern territories including Elath, as Edomites revolted against Judean overlordship. This independence persisted into the BCE, weakening Judah's hold on the southern trade routes. However, King (also known as ) of recaptured and rebuilt Elath around 775 BCE, restoring Judean control and bolstering the port's role in maritime commerce with Arabia and , evidenced by the construction of a square fort at Tell el-Kheleifeh during the early Iron IIB period. These gains were short-lived amid escalating Judean-Edomite border wars, where Edomite incursions threatened 's southern frontier and disrupted access to lucrative networks, including production in the and spice routes from the south. Archaeological remains at sites like Buseirah and Umm el-Biyara indicate Edomite economic expansion during this era, fueling territorial ambitions against . The decisive shift occurred around 734–732 BCE during the , when , king of , allied with of against and recovered Elath for , expelling the Judeans and enabling Edomite resettlement. This loss marked the end of direct Judean control over Elath, severely compromising Judah's southern trade security and shifting economic influence toward Edomite and Aramean powers.

Hellenistic to Byzantine Transitions

During the , following the decline of earlier regional powers, Elath came under Ptolemaic influence in the 3rd century BCE, where it was renamed and developed as a key naval base on the to support and military operations in the region. This renaming and fortification reflected Ptolemaic efforts to control routes amid competition with Seleucid rivals, transforming the site from a modest anchorage into a strategic outpost for naval expeditions and commerce in spices and . Archaeological evidence, including and harbor remnants, indicates sustained activity under Ptolemaic administration, though the settlement remained relatively small compared to major ports like . By the late 1st century BCE, Nabatean forces under King Obodas III (r. 30–9 BCE) seized control of the port, renaming it Ayla and integrating it into their kingdom's extensive network as a vital outlet connected to the inland capital of . Ayla's location at the northern tip of the facilitated the enhancement of caravan routes, allowing Nabateans to dominate the overland transport of Arabian , spices, and luxury goods from southern Arabia to Mediterranean markets via , with the port serving as a hub for maritime arrivals from and . Nabatean production at Ayla, including distinctive fine wares and storage jars, underscores its role as a major economic center, with ceramic evidence dating to the 1st century highlighting local tied to prosperity. This period marked Ayla's peak as a multicultural , blending Arab, , and influences in its architecture and economy until the annexation of Nabatea in 106 . Following the conquest, Ayla—Latinized as Aela—became part of the new province of , with Emperor establishing it as the southern terminus of the Via Nova Traiana highway and stationing a garrison, possibly including elements of , in a fortified legionary outpost to secure trade routes and the eastern frontier. The fort, characterized by robust stone walls and strategic oversight of the harbor, protected against nomadic incursions and supported the flow of goods, evidenced by coins, inscriptions, and artifacts uncovered in excavations. Under rule from the , Aela evolved into a prominent Christian center, designated as a bishopric within the province of Palaestina Tertia, with bishops attending councils such as in 451 . This is attested by the construction of basilical churches, including an early 3rd- to structure—one of Jordan's oldest purpose-built churches—and associated monasteries, which served as pilgrimage sites and hubs for maritime trade in spices and textiles until the . floors, baptisteries, and epigraphic references to bishops highlight the site's religious significance, while its port continued to thrive as a conduit for commerce.

Archaeology

Excavations and Site Identification

The archaeological exploration of Tell el-Kheleifeh, located at the northern tip of the , began with surveys and excavations aimed at identifying it with the biblical sites of and Elath. In 1933, German explorer Fritz Frank surveyed the low mound and proposed its identification as , based on its strategic position near the gulf suitable for maritime trade and copper processing described in biblical accounts. Between 1938 and 1940, American archaeologist Nelson Glueck directed three seasons of excavations at the site under the auspices of the American Schools of Oriental Research, uncovering a fortified settlement with evidence of industrial activity, including copper smelting installations. Glueck identified Tell el-Kheleifeh as the Solomonic port of Ezion-Geber/Elath, linking it to the United Monarchy's expansion and trade networks in the 10th century BCE, and divided the occupational history into five periods spanning the 10th to 4th centuries BCE: Period I (10th century BCE, associated with Solomon, featuring a casemate fort and refinery); Period II (9th century BCE, Jehoshaphat era, with a solid-wall fortress); Period III (8th century BCE, Uzziah period, continued fortress use); Period IV (late 8th–6th centuries BCE, Edomite occupation under Assyrian influence); and Period V (5th–4th centuries BCE, Persian-period settlement with imported pottery). Subsequent analyses refined Glueck's interpretations without new major digs until later decades. In the 1980s, Gary D. Pratico conducted a comprehensive reappraisal of Glueck's unpublished records, , , and , confirming the site's Iron Age II focus but revising the : he consolidated Periods I–III into an 8th–early 6th century BCE phase with a fort transitioning to a solid-wall structure, attributed to Judahite or Edomite control, while upholding Period IV as Edomite and Period V as , with no clear evidence for 10th-century Solomonic activity. Pratico's work emphasized the site's role as a or industrial outpost rather than a major royal port. The equation of Tell el-Kheleifeh with Ezion-Geber/Elath remains debated, as biblical texts distinguish the two as potentially separate locations—an industrial port () and a nearby settlement (Elath)—though often treated interchangeably. Some scholars, including in the 1970s, proposed the offshore island of Jezirat Fara'un () about 10 km south as the true Ezion-Geber due to its natural harbor suitability for ancient shipping, suggesting Tell el-Kheleifeh served as Elath proper; however, limited remains on the island undermine this view. More recent assessments, such as Israel Finkelstein's, posit Tell el-Kheleifeh as Ezion-Geber (a modest Judahite-Edomite fort) with Elath possibly underlying modern , supported by early pottery and later Roman-Byzantine evidence at the latter site.

Major Discoveries and Chronology

Excavations at Tell el-Kheleifeh, associated with the ancient site of Elath, have revealed significant II structures in the form of a mud-brick fortified complex, including a square fort and a larger solid-wall fortress measuring approximately 70 by 75 meters. Conducted by Nelson Glueck between 1938 and 1940, these discoveries encompass thick walls, pillared halls, and associated debris initially interpreted by Glueck as slag heaps from metallurgical activities, though this copper smelting function is now widely disputed and the site is viewed as a or administrative outpost. No major new excavations have occurred since 1940. The complex's design, featuring multiple rooms, points to a defensive and possibly trade-related function, with stratigraphic evidence placing it in an 8th–7th century BCE phase (late Iron IIB), attributed to Judahite, Edomite, or control. Key artifacts from the subsequent phases include and that attest to Elath's integration into regional networks during the 8th–7th centuries BCE. The assemblage features Edomite painted hand-made wares, such as collared-rim jars and cooking pots, alongside Israelite wheel-made forms like burnished storage vessels, recovered from floor levels and destruction debris in the fortified structures. Imports from Arabia, notably a storage jar fragment inscribed in Minaean script, and a impression invoking the Edomite Qos, further evidence commercial exchanges with South Arabian traders and Edomite administrators, highlighting Elath's role as a hub for overland and routes. These finds, concentrated in the late Iron IIB layers, demonstrate diverse cultural influences through and epigraphic material. Stratigraphic evidence indicates a decline in occupation during the Persian period, with minimal remains post-4th century BCE consisting of sparse pottery scatters, including imports, and a few ostraca suggesting limited administrative use in a small (Glueck's Period V, upheld by later analyses). This phase marks a sharp reduction in activity compared to earlier prosperity, as evidenced by thin ash layers and eroded mud-brick fragments overlying the main structures. Subsequent Nabatean and overlays include a modest and harbor remnants, such as stone quays and mooring features, integrated into the broader complex of Aila, dating from the BCE onward and built atop the earlier tell.

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    The First Campaign at Tell el-Kheleifeh (Ezion-geber) - jstor
    Another amulet of Egyptian origin was an Uzat eye of Horus.27 Ezion- geber (Elath) was a busy industrial centre and port, towards which caravans and ships ...