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Israeli

An Israeli is a noun denoting a native, citizen, or inhabitant of the State of Israel, or an adjective describing matters relating to that country or its people.^[1]^[2] The term originated in 1948 upon the establishment of the modern State of Israel on May 14, following the Jewish Agency's declaration of independence amid the termination of the British Mandate and the UN partition resolution for Palestine.^[3]^[4] This event precipitated the 1948 Arab-Israeli War, in which neighboring Arab states invaded, leading to Israel's territorial expansion beyond UN-proposed borders and significant demographic shifts through Jewish immigration and Arab flight or expulsion.^[4]^[5] Israel's population surpassed 9.7 million in recent years, comprising roughly 74% Jews (many descendants of post-1948 immigrants from Europe, the Middle East, and elsewhere), 21% Arabs (predominantly Muslim, with Christian and Druze subgroups), and 5% other non-Jewish, non-Arab residents including foreign workers and unrecognized minorities.^[6] This diversity stems from waves of Jewish aliyah (immigration) driven by persecution and Zionist ideology, alongside indigenous Arab communities and smaller groups, fostering a society marked by linguistic pluralism (Hebrew and Arabic as official languages), religious variation, and ethnic subgroups within the Jewish majority such as Ashkenazi, Sephardi, and Mizrahi.^[6] Key characteristics of Israeli society include a pioneering ethos of self-reliance and innovation, rooted in mandatory military service, rapid technological adaptation, and a cultural emphasis on directness (dugriut) and patriotism amid existential threats.^[7] Israel ranks among global leaders in per-capita patents, cybersecurity exports, and agricultural desalination techniques, achievements attributable to heavy R&D investment and a skilled, conscript-trained workforce.^[7] Defining controversies encompass protracted security conflicts with Palestinian Arabs and neighboring states, involving territorial disputes, settlement expansion, and asymmetric warfare tactics that have drawn international scrutiny—often amplified by institutional biases in media and academic reporting that underemphasize empirical contexts like preemptive defenses or rejectionist Arab positions in peace negotiations. Internal tensions persist over the balance of secularism versus religious authority, economic inequality between periphery and center, and integration of ultra-Orthodox populations with lower workforce participation.^[5]^[7]

History

Ancient Roots and Diaspora

The ancient Israelite presence in the region of Canaan emerged around 1200 BCE, following the Late Bronze Age collapse, with settlements in the central highlands evidencing a distinct ethnic and cultural group distinct from Canaanite city-states. By the 10th century BCE, archaeological evidence supports the formation of a centralized polity, including the Tel Dan inscription from circa 850 BCE referencing the "House of David" as a royal dynasty, and fortified sites like Khirbet Qeiyafa demonstrating administrative sophistication indicative of a united kingdom under rulers such as David and Solomon, though debates persist over its territorial extent and monumental scale due to limited direct epigraphic corroboration beyond biblical accounts.^[8]^[9]^[10] Subsequent divisions into the northern Kingdom of Israel, conquered by Assyria in 722 BCE with mass deportations, and the southern Kingdom of Judah, destroyed by Babylon in 586 BCE leading to the exile of elites to Mesopotamia, disrupted sovereignty but not cultural continuity. Persian conquest allowed a return starting in 538 BCE under Cyrus the Great, enabling the reconstruction of the Second Temple around 516 BCE and reestablishment of Judean autonomy under figures like Ezra and Nehemiah. Roman intervention from 63 BCE onward culminated in the First Jewish-Roman War (66–73 CE), where Titus's siege of Jerusalem in 70 CE breached the city walls after months of starvation and infighting, resulting in the Temple's destruction by fire on August 9–10 (9th of Av), the deaths of approximately 1.1 million inhabitants per contemporary historian Josephus, and the dispersal of survivors as slaves or refugees, solidifying the diaspora (galut).^[11]^[12] Jewish communities proliferated across the Roman Empire, Babylonia, and later medieval Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East, forming Sephardic branches in Iberia and the Mediterranean, Ashkenazi in the Rhineland and Eastern Europe, and Mizrahi in Persian and Arab lands, with populations numbering in the hundreds of thousands by the Middle Ages. Despite geographic fragmentation, identity persisted through adherence to halakha (Jewish law), synagogue-centered communal structures, and textual traditions like the Mishnah (compiled circa 200 CE) and Babylonian Talmud (circa 500 CE), which codified rabbinic interpretations of Torah and adapted practices to exile while emphasizing ancestral ties to Zion via daily prayers such as the Amidah's pleas for restoration.^[13]^[14] Recurrent persecutions underscored vulnerability in host societies, including the 1492 Alhambra Decree by Spain's Ferdinand II and Isabella I, which expelled an estimated 100,000–200,000 practicing Jews by July 31 unless they converted, dispersing them to Portugal, North Africa, and the Ottoman Empire amid property seizures and deaths en route. In the Russian Empire, pogroms erupted post-1881 assassination of Tsar Alexander II, with waves in 1881–1884 affecting over 200 localities and causing thousands of casualties, followed by the 1903 Kishinev pogrom killing 49 and injuring hundreds, and 1918–1921 Civil War violence claiming 35,000–250,000 Jewish lives primarily by White forces, prompting mass emigration and heightening collective memory of ancestral homeland as a causal refuge against assimilation or annihilation.^[15]^[16]^[17]

Zionist Revival and Pre-State Immigration

The Zionist movement emerged in the late 19th century as a response to pervasive European antisemitism, exemplified by events like the Dreyfus Affair in France, prompting Theodor Herzl to publish Der Judenstaat (The Jewish State) in February 1896, advocating for a sovereign Jewish state to ensure self-reliance and protection from persecution.^[18] Herzl convened the First Zionist Congress in Basel, Switzerland, from August 29 to 31, 1897, attended by approximately 200 delegates from 17 countries, which established the World Zionist Organization and formalized goals of Jewish settlement and national revival in Palestine.^[19] This congress marked the ideological foundation for organized immigration, emphasizing practical settlement over assimilation.^[20] Subsequent waves of aliyah (Jewish immigration) translated ideology into action, with the Second Aliyah (1904–1914) bringing 35,000–40,000 mostly socialist pioneers from Russia fleeing pogroms, who prioritized agricultural self-sufficiency by founding collective farms known as kibbutzim, starting with Degania in 1909–1910.^[21]^[22] The Third Aliyah (1919–1923) added around 35,000 immigrants from Eastern Europe in the post-World War I era, expanding labor institutions like the Histadrut, established on December 12, 1920, to organize Jewish workers, promote Hebrew labor, and build economic independence amid British Mandate rule from 1920 to 1948.^[23]^[24] The Fifth Aliyah (1929–1939) saw over 250,000 Jews arrive, driven by Nazi rise in Germany and Eastern European nationalism, bolstering urban and rural development despite British immigration restrictions.^[25] These efforts fostered self-reliant communities focused on defense and land reclamation, as kibbutzim served as frontier outposts.^[26] Under the British Mandate, confirmed by the League of Nations in 1922, escalating Arab violence underscored the need for Jewish self-defense.^[27] The 1929 riots, sparked by Arab claims of Jewish threats to the Al-Aqsa Mosque and disputes over the Western Wall, resulted in 133 Jewish deaths and 116 Arab fatalities, with massacres in Hebron and Safed exposing vulnerabilities and prompting formation of the Haganah militia.^[28]^[29] The 1936–1939 Arab Revolt, involving general strikes and guerrilla attacks against British forces and Jewish settlements, killed thousands and led to British countermeasures, including arms seizures from Jews, which intensified Zionist resolve for sovereignty to ensure security.^[30] These conflicts highlighted causal links between immigration-driven growth and Arab opposition, reinforcing Zionist emphasis on armed self-reliance over reliance on Mandate protection.^[31]

State Formation and Mass In-migration (1948–1967)

The State of Israel declared independence on May 14, 1948, following the UN General Assembly's adoption of Resolution 181 on November 29, 1947, which proposed partitioning Mandatory Palestine into separate Jewish and Arab states with Jerusalem under international administration.^[5] Arab states, including Egypt, Transjordan (Jordan), Syria, Iraq, and Lebanon, rejected the plan and invaded the following day, launching the 1948 Arab-Israeli War to prevent the Jewish state's formation.^[5] The nascent Israeli forces, primarily the Haganah and other Jewish militias reorganized as the Israel Defense Forces (IDF), defended against the coalition while lacking formal alliances or heavy arms due to British Mandate restrictions and an ongoing embargo.^[5] The war concluded with armistice agreements signed in 1949 between Israel and its neighbors, establishing the Green Line as de facto borders; Israel controlled approximately 78% of former Mandatory Palestine, exceeding the 56% allocated in the partition plan, while Jordan annexed the West Bank and Egypt controlled Gaza.^[5] Casualties included around 6,000 Israeli dead (1% of the Jewish population) and the displacement of approximately 700,000-800,000 Arabs from areas that became Israel, alongside the destruction or depopulation of over 400 Arab villages amid combat and expulsions.^[32] These lines held until 1967, providing a fragile peace but exposing Israel to ongoing border incursions by Palestinian fedayeen sponsored by Egypt and others.^[33] From 1948 to 1951, Israel absorbed roughly 688,000 Jewish immigrants, nearly tripling the Jewish population from about 650,000 to over 1.3 million by 1950, driven by the "in-gathering of the exiles" policy under Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion.^[34] This included Holocaust survivors from Europe (around 136,000 by 1951) and, increasingly, Jews fleeing persecution in Arab countries, where pogroms, asset freezes, and expulsions intensified post-1948; for instance, over 120,000 Iraqi Jews airlifted in Operations Ezra and Nehemiah amid bombings and arrests, and nearly all 50,000 Yemeni Jews via Operation Magic Carpet due to forced conversions and violence.^[35] ^[36] Between 1948 and 1951, about 250,000 Jews arrived from Arab and Muslim-majority states like Iraq, Yemen, Libya, and Egypt, where pre-1948 communities totaling 800,000-900,000 faced systemic retaliation for Israel's creation, including citizenship revocations and property seizures.^[37] Absorbing this influx strained resources in a war-ravaged economy, leading to the establishment of ma'abarot—temporary transit camps housing up to 250,000 immigrants in tents and tin shacks by 1950, where conditions included shortages of water, sanitation, and employment.^[38] To manage scarcity, Israel implemented austerity (tzunah) policies from 1949, rationing food, clothing, and currency via coupons, prioritizing essentials amid foreign exchange deficits and reparations from West Germany (starting 1952) for Holocaust assets.^[39] Land reclamation efforts, including draining malarial swamps and afforestation, expanded arable territory from 20% to over 30% of the land by 1960, supporting agricultural self-sufficiency through state-backed kibbutzim and moshavim that employed new arrivals.^[40] Tensions escalated with Egyptian-fed fedayeen raids from Gaza, killing over 400 Israelis from 1951-1956, and the 1955 Czech arms deal to Egypt, prompting Israel's preemptive Sinai Campaign on October 29, 1956, coordinated covertly with Britain and France.^[33] IDF forces captured the Sinai Peninsula and Sharm el-Sheikh in days, neutralizing threats and securing Red Sea shipping, but withdrew under U.S. and UN pressure by March 1957, introducing a UN buffer force.^[41] The operation demonstrated military efficacy despite diplomatic costs, while population growth continued, reaching 2.2 million by 1960 through sustained immigration and natural increase.^[34] These years solidified Israel's foundational resilience, forging a unified society from diverse exiles amid existential threats.

Wars, Expansion, and Demographic Shifts (1967–Present)

In June 1967, Israel launched preemptive airstrikes against Egyptian forces on June 5, responding to Egypt's closure of the Straits of Tiran—a casus belli under international maritime law—and the mobilization of Arab armies from Egypt, Syria, and Jordan that threatened Israel's survival.^[42]^[43] By June 10, Israel had captured the Sinai Peninsula and Gaza Strip from Egypt, the West Bank (Judea and Samaria) from Jordan, and the Golan Heights from Syria, tripling its controlled territory and enabling Jewish resettlement in biblical heartlands previously depopulated of Jews.^[44] These gains shifted demographics by facilitating over 100 initial settlements in Judea and Samaria by the 1970s, with the Jewish population there expanding to approximately 500,000 by the 2020s through state-supported and private initiatives prioritizing security and historical claims.^[45] Mass immigration further transformed Israel's population post-1967. Between 1990 and 2000, over 1 million Jews and eligible family members from the former Soviet Union arrived via aliyah, increasing Israel's total population by about 20% and injecting engineering and scientific expertise that catalyzed the "Startup Nation" tech boom, with immigrant-founded firms contributing disproportionately to exports.^[46] Ethiopian Jewish airlifts complemented this: Operation Moses evacuated roughly 8,000 from Sudan in late 1984 amid famine and persecution, while Operation Solomon airlifted over 14,000 from Ethiopia in May 1991 over 36 hours using 35 flights, adding diversity but straining absorption resources.^[47]^[48] Palestinian uprisings tested these demographic gains. The First Intifada (1987–1993) featured stone-throwing, Molotov cocktails, and stabbings, killing over 100 Israeli civilians, while the Second Intifada (2000–2005) escalated to suicide bombings claiming about 1,000 Israeli lives, mostly non-combatants, and prompted the construction of a West Bank security barrier starting in 2002.^[49] Empirical data show the barrier's completion in phases correlated with a 90% drop in suicide attacks originating from secured areas by 2007, enabling population stabilization and growth by curtailing infiltrations that had previously driven internal migrations and economic disruptions.^[50] Israel's 2005 Gaza disengagement unilaterally removed 21 settlements and evacuated 8,500 Jewish residents, ceding internal control to Palestinian Authority governance but yielding Hamas's 2007 takeover, fortified militarization, and over 20,000 rockets fired at Israeli civilians since.^[51] The October 7, 2023, Hamas incursion—coordinating ground assaults, rockets, and paragliders—killed 1,200 Israelis, primarily civilians in kibbutzim and at a music festival, with 250 taken hostage, marking the deadliest day for Jews since the Holocaust and displacing 100,000+ from border zones amid retaliatory operations.^[52]^[53] These conflicts reinforced security-driven societal adaptations, including mandatory service and fortified communities, yet Israel's population surpassed 10 million by September 2025—up from 2.8 million in 1967—fueled by Jewish fertility rates averaging 3.1 births per woman (versus global declines elsewhere) and net immigration exceeding 30,000 annually in recent years, underscoring resilience against existential pressures.^[6]^[54]

Demographics

Population Size and Growth

As of September 2025, Israel's population stood at 10.148 million, up from approximately 806,000 at the state's founding in May 1948.^[55]^[34] This represents a more than twelvefold increase over 77 years, with recent annual growth averaging about 1%, down from higher rates in prior decades but still among the elevated figures globally.^[55]^[54] The rapid expansion from 1948 to 1967, when the population reached roughly 2.78 million, was propelled by mass immigration through Aliyah—waves of Jewish newcomers from Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa—complemented by natural increase amid post-independence stability.^[34] These influxes, often exceeding 100,000 annually in peak years like the 1950s, transformed a nascent state into a demographically robust nation, offsetting earlier Jewish population declines in the diaspora from persecution, emigration, and low birth rates.^[34] Sustaining this trajectory, Israel's total fertility rate remains high at 2.9 children per woman as of 2024, with Jewish women averaging 3.1, exceeding replacement levels and bucking global declines in developed nations.^[56]^[57] Ongoing Aliyah, though fluctuating, continues to contribute, with tens of thousands arriving yearly from regions facing antisemitism or economic hardship, bolstering resilience against assimilation-driven depopulation observed elsewhere in Jewish communities.^[58] Projections from Israel's Central Bureau of Statistics anticipate the population reaching 13.2 million by 2040, driven primarily by persistent high fertility and moderate immigration, ensuring long-term demographic vitality.^[59] This outlook underscores how endogenous growth factors have positioned Israel as a counterweight to historical Jewish demographic vulnerabilities.^[60]

Ethnic and National Composition

Israel's population is ethnically diverse, with Jews forming the core national group and comprising approximately 7.4 million individuals, or 74% of the total as of mid-2025. This Jewish majority encompasses subgroups of varied ancestral origins, including Ashkenazi Jews of Central and Eastern European descent (roughly 30-35% of the Jewish population), Sephardi Jews tracing roots to the Iberian Peninsula and their descendants, and Mizrahi Jews primarily from Middle Eastern and North African countries (about 50% combined with Sephardi). These divisions reflect waves of immigration driven by historical persecutions, expulsions, and the Zionist return to the ancestral homeland, resulting in a mosaic of cultural influences within a unified Jewish identity centered on shared history and self-determination.^[6]^[61] Arab citizens constitute about 21% of the population, numbering roughly 2.1 million, and are predominantly of Palestinian descent, with the majority identifying as Muslim alongside smaller Christian and Druze communities integrated within this group. While afforded full citizenship rights under Israeli law, including voting and equal civil protections, Arab Israelis exhibit varying degrees of national loyalty, with surveys indicating lower identification with the state compared to the Jewish majority, often tied to kinship with Palestinians in neighboring territories and sporadic tensions during conflicts.^[61]^[55] The remaining 5% includes non-Arab minorities such as the Druze (approximately 152,000 as of 2024), Circassians (around 4,000), and smaller numbers of African migrants from Eritrea and Sudan who have gained residency or citizenship. The Druze stand out for their compulsory military service in the Israel Defense Forces since 1957, paralleling Jewish obligations and cultivating a "blood covenant" of alliance with the state, which has enhanced their socioeconomic integration and political representation relative to other minorities. Circassians, also Muslim and exempt from some Arab-specific dynamics, similarly enlist voluntarily, contributing to defense efforts.^[62]^[63]^[64] This composition is framed by the 2018 Basic Law: Israel - The Nation-State of the Jewish People, which codifies Israel as the nation-state of the Jewish people, establishing Hebrew as the sole official language, affirming Jewish settlement as a national value, and prioritizing Jewish self-determination without revoking individual rights of non-Jewish citizens. The law underscores the ethnic-national character of the state amid demographic pressures, emphasizing the Jewish majority's foundational role while navigating minority integration based on demonstrated allegiance and societal contributions.^[65]^[66]

Geographic Distribution and Urbanization

Approximately 93% of Israel's population lives in urban areas as of 2024, reflecting a long-term trend driven by economic opportunities and infrastructure concentration in the coastal plain and central regions.^[67] The Tel Aviv metropolitan area, known as Gush Dan, is the densest urban cluster, with an estimated 4.5 million residents in 2024, functioning as the primary hub for technology, finance, and trade due to its proximity to ports, airports, and skilled labor pools.^[68] Jerusalem, designated as the undivided capital, supports over 1 million inhabitants as of mid-2024, bolstered by government institutions, religious sites, and administrative functions that anchor its role despite ongoing security challenges.^[69] Population distribution emphasizes a core-periphery dynamic, with the majority clustered in the center to optimize defense logistics and economic efficiency amid threats from surrounding states. Government initiatives have promoted settlement in the Negev Desert and Galilee region to counterbalance higher Arab demographic growth rates in those areas—where Arabs constitute majorities in parts of the Galilee—and to establish security buffers against potential incursions from Lebanon and Jordan.^[70] These efforts, including subsidized housing and infrastructure projects, aim to foster Jewish majorities for territorial integrity, as articulated in policy documents prioritizing demographic stability over peripheral underdevelopment.^[71] Following the 1967 Six-Day War, over 500,000 Jewish Israelis reside in communities across Judea and Samaria (the West Bank), excluding East Jerusalem, as of late 2023 data updated into 2024.^[72] These settlements, concentrated near strategic ridges and aquifers, serve dual purposes of reclaiming historical Jewish heartlands—evidenced by archaeological continuity from biblical eras—and creating defensible depth against hostile neighbors, reducing vulnerability to rocket fire or ground assaults observed in prior conflicts. Urbanization here mirrors national patterns, with larger blocs like Modi'in Illit and Ariel functioning as commuter suburbs tied to central Israel's economy, though growth has accelerated post-October 2023 amid heightened security rationales.^[73]

Religion and Identity

Jewish Majority and Subgroups

The Jewish population of Israel, comprising approximately 74% of the total population as of 2024, exhibits significant diversity in religious observance while unified by halakhic criteria for Jewish identity under the Law of Return, which recognizes maternal descent or conversion according to Orthodox standards. Israeli Jews self-identify into four main subgroups based on observance levels: Hiloni (secular), Masorti (traditional), Dati (religious, typically Zionist), and Haredi (ultra-Orthodox). This classification, derived from surveys by the Central Bureau of Statistics, reflects varying adherence to halakha—Jewish law—ranging from cultural affinity to strict ritual compliance, yet all groups contribute to demographic growth and national identity amid tensions between insularity and cohesion.^[74] Haredim, numbering around 1.39 million in 2024 and representing about 13% of Israel's total population (predominantly Jewish), prioritize stringent halakhic observance, including full Torah study for males and gender-segregated lifestyles, often fostering insular communities with limited secular engagement.^[75] Their fertility rate stands at approximately 6.4 children per woman, driving rapid growth—half the sector is under age 16—and projecting them to reach 16% of the population by mid-century if trends persist, though this relies heavily on state welfare and features low workforce participation (around 50% for men).^[76] ^[57] Exempt from mandatory IDF service, Haredim exert growing political influence through parties like United Torah Judaism, prioritizing religious institutions over broader national integration, which has sparked debates on equity in military and economic burdens.^[75] Dati Jews, comprising roughly 10-12% of Israeli Jews, blend Orthodox halakhic practice with Zionist ideology, emphasizing settlement in biblical lands as a religious imperative. Following the 1967 Six-Day War, this subgroup spearheaded the settlement enterprise through movements like Gush Emunim, establishing over 100 communities in the West Bank (Judea and Samaria) by interpreting territorial gains as divine redemption, thereby enhancing national security presence while integrating via full IDF participation and modern education.^[77] Their fertility rate, around 4-5 children per woman, supports demographic vitality, and their role in elite military units fosters cohesion across secular-religious divides.^[57] Masortim, about 25-33% of Israeli Jews, adhere to traditional customs—such as Shabbat observance and kosher dietary laws—without rigorous halakhic enforcement, often varying by ethnic origin (e.g., Sephardi-Mizrahi communities maintain stronger rites). This group bridges observant and secular spheres, participating in national life while preserving cultural rituals, though internal diversity leads to lower fertility (around 3 children per woman) compared to stricter subgroups.^[78] ^[57] Hilonim, the largest subgroup at approximately 45-57% of Israeli Jews (including those with partial traditional leanings), eschew formal religious practice but sustain Jewish identity through lifecycle events, holidays like Passover, and universal IDF service, which reinforces national cohesion.^[74] ^[79] Their fertility rate hovers near 2.5-3 children per woman, aligning with overall Jewish trends, and despite secularism, surveys show minimal defection from Judaism—only 3% raised Hiloni become more observant, while shifts toward secularity dominate internal mobility—preserving halakhic continuity via ancestry amid critiques of institutional rabbinates.^[80] ^[78] ^[57]

Non-Jewish Minorities

Arab citizens of Israel, predominantly Muslim (about 1.8 million) and Christian (around 180,000), form the largest non-Jewish minority group, totaling approximately 2.1 million people or 21% of the population as of 2024.^[81]^[82]^[83] Their fertility rates remain higher than the Jewish average (around 2.9 children per woman versus 3.0 for Jews in recent years, with convergence ongoing), supporting steady population growth despite emigration and lower socioeconomic mobility in some communities.^[6] This group enjoys full citizenship rights, including Knesset representation via dedicated parties that secured 5-10 seats in elections from 2015 to 2022, though participation rates lag behind Jewish voters by 10-15 percentage points in many cycles.^[84] Arab citizens are exempt from compulsory IDF service under a policy established at statehood, allowing voluntary enlistment but resulting in enlistment rates below 1% for men, which correlates with surveys showing divided loyalties—such as 52% expressing a "shared destiny" with Jews amid the 2023-2024 Gaza conflict, yet persistent identification with Palestinian causes in 60-70% of respondents.^[85]^[86] The Druze, numbering roughly 150,000-160,000 and concentrated in northern villages, represent a distinct ethnoreligious minority with mandatory conscription for men since a 1956 agreement that integrated them into IDF service alongside Jews and Circassians.^[63]^[87] This obligation, accepted after initial state imposition, has yielded enlistment rates exceeding 80% and disproportionate combat roles, underpinning empirical indicators of loyalty such as low protest participation during national crises and self-reported prioritization of Israeli over pan-Arab identity in 70-90% of community members per identity surveys.^[88] In contrast to broader Arab patterns, Druze tensions with the state remain minimal, evidenced by joint military casualties and political alliances, though land expropriations have sparked isolated grievances.^[89] Bedouin Arabs, a semi-nomadic Muslim subgroup of about 200,000-250,000 primarily in the Negev, encounter persistent integration hurdles from unrecognized villages (housing 80,000-90,000) lacking services, leading to high poverty (over 60%) and crime rates.^[90] State policies since the 1960s have pursued urbanization via relocation to seven planned townships, providing infrastructure but facing resistance over land claims, with demolitions displacing hundreds annually as of 2024; voluntary IDF enlistment occurs among 1,000-2,000 Bedouin annually, signaling selective alignment absent from most sedentary Arab communities.^[91]^[92] Smaller non-Jewish groups, such as Circassians (4,000-5,000, with mandatory male service and high loyalty via IDF integration) and Armenians (2,000-3,000, urban Christians with neutral status), comprise under 0.1% each and exhibit voluntary accommodation without the scale of Arab or Bedouin frictions.^[93]

Secularism and Religious Tensions

Israel maintains a secular Jewish majority, with approximately 44% of Jewish respondents identifying as secular in 2023 surveys, alongside 33% traditional and smaller religious segments.^[94] ^[95] The state's foundational structure, however, entrusts personal status matters for Jews—such as marriage, divorce, and conversion—to the Orthodox Chief Rabbinate, creating a de facto religious monopoly that secular citizens often criticize as anachronistic and restrictive.^[96] This arrangement stems from 1948 compromises to unify Jewish practice amid diverse immigrant backgrounds but has fueled ongoing demands for civil alternatives, with polls showing two-thirds of Israelis favoring an end to the rabbinate's exclusive control over Jewish weddings to permit Reform, Conservative, or civil ceremonies.^[97] Key flashpoints include public transport on the Sabbath, where national bus and rail services halt from Friday evening to Saturday night, inconveniencing secular populations without cars; surveys indicate 70-72% of Jewish Israelis support limited Shabbat operations, particularly in secular areas like Tel Aviv, though religious parties block national legislation to preserve halachic observance.^[98] ^[99] Military service exemptions for Haredi (ultra-Orthodox) yeshiva students represent another divide, as Israel's Supreme Court has repeatedly invalidated blanket deferrals for lacking legal basis and perpetuating inequality, notably striking down extensions of the Tal Law in rulings tracing back to petitions around its 2002-2012 framework and culminating in 2017 and 2024 decisions mandating enlistment absent new Knesset authorization.^[100] ^[101] These exemptions, benefiting about 13% of the Jewish population, strain secular resentment over shared national burdens during conflicts.^[102] Despite critiques of these monopolies for limiting individual autonomy, empirical data underscores their causal role in countering assimilation pressures: Jewish intermarriage rates in Israel hover at 2-5%, far below the 42% diaspora average, as the Jewish-majority environment (73% of the population) and rabbinic oversight of intra-Jewish unions reduce out-marriage incentives that erode group continuity abroad.^[103] ^[104] The Law of Return facilitates immigration for those with at least one Jewish grandparent, bolstering demographic resilience without strict halachic prerequisites for citizenship, though subsequent personal status ties individuals to Orthodox standards, thereby enforcing boundaries against dilution in a state explicitly founded as a Jewish refuge.^[105] Tensions peaked in 2023 protests against proposed judicial reforms, where secular-led opposition highlighted fears of weakened checks on religious parties' influence, including draft exemptions, with religiosity strongly correlating to pro-reform stances among Haredi and national-religious groups.^[106] ^[107] Yet, the October 7, 2023, Hamas attacks prompted a temporary suspension of internal divisions, fostering cross-sectoral solidarity in defense efforts and volunteerism, as evidenced by paused demonstrations and unified reserve mobilizations that bridged secular-religious gaps amid existential threats.^[108]

Culture

Languages and Communication

The revival of Hebrew as a vernacular language exemplifies a successful Zionist initiative to forge unity among disparate Jewish immigrant groups, transitioning it from liturgical and scholarly use to everyday communication. Eliezer Ben-Yehuda initiated this process in 1881 by pledging with associates to speak exclusively Hebrew, compiling dictionaries to expand its lexicon for modern needs, and promoting its adoption in schools and households within the Yishuv.^[109] ^[110] By the early 20th century, Hebrew had become the medium of instruction in Jewish educational institutions in Palestine, enabling cross-cultural integration despite immigrants' varied mother tongues like Yiddish, Ladino, and Arabic dialects.^[111] Following Israel's founding in 1948, Hebrew was enshrined as the state's official language, with Arabic initially co-official under Mandate-era precedents; the 2018 Basic Law later designated Arabic with "special status" while affirming Hebrew's primacy in public administration, signage, and legislation.^[112] Approximately 49% of Israelis over age 20 reported Hebrew as their native language in a 2011 government survey, with near-universal proficiency across the population due to mandatory schooling and immersion policies that prioritize it for national cohesion.^[113] Road signs and official documents routinely appear in Hebrew, Arabic, and English trilingual formats, reflecting practical multilingual accommodation without diluting Hebrew's dominance.^[114] Immigration waves have sustained linguistic pluralism, notably Russian as the native tongue of about 15% of the population from the 1990s aliyah of over 1 million Soviet Jews, and Amharic among roughly 150,000 Ethiopian Jews airlifted in operations like Moses (1984) and Solomon (1991).^[115] ^[116] English proficiency remains robust, with Israel scoring 514 on the 2023 EF English Proficiency Index—classifying it as moderate globally but high regionally—driven by curriculum mandates from elementary levels and the tech economy's demands for international collaboration.^[117] Media communication mirrors this diversity, with outlets in Hebrew forming the core but supplemented by Arabic dailies like Al-Ittihad, Russian-language channels such as Channel 9, and periodicals for smaller groups, fostering segmented yet interconnected discourse.^[118] Public broadcasters like Kan prioritize Hebrew programming, though critiques from conservative analysts highlight institutional tendencies toward left-leaning narratives, potentially skewing coverage amid societal divisions—a pattern observed in Western media ecosystems with similar ideological concentrations.^[114] This multilingual framework supports immigrant absorption while reinforcing Hebrew as the integrative lingua franca.

Traditions, Holidays, and Family Life

Shabbat, observed from Friday sunset to Saturday sunset, serves as the central weekly tradition in Israeli society, rooted in biblical commandments and emphasizing rest, family meals, and communal gatherings. Public transportation halts in most Jewish areas, and many businesses close, fostering a rhythm of cessation from labor that reinforces social bonds and resilience amid national challenges. Surveys indicate that 53% of Israelis aged 18-29 fully observe Shabbat according to halakhic standards, the highest rate across age groups, reflecting a resurgence in traditional practices among younger generations despite broader secular trends.^[119] Israeli holidays integrate biblical observances with modern national commemorations, blending ancient rituals with contemporary expressions of identity and memory. Key biblical holidays include Passover (Nisan 15-22), commemorating the Exodus with seders featuring matzah and symbolic foods; Yom Kippur (Tishrei 10), a day of fasting and atonement marked by synagogue services and national introspection; and Sukkot (Tishrei 15-21), involving dwelling in temporary booths to recall wilderness wanderings. National holidays such as Yom HaZikaron (Iyar 4), honoring fallen soldiers with solemn ceremonies and a nationwide moment of silence at 11:00 a.m., transitions into Yom HaAtzmaut (Iyar 5), celebrating independence on May 14, 1948, with fireworks, barbecues, and air shows. These observances often culminate in family-centered activities, underscoring communal solidarity.^[120]^[121] Family life in Israel emphasizes extended kinship networks and pronatalism, with the total fertility rate reaching 2.86 children per woman as of 2024, the highest among OECD nations and sustained by cultural values prioritizing progeny. Jewish women averaged 3.06 births in 2024, exceeding Muslim rates for the first time in decades, driven particularly by religious subgroups where ultra-Orthodox families often exceed six children per household. Intergenerational living remains common, with elderly parents frequently residing near or with adult children, providing mutual support in a context of high life expectancy and familial obligations derived from Jewish ethics. Gender roles persist traditionally in religious communities, where men lead rituals and women manage domestic spheres, though secular families exhibit greater egalitarianism, with women comprising over 50% of the workforce.^[122]^[57] Cuisine reflects a fusion of Jewish diaspora traditions adapted to local ingredients and kosher laws prohibiting pork and mixing meat with dairy, with Mizrahi immigrants from Arab countries introducing staples like hummus—a chickpea puree—and falafel, deep-fried chickpea balls originating from Egyptian ta'amiya but popularized via Yemenite Jewish vendors in early 20th-century Mandate Palestine. These dishes, often served in pita with tahini and salads, embody street food culture and family meals, accommodating kosher constraints while incorporating Middle Eastern flavors from waves of immigration post-1948.^[123]

Arts, Literature, and Media

Israeli literature has achieved notable international recognition, exemplified by Shmuel Yosef Agnon's 1966 Nobel Prize in Literature, awarded for his narrative art drawing on motifs from Jewish life in Eastern Europe and the challenges of Jewish settlement in Palestine.^[124] Agnon's works, such as The Bridal Canopy (1931) and A Simple Story (1935), blend Hebrew revival with traditional storytelling, influencing global perceptions of Jewish cultural continuity. Contemporary authors like Amos Oz (1939–2018), whose novels including My Michael (1968) and A Tale of Love and Darkness (2002) examine Israeli identity, kibbutz life, and Arab-Israeli tensions, have been translated into over 40 languages, contributing to discussions on peace and conflict.^[125] Similarly, David Grossman's novels, such as See Under: Love (1986) and To the End of the Land (2008), translated into more than 30 languages, probe psychological impacts of war and loss, earning him awards like the Man Booker International Prize shortlisting in 2017.^[126] These outputs reflect a disproportionate global influence relative to Israel's population of approximately 9.8 million, with Hebrew literature fostering translations that engage worldwide audiences on themes of resilience and existential struggle. Visual arts in Israel emphasize urban expression, particularly street art in Tel Aviv, where neighborhoods like Florentin and Neve Tzedek feature murals by artists such as Dede and Itro, addressing social issues, history, and daily life through graffiti and installations.^[127] This scene, emerging prominently since the 2000s, transforms alleyways into open-air galleries, with works often incorporating political commentary without formal censorship, contrasting with more institutionalized art forms. In film, Israeli cinema has garnered acclaim for introspective documentaries and narratives; Ari Folman's Waltz with Bashir (2008), an animated exploration of soldiers' memories from the 1982 Lebanon War, won the Golden Globe for Best Foreign Language Film and six Ophir Awards, including Best Film, highlighting technical innovation in animation for trauma depiction.^[128] The film's success, alongside entries at Cannes and other festivals, underscores Israel's cinematic output's ability to address military experiences with psychological depth, achieving nominations like the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film. Media in Israel operates in a competitive landscape with outlets like Haaretz, Yedioth Ahronoth, and Channel 12 providing diverse coverage, supported by high internet penetration enabling online journalism.^[129] However, the Israeli Military Censor reviews publications for national security risks, prohibiting 613 articles in 2023—the highest since tracking began—focusing on intelligence that could aid adversaries, a practice rooted in the 1948 War of Independence and upheld by a voluntary agreement with editors.^[130] Reporters Without Borders ranked Israel 101st out of 180 in the 2024 World Press Freedom Index, citing wartime restrictions but noting relative pluralism compared to regional neighbors, though self-censorship persists on sensitive defense topics to avoid legal repercussions.^[131] This framework balances robust debate on domestic issues with safeguards against operational disclosures, fostering a media ecosystem that influences global discourse on Middle Eastern events despite constraints.

Society and Economy

Education and Innovation

Israel's education system provides universal compulsory schooling from kindergarten through grade 12, spanning ages approximately 5 to 18, with a strong emphasis on STEM disciplines that underpins its technological edge.^[132] In the 2022 PISA assessments, Israeli 15-year-olds averaged 465 points in science, below the OECD average of 485, reflecting middling international performance amid socioeconomic disparities but sustained investment in technical training.^[133] Institutions such as the Technion-Israel Institute of Technology and Hebrew University of Jerusalem play pivotal roles in fostering innovation, producing alumni who establish high-tech firms and contribute to Israel's cluster of engineering talent in areas like Silicon Wadi.^[134] This human capital foundation, combined with rigorous academic pipelines, correlates with elevated patent filings and venture activity per capita. Israel's innovation ecosystem, dubbed the "Startup Nation," stems from substantial R&D expenditures totaling 6.02% of GDP in 2022—the highest globally—and a proliferation of over 3,000 active startups as of 2025, attracting billions in annual funding.^[135]^[136] Multinational hubs, including Intel's major Israeli R&D center, exemplify this dynamism; Mobileye, an Israeli-founded vision-based autonomous driving firm, was acquired by Intel for $15.3 billion in 2017, highlighting scalable tech exports.^[137] Experiences from national service often facilitate technology diffusion into civilian sectors, enhancing entrepreneurial networks and rapid prototyping, which have driven GDP growth through high-value exports in cybersecurity, biotech, and semiconductors.^[138] Persistent challenges temper these achievements, particularly in subpopulations with lower integration into secular education and labor markets. Among Haredi (ultra-Orthodox) men aged 20-24, formal matriculation rates enabling higher education hover around 5%, prioritizing religious studies over STEM curricula and yielding employment rates below 50% for young adults.^[139] Arab Israelis, comprising about 21% of the population, exhibit achievement gaps, with Arabic-speaking students scoring 379 in PISA math in earlier cycles versus 490 for Hebrew speakers, though enrollment in higher education has risen and gaps show signs of narrowing via targeted investments.^[140] These disparities constrain overall human capital utilization, underscoring causal links between broad-based skills acquisition and sustained innovation-driven prosperity.^[141]

Military and National Service

The Israel Defense Forces (IDF) enforce mandatory national service for most Jewish citizens and Druze males, reflecting Israel's security doctrine shaped by persistent regional threats. Jewish males typically serve 32 months, while females serve 24 months, commencing at age 18.^[142] In response to manpower shortages following the October 7, 2023, Hamas attacks, the government approved extending male service to 36 months for certain roles in July 2024.^[143] Reserve duties follow active service, with non-officer males callable until age 41 and officers until 46 as of extensions implemented in 2024.^[144] This structure sustains a citizen-based force, mobilizing over 300,000 reservists within days of the October 7 incursion, fostering national cohesion amid crisis.^[145] Female integration into combat positions has expanded significantly, with women comprising about 17% of the IDF's combat personnel and over 5,000 recruited annually into such roles as of 2025.^[146]^[147] Druze males face compulsory conscription since 1956, serving in integrated units and achieving higher integration through shared obligations, though some community voices advocate exemption to align with Arab identity.^[63] Arab Israelis, primarily Muslim and Christian, receive statutory exemptions but may volunteer, with participation rates remaining low at under 1% of enlistees.^[64] Ultra-Orthodox (Haredi) Jews have historically deferred service for full-time Torah study, but Israel's Supreme Court ruled in June 2024 that such blanket exemptions violate equality principles, mandating conscription for draft-eligible Haredim.^[148] By October 2025, legislative efforts to reinstate exemptions stalled amid coalition tensions and protests, with the IDF issuing thousands of draft orders yet absorbing fewer than 5,000 Haredi recruits due to resistance and limited infrastructure.^[149]^[150] This ongoing debate highlights tensions between religious autonomy and collective defense needs. National service instills discipline and cross-societal bonds, often credited with enhancing Israel's innovative edge; alumni from elite IDF units like 8200, focused on signals intelligence, have founded cybersecurity firms such as Check Point and Palo Alto Networks, contributing to over 1,000 startups and bolstering defense-tech exports.^[151] The post-October 7 mobilization exemplified this, as rapid reservist turnout transcended prior divisions, reinforcing service as a unifying institution amid existential perils.^[152]

Economic Achievements and Challenges

Israel's economy has achieved notable prosperity, with GDP per capita reaching approximately $57,760 in recent IMF projections, placing it among the world's higher-income nations. This growth stems from a dynamic high-technology sector, which contributed about 17.3% to GDP in 2024, or roughly NIS 317 billion, fueled by a culture of entrepreneurship and risk-taking that encourages startup formation and innovation over reliance on expansive welfare systems.^[153] Discoveries of offshore natural gas fields, such as Tamar in 2009 and Leviathan in 2010, have enhanced energy security, reduced import dependence, and generated cumulative savings exceeding NIS 316 billion over the past decade by lowering electricity production costs through domestic supply.^[154] A key example of economic mobility is the trajectory of Mizrahi Jews, immigrants from Middle Eastern and North African countries who arrived en masse in the 1950s and 1960s often destitute and placed in peripheral development towns. Despite initial disadvantages, this group has shown substantial upward movement, with many advancing from poverty to the middle class through labor market participation and skill acquisition, narrowing income gaps with Ashkenazi Jews over generations, though disparities persist in certain sectors.^[155] Challenges include elevated income inequality, with a Gini coefficient of 37.9 in 2021, reflecting disparities between urban tech hubs and peripheral areas.^[156] Housing affordability remains acute, as prices rose 2.1% year-over-year in early 2024 amid supply constraints from regulatory hurdles and slow construction, pushing over 30% of households to spend more than one-third of income on shelter.^[157]^[158] The economy has demonstrated resilience amid shocks, contracting sharply by 20.7% annualized in late 2023 due to the Gaza conflict's mobilization and supply disruptions, yet rebounding with 3.35% growth in early 2024 and projected 3% expansion in 2025, supported by high-tech exports and fiscal buffers rather than heavy state intervention.^[159]^[160] Post-COVID recovery similarly highlighted adaptability, with GDP surpassing pre-pandemic levels by 2022 through private sector dynamism.^[161]

Politics and Citizenship

Political System and Participation

Israel operates as a unitary parliamentary republic with a multi-party system dominated by proportional representation. The Knesset, the unicameral legislature, consists of 120 seats allocated nationwide based on votes received by party lists, with a 3.25% electoral threshold required for representation.^[162]^[163] This system fosters a fragmented parliament, necessitating coalition governments to form a majority, which has led to five elections between 2019 and 2022 due to repeated failures in sustaining stable coalitions.^[164] While this fragmentation contributes to political instability and frequent government turnover, it also enables robust debate across ideological lines in Knesset sessions, which are often characterized by intense verbal exchanges and diverse policy scrutiny.^[165] Voter participation remains high, with turnout reaching 70.6% in the November 2022 election for the 25th Knesset.^[166] Arab-Israeli parties demonstrate significant engagement, as evidenced by the United Arab List (Ra'am) securing four seats in 2022 by focusing on domestic issues like crime and infrastructure in Arab communities, reflecting a strategic shift toward pragmatic participation over boycott.^[167]^[168] This involvement underscores the inclusivity of the electoral process, where Arab voters, comprising about 20% of the electorate, influence outcomes through parties that collectively hold around 10 seats in recent parliaments. Historically, prime ministers have reflected evolving priorities, from David Ben-Gurion's foundational socialist leadership via the Mapai party during tenures from 1948 to 1954 and 1955 to 1963, emphasizing state-building and security amid independence wars, to Benjamin Netanyahu's emphasis on counterterrorism and economic liberalization across his non-consecutive terms totaling over 18 years as of October 2025, making him Israel's longest-serving leader.^[169]^[170] In 2025, amid ongoing conflicts including the war with Hamas initiated in October 2023, national leadership approval stands at 44%, according to a Gallup survey, indicating public dissatisfaction with governance effectiveness despite sustained coalition stability under Netanyahu's right-wing bloc.^[171]

National Identity Debates

Israel's national identity debates center on reconciling its constitutional role as the nation-state of the Jewish people with democratic governance for all residents. The Basic Law: Israel as the Nation-State of the Jewish People, enacted July 19, 2018, declares the Land of Israel the historical homeland of the Jewish people, affirms their exclusive right to exercise national self-determination there, designates Hebrew the state language (with Arabic retaining special status), recognizes Jerusalem as the undivided capital, and promotes Jewish settlement as a national value.^[65] Passed by a Knesset vote of 62 to 55, the law anchors these principles at a quasi-constitutional level, reflecting Israel's founding Declaration of Independence while codifying existing practices without altering individual civil rights enshrined in prior Basic Laws.^[66] Proponents maintain the legislation safeguards Jewish collective identity against dilution in a multi-ethnic society, arguing that Israel's democratic framework—evidenced by universal suffrage, independent judiciary, and minority representation in parliament—remains intact, as affirmed by the Supreme Court's 2021 ruling upholding the law against equality challenges.^[66] Critics, including opposition lawmakers and select jurists, contend its silence on equality undermines the "Jewish and democratic" equilibrium, potentially eroding non-Jewish citizens' symbolic inclusion despite no direct revocation of legal protections; this perspective often overlooks that Israel's foundational documents prioritize Jewish self-determination as the rationale for statehood, with democracy as a means rather than an end.^[66] Zionism, the movement actualized in Israel's 1948 establishment, posits Jewish self-rule in the ancestral homeland as a response to millennia of diaspora vulnerability and persecution, empirically validated by waves of immigration fleeing pogroms, the Holocaust, and regional expulsions. Post-Zionism, surfacing in 1990s intellectual discourse, challenges this narrative by framing Zionism as mythic invention and state-building as displacement of indigenous Arabs, advocating a post-ethnic civic state that downplays Jewish particularity.^[172] Predominant among certain academics, this view encounters critique for selective historiography that minimizes Jewish historical presence, Arab agency in rejecting 1947 partition and launching wars, and the causal link between territorial concessions and security vulnerabilities, as recurrent conflicts demonstrate.^[172] The October 7, 2023, Hamas attack—killing 1,200 and abducting over 250, mostly civilians—catalyzed a resurgence in Zionist affirmation, repositioning debates toward the state's indispensable role in Jewish security and continuity amid resurgent global antisemitism.^[173] Repopulation drives for evacuated border kibbutzim, which suffered 318 deaths, highlight renewed embrace of settlement as existential imperative, marginalizing post-Zionist deconstructions in favor of pragmatic realism rooted in defensive necessities.^[173] Underpinning diaspora connections, the Law of Return (July 5, 1950) entitles Jews—those born to a Jewish mother or who have converted, excluding adherents of other faiths—and their children, grandchildren, and spouses to immigrate as olim and gain immediate citizenship, barring security or criminal disqualifications.^[174] Amended in 1970 to broaden familial eligibility, it operationalizes Zionism's ingathering of exiles, enabling over 3 million arrivals since 1948 and distinguishing Israel as a targeted refuge rather than a universal polity.^[174]

Relations with Arab Israelis

Arab citizens of Israel possess equal legal rights to Jewish citizens, including voting, representation in the Knesset, access to public services, and freedom of movement, as enshrined in Basic Laws and administrative practices since the state's founding.^[175]^[176] However, the absence of a formal constitution explicitly guaranteeing equality has allowed for disparities in resource allocation and enforcement, with Arab communities often facing socioeconomic disadvantages stemming from lower education levels and concentrated poverty.^[177] Polls indicate divided national allegiance among Arab Israelis, with a May 2025 Central Bureau of Statistics survey finding only 3% prioritizing Israeli citizenship in self-identity, while 27% identified primarily as Arab Israelis and the remainder emphasizing ethnic or religious ties.^[178] This fragmentation manifested in the May 2021 riots, where Arab mobs in mixed cities like Lod and Acre attacked Jewish residents and synagogues, resulting in over 1,500 arrests, one Jewish death, and widespread property damage amid clashes tied to the Gaza conflict.^[179] Participation reflected underlying sympathies with Palestinian causes, exacerbating distrust; a 2025 poll showed 70% of Jewish Israelis viewing Arab compatriots as untrustworthy post-riots.^[180] Integration successes are evident among subgroups like the Druze, who since 1956 have undergone mandatory military service, fostering loyalty and socioeconomic mobility; Druze units in the IDF, such as the Sword Battalion, demonstrate high enlistment rates exceeding 80% and combat roles paralleling Jewish peers.^[63]^[64] Entrepreneurship among Arab Israelis shows modest growth, with average labor income rising faster than in Jewish or Haredi sectors from 2010-2022, though representation in high-tech remains low at 1.8% of workers as of 2021, hampered by educational gaps.^[181]^[182] Tensions persist due to ideological divides, notably between the Southern Branch of the Islamic Movement, which engages in Knesset politics via parties like Ra'am, and the banned Northern Branch, outlawed in 2015 for funneling funds to Hamas-linked groups and inciting anti-state activities.^[183]^[184] Northern Islamism correlates with higher unrest in Galilee communities, contrasting southern pragmatism, while welfare benefits—though universally accessible—lift fewer Arab households from poverty (53.7% expense coverage in 2021 vs. 76.5% Jewish), underscoring integration failures tied to cultural separatism and clan-based violence.^[185]^[186] Post-October 7, 2023, surveys note a tentative shift, with 57.8% of Arab Israelis perceiving a "shared destiny" with Jews amid the war, though primary identities remain non-Israeli for most.^[187]

Controversies and Criticisms

Security Threats and Responses

Israel faces persistent security threats from rocket barrages launched by Hamas from Gaza and Hezbollah from Lebanon, with Hamas firing over 4,360 rockets and mortars toward Israeli population centers during the May 2021 escalation, many penetrating airspace and causing civilian casualties.^[188] Hezbollah maintains an arsenal estimated at tens of thousands of rockets and missiles capable of striking central Israel, posing a northern front risk that intensified after October 2023 with cross-border exchanges. These indiscriminate attacks underscore the empirical reality of non-state actors prioritizing civilian targets to maximize disruption, necessitating layered defenses rather than reliance on diplomatic restraint alone. The October 7, 2023, Hamas assault exemplified vulnerabilities in perimeter security, as militants breached the Gaza border fence using bulldozers, explosives, and paragliders, resulting in over 1,200 Israeli deaths—primarily civilians—and the abduction of more than 250 hostages.^[189] Israeli inquiries, including from the military and Shin Bet, attributed the breach to intelligence underestimation of Hamas capabilities and operational lapses, such as inadequate troop readiness along the border, despite prior warnings of attack plans.^[190] This event highlighted the limits of static barriers against determined infiltration but also the causal link between perceived weakness and escalated aggression by terror groups. In response, Israel has employed physical barriers, including the Gaza smart fence completed in 2021 with sensors, cameras, and underground detection, which reduced successful terrorist infiltrations from Gaza by nearly 100% in the years prior to October 7 compared to pre-barrier eras dominated by suicide bombings.^[191] Targeted killings of operational leaders have disrupted command structures; for instance, the elimination of Hezbollah's Hassan Nasrallah in September 2024 and multiple Hamas commanders since October 2023 impaired coordination and rocket production, though such operations risk short-term retaliation.^[192] Empirical analyses indicate these decapitation strikes correlate with temporary reductions in attack frequency by removing experienced planners.^[193] Defensive systems like Iron Dome have proven highly effective against short-range rockets, achieving interception rates of 85-90% in operations against Hamas barrages, thereby minimizing civilian harm and preserving deterrence by denying attackers strategic gains.^[194] Broader military responses, including ground incursions and airstrikes, align with evidence that repressive measures—such as punitive operations—reduce subsequent terrorist incidents more reliably than conciliatory policies, as quantified in studies of Israeli-Palestinian violence dynamics.^[195] Debates over response proportionality often overlook this causal mechanism: unchecked aggression invites escalation, whereas credible deterrence, backed by overwhelming force, empirically averts larger conflicts and saves lives on both sides by raising the cost of initiation for adversaries. Mainstream critiques from biased outlets may amplify civilian casualty concerns without contextualizing terror groups' use of human shields or rocket launches from populated areas, which inflate collateral risks.^[196]

Internal Divisions and Reforms

In 2023, Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu's coalition government advanced judicial reforms to address perceived overreach by the Supreme Court, including a July amendment abolishing the court's "reasonableness" doctrine, which allowed it to strike down executive decisions deemed extremely unreasonable.^[197] This initiative, aimed at restoring balance between unelected judges and elected officials, triggered mass protests involving up to 500,000 participants weekly, exposing fractures between reform proponents—who argued the judiciary had usurped legislative authority on issues like settlement policies—and opponents decrying threats to democratic checks.^[198] The unrest, peaking before the October 7 Hamas attacks, halted further reforms and deepened polarization, with reservists refusing service in protest.^[199] On January 1, 2024, the Supreme Court invalidated the reasonableness amendment in an 8-7 ruling, affirming its power to review Basic Laws and rejecting arguments that such oversight undermined parliamentary sovereignty.^[197] Critics of the judiciary contend this decision exemplified self-inflicted institutional imbalance, as the court had previously nullified laws reflecting majority will without a formal constitution, fostering governance gridlock; data from the Israel Democracy Institute highlights how such interventions contributed to legislative instability.^[200] Reforms toward mutual compromise—such as diversified judicial appointments—remain essential to mitigate these divisions and enhance unity amid external threats. Another persistent divide stems from exemptions for Haredi (ultra-Orthodox) men from mandatory IDF service, a policy originating in 1948 but expanded via coalition deals, enabling full-time yeshiva study over national defense and employment.^[101] Haredim, numbering over 1.3 million or 13% of Israel's population by late 2023, face elevated poverty at 34% (versus 15% for non-Haredi Jews), driven by male labor participation below 50% and reliance on state subsidies exceeding NIS 1 billion annually for yeshivas.^[201]^[76] Reform attempts include the 2014 law requiring enlistment of 5,200 Haredim yearly, struck down in 2017 for failing quotas, and 2024 developments where the Supreme Court ended blanket exemptions, prompting 3,000 draft orders and halting yeshiva funding absent compliance.^[202]^[203] These exemptions, justified by some as preserving religious scholarship, impose uneven burdens on non-Haredi citizens—serving 32 months on average—while entrenching welfare dependency; empirical analyses link integration via service to higher employment and reduced poverty in participating subgroups.^[200] Merit-based enlistment reforms, emphasizing skills and exemptions for genuine scholars, could foster equity and self-reliance without cultural erosion. Despite these tensions, Israel sustains intergenerational social mobility, with 14% of individuals born in the lowest income quartile reaching the highest as adults—a figure comparable to OECD peers—facilitated by universal education and economic growth, though lower for Haredi (under 10%) and Arab sectors due to enrollment gaps.^[204]^[205] Absolute mobility has advanced, as evidenced by development towns' socio-economic gains over decades, underscoring resilience amid divides through merit-driven opportunities in tech and military tracks.^[206]

International Relations and Accusations

Israel has repeatedly extended comprehensive peace proposals to Palestinian leaders, which were rejected without substantive counteroffers, undermining claims of Israeli intransigence. At the Camp David Summit in July 2000, Prime Minister Ehud Barak, facilitated by U.S. President Bill Clinton, offered Palestinian Authority Chairman Yasser Arafat sovereignty over approximately 91-95% of the West Bank, all of Gaza, and parts of East Jerusalem, including shared control of holy sites; Arafat declined and made no counterproposal, leading to the summit's collapse and subsequent violence.^[207]^[208] In 2008, Prime Minister Ehud Olmert proposed to President Mahmoud Abbas a Palestinian state on 93-94% of the West Bank with land swaps for the remainder, full Gaza withdrawal, and international administration of Jerusalem's holy sites; Abbas later admitted rejecting it outright, citing failure to review maps in detail.^[209]^[210] These rejections, despite concessions approaching maximal Palestinian demands, highlight a pattern where territorial offers exceeding prior benchmarks failed due to Palestinian insistence on full territorial control, refugee return to Israel proper, and undivided Jerusalem sovereignty—demands incompatible with Israel's security and Jewish character.^[211] The Abraham Accords, signed in September 2020, marked a shift in regional dynamics by normalizing relations between Israel and several Arab states—United Arab Emirates, Bahrain, Sudan, and Morocco—brokered by the United States, bypassing stalled Palestinian talks. These agreements facilitated diplomatic ties, trade exceeding $3 billion annually by 2023, direct flights, and joint security cooperation against shared threats like Iran, demonstrating Arab prioritization of economic and strategic interests over the Palestinian issue.^[212]^[213] Unlike conditional peace tied to Palestinian concessions, the Accords emphasized mutual benefits, with UAE-Israel trade reaching $2.6 billion in 2022 alone, underscoring Israel's role as a technological and security partner in the Middle East.^[214] Accusations portraying Israel as an apartheid state or aggressor often ignore these peace efforts and Israel's defensive context, including repeated rejections and ongoing threats from groups like Hamas. Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International reports labeling Israeli policies as apartheid have been critiqued for misapplying the term—originally denoting South Africa's racial segregation—given that Arab Israelis (20% of the population) hold full citizenship, vote in elections, serve in the Knesset, judiciary, and military, with equal legal rights absent racial classifications.^[215] Such claims overlook Israel's provision of essential services to Palestinian areas, including 10-15% of Gaza's electricity via Israeli grids and over 50 million cubic meters of water annually to the West Bank before escalations, despite non-recognition and attacks.^[216] United Nations bodies exhibit disproportionate focus on Israel, adopting 154 resolutions against it from 2015-2023 compared to 71 on all other countries combined, often omitting Palestinian incitement or terrorism.^[217] The International Court of Justice's July 19, 2024, advisory opinion deeming Israel's presence in the West Bank, Gaza, and East Jerusalem unlawful has drawn criticism for one-sidedness, neglecting the 1967 war's defensive origins, Palestinian rejectionism, and failure to address Arab states' prior aggressions or Hamas's charter calling for Israel's destruction.^[218]^[219] This opinion, non-binding and influenced by states antagonistic to Israel, ignores jus ad bellum context and ongoing security necessities post-rejections. U.S. support, including $3.8 billion annual military aid, is conditioned on maintaining Israel's qualitative military edge (QME) over potential adversaries, a policy codified in U.S. law since 2008 to ensure deterrence amid regional threats.^[220]^[221] Following Hamas's October 7, 2023, attack killing 1,200 Israelis and taking 250 hostages, global antisemitic incidents surged over 300% in the U.S. (exceeding 10,000 by October 2024) and similarly worldwide, often conflating criticism of Israel with attacks on Jewish communities unrelated to policy.^[222]^[223] This spike, documented by groups tracking hate crimes, reflects accusations against Israel morphing into broader prejudice, despite Israel's actions targeting Hamas infrastructure rather than civilians.^[224]

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Sep 26, 2025 · The kibbutzim played an important role in the pioneering of new Jewish settlements in Palestine, and their democratic and egalitarian character ...
[27]
British Palestine Mandate: History & Overview - Jewish Virtual Library
The Mandate system was instituted by the League of Nations in the early 20th century to administer non-self-governing territories.
[28]
The Hebron Riots of 1929: Consequences and Lesson
In 1929, Arab clerics and politicians provoked riots across Palestine by accusing Jews of plotting to take control of Jerusalem's al-Aqsa Mosque.
[29]
Economic Cooperation Foundation: 1929 Palestine Riots - ECF
The Shaw Commission that was established to investigate the riots and their origins determined that over 200 Jews and over 100 Arabs were killed during the ...
[30]
Palestine - The Arab Revolt | Britannica
Sep 9, 2025 · The Arab Revolt of 1936–39 was the first sustained violent uprising of Palestinian Arabs in more than a century. Thousands of Arabs from all ...
[31]
Pre-State Israel: The Arab Revolt - Jewish Virtual Library
Violence erupted in Palestine in April 1936. In that month, six prominent Arab leaders overcame their rivalries and joined forces to protest Zionist advances ...
[32]
1948 Arab-Israeli War | Summary, Outcome, Casualties, & Timeline
By the time armistice agreements were signed in 1949, Israel held more land than had been allotted to it under the UN partition plan. About 800,000 Arabs had ...
[33]
The Sinai-Suez Campaign: Background & Overview
As a result of these actions of Egyptian hostility within Israel, 364 Israelis were wounded and 101 killed. In 1956 alone, 28 Israelis were killed and 127 ...
[34]
Population of Israel (1948-Present) - Jewish Virtual Library
1948, 806,000, 1974, 3,422,000, 2000, 6,289,000. 1949, 1,174,000, 1975, 3,493,000, 2001, 6,460,000. 1950, 1,370,000, 1976, 3,575,000, 2002, 6,600,000.
[35]
Immigrants to Israel: 1948-1952 - Jewish Virtual Library
The total population was 800-850,000. By the end of 1952, 738,891 immigrants had arrived (this includes the 110,000 who arrived in the second half of 1948).Missing: survivors | Show results with:survivors
[36]
Fact Sheet: Jewish Refugees from Arab Countries
Throughout 1947 and 1948, Jews in Algeria, Egypt, Iraq, Libya, Morocco, Syria, and Yemen (Aden) were persecuted, their property and belongings were confiscated, ...
[37]
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As in Iraq, internal policy appears to be the reason both for the Jews' expulsion and for later rhetoric inviting them back. Syria. In Syria, too, the majority ...Missing: facts | Show results with:facts
[38]
[PDF] The Absorption of One Million Immigrants by Israel in the 1950s
From the establishment of the state in 1948 to the end of 1958, close to one ... "ma'abarot," or transit camps. In every such camp, each immigrant ...
[39]
The onset of austerity - The Jerusalem Post
Oct 6, 2018 · New immigrants filled the ma'abarot (absorption camps) and the era of tzena – an austerity regime – was announced, in which food and items were ...Missing: formation land reclamation
[40]
Agricultural Settlement: Up to the Present and into the Future
Mar 24, 2018 · The ma'abarot (tent camps for immigrants from Arab countries), the austerity policy, the multitude of languages, the multitude of Diaspora ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[41]
Suez Crisis, 1956 - state.gov
On October 29, 1956, Israeli forces moved across the border, defeated the Egyptian army in the Sinai, captured Sharm al-Sheikh and thereby guaranteed Israeli ...
[42]
Arab-Israeli War of 1967 - state.gov
On the morning of June 5, 1967, Israel launched a preemptive strike against Egyptian forces in response to Egypt's closing of the Straits of Tiran.
[43]
The 1967 Arab-Israeli War - Office of the Historian
The 1967 Arab-Israeli War marked the failure of the Eisenhower, Kennedy, and Johnson administrations' efforts to prevent renewed Arab-Israeli conflict.
[44]
The Six Day War | American Experience | Official Site - PBS
The war began on June 5 with Israeli preemptive air strikes that destroyed 286 of Egypt's 420 combat aircraft. Israeli tanks surged across the Sinai, and its ...
[45]
(PDF) The Jewish settlements in Judea and Samaria (1967–2008)
Jun 10, 2015 · This study describes the establishment and subsequent growth of settlements in Judea and Samaria, areas captured from Jordan during the Six Day War in 1967.
[46]
Total Immigration to Israel from the Former Soviet Union
(1948 - Present) ; 1993. 76,805. 66,145 ; 1992. 77,057. 65,093 ; 1991. 176,100. 147,839 ; 1990. 199,516. 185,227.
[47]
Special Video of Operation Solomon, the 1991 Airlift ... - JDC Archives
With 34 Israeli planes making 40 continuous flights over a 36-hour period, just over 14,000 Ethiopian Jews were safely airlifted to Israel. For months prior to ...Missing: numbers | Show results with:numbers
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May 23, 2021 · Within 36 hours on May 24-25, 1991, more than 14,300 Ethiopian Jews were covertly airlifted from Addis Ababa to Israel during Operation Solomon ...
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Impact of Israel's separation barrier on affected West Bank ... - UN.org.
... fence has been constructed, a reduction in terrorist attacks is already evident. ... security of Israeli citizens targeted by Palestinian terrorism. It ...
[51]
What Was the Gaza Disengagement, and How Has It Affected ...
The disengagement began in August 2005, when Israel evacuated approximately 8,500 civilians from 21 settlements in the Gaza Strip, and 500 more from four small ...
[52]
The Israel-Hamas war's devastating human toll after 2 years, by the ...
Oct 7, 2025 · The war -- which started after Hamas launched a surprise terrorist attack in Israel on Oct. 7, 2023, that killed roughly 1,200 Israelis, and ...
[53]
Israel at War: What You Need To Know | AJC
After over two years of war following the October 7 massacre carried out by the Palestinian terror group Hamas, the long-awaited deal between Israel and Hamas ...
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Rosh Hashanah 2025: Israeli population tops 10 million
Sep 22, 2025 · In addition, around 260,000 foreign citizens reside in Israel, bringing the total number of Israeli citizens to just under 9.89 million.
[55]
Israel's population hits 10.148 million - JNS.org
Sep 19, 2025 · Over the past year, the population grew by roughly 101,000, a 1% growth rate—down from 1.2% recorded last year and 1.6% the previous year.<|separator|>
[56]
Israel's birth rate remains highest in OECD by far, at 2.9 children per ...
Jun 21, 2024 · Israel's total fertility rate sits at 2.9 children per woman, followed by Mexico and France with 1.8 children per woman and almost twice the OECD average of 1. ...
[57]
Demography Overview, 2024: Diverging Fertility, Shifting Migration ...
the ... From January to May 2024, the fertility rate among Jewish women climbed back to 3.10 children per woman.
[58]
Fast-Growing Jewish Population May Hold Off Israel's“Demographic ...
Apr 8, 2025 · Jewish births in 2024, about 139,000, were 76 percent of about 182,000 total births, compared with 69 percent of total births in 1995, according ...
[59]
Israel at 75: A statistical glimpse - Gov.il
Apr 25, 2023 · In 2030, the population of Israel is expected to reach 11.1 million, in 2040 – 13.2 million, and on the 100th Independence Day of the State of ...
[60]
[PDF] Population Projections for Israel 2017–2040 | Taub Center
The projected population in 2040 is 13.22 million according to the most recent Statistical Abstract of Israel (CBS, 2019a).
[61]
Israel's population tops 10 million for 1st time, on eve of 77th ...
Apr 29, 2025 · Some 2.1 million people living in Israel, or 20.9%, are Muslim, Christian or Druze Arabs, the CBS said. Another 250,000 people, or about 2.5%, ...
[62]
[PDF] The Druze Population of Israel On the Occasion of the Nabi Shu'ayb ...
Apr 17, 2024 · The Druze population in Israel was approximately 152,000 (preliminary data)1 – more than a tenfold increase since the founding of the State ...
[63]
The Druze Community in Israel: A Model of Minority Integration
Apr 21, 2025 · Today, the Druze remain the only Arab group in Israel with compulsory military service, excluding those in the Golan Heights.
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Druze in Israel and the Question of Compulsory Military Service
The Israeli Druze have interests, connections, loyalty to their land, and a clearly recognized standing within Israel society, all things that the average ...
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[PDF] BASIC-LAW: ISRAEL - THE NATION STATE OF THE JEWISH ...
The State shall be open to Jewish immigration, and the ingathering of the exiles. The connection to the. Jewish People. 6. (a) The State shall strive to secure ...
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Nation-State Law Explainer - The Israel Democracy Institute
Dec 11, 2023 · Article 6(a) of the Nation-State Law defines the state's obligation “to secure the welfare of members of the Jewish People and of its citizens, ...
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Israel Percent urban population - data, chart | TheGlobalEconomy.com
Israel: Percent urban population: The latest value from 2024 is 92.95 percent, an increase from 92.85 percent in 2023. In comparison, the world average is ...
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Tel Aviv Population 2025
Tel Aviv's 2025 population is now estimated at 4,568,530. In 1950, the population of Tel Aviv was 418,192. Tel Aviv has grown by 72,800 in the last year, ...Population · Overview · Religion Demographics · Age Structure
[69]
Jerusalem's population reaches one million residents in 2024
Jun 6, 2024 · The data showed that the city had surpassed a population of one million residents, and it broke down the different sectors of the population.
[70]
WZO Pushing New Jewish Towns to 'Balance' Arab Population in ...
Dec 1, 2013 · “The current reality in the rural region of the central Galilee is a lack of settlement options that will attract a stable Jewish population and ...<|separator|>
[71]
21st century colonialism: Israeli policies in the Negev and Galilee
Jan 30, 2014 · ... Galilee to achieve a demographic balance with the Arab population”. The aim is to bring “100,000 new residents” to the central Galilee ...
[72]
Jewish population in West Bank keeps rising. Settlers hope Trump ...
over 12,000 people — last year, reaching 529,450, according to a report by ...
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Israeli settlement in the West Bank has accelerated since October 7 ...
Sep 3, 2025 · This acceleration has increased the proportion of settlers in the Israeli population from 1.7% in 1990 to 5% in 2023 – likely even higher today ...
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Israeli Society Index, August 2024: Attitudes of secular Israeli Jews ...
Aug 15, 2024 · According to the Israel Central Bureau of Statistics, 45% of Israeli Jews self-identify as “secular,” while another 19% self-define as “secular- ...
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[PDF] Annual Statistical Report on Ultra-Orthodox (Haredi) Society in Israel
In 2024, the Haredi population numbered around 1,392,000, up from 750,000 in 2009, and constituting 13.9% of Israel's total population. According to Central ...
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The Annual Assessment of the Jewish People 2024 | 5784
Sep 22, 2024 · Due to the high Haredi fertility rate of 6.4 children per woman, this population is also very young. Half of the Haredi sector is under the age ...<|separator|>
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Jun 14, 2014 · This study seeks to determine if Religious Zionism has had a substantial effect on Israel's settlement policies after the 1967 war. Unlike ...
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Mar 26, 2025 · Pew survey finds 22% of Israeli Jews have shifted their religious identity within Judaism, mostly from religious or traditional to secular.
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What Does Israeli Jewish Society Look like? A Brief Market Overview.
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4 facts about religious switching within Judaism in Israel
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Ahead of Rosh Hashanah, Israeli population expected to top 10 ...
Sep 26, 2024 · There are 7.689 million Jews, non-Arab Christians, and other ethnic minorities aside from Muslim Arabs. In addition, there are 2.095 million ...
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The Muslim Population in Israel 2024 (Israel Central Bureau of ...
At the end of 2023, the Moslem population of Israel was estimated at 1.782 million (18.1% of all residents) – an increase of 35,000 compared with the end of ...
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Statistics on Christians in Israel - Christian Media Center
Jan 14, 2025 · According to data released by the Central Bureau of Statistics on Christmas Eve 2024, approximately 180,300 Christians reside in Israel, ...Youth Festival: Together To... · October 20, 2025 · From The Czech Republic To...
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Apr 9, 2019 · The level of Arab participation in Knesset elections has fallen markedly over the past two decades, sometimes falling 10 percent short of Jewish turnout.
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The IDF does not conscript non-Druze Arab citizens of Israel, though their men and women may enlist voluntarily.
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Jul 16, 2025 · Israel's Druze community, numbering around 160,000 and comprising roughly 1.6 percent of the population, occupies a unique place in Israeli ...
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Jul 17, 2025 · Israel's Druze, unlike other Arab citizens, are subject to mandatory conscription in the army, where they often distinguish themselves in combat ...
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Exemption from military service in Israel - Wikipedia
The IDF's conscription laws only apply to three communities: the Jews, the Druze, and the Circassians. Both men and women are drafted from the Jewish community, ...Statistics · Draft evasion · Public censure · Exemption expiration
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Dec 11, 2024 · The dedication of Israeli Druze is evident in their military service, but pre-army programs will boost them into better positions in the IDF, education, and ...
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Bedouin in Israel - Minority Rights Group
Currently there are around 200,000 Bedouin in Israel, including some 80,000-90,000 living in 35 'unrecognized villages' at constant threat of eviction or forced ...
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Apr 25, 2025 · In 2024, the Israeli authorities stepped up the demolition of unrecognized Bedouin villages in the Negev-Naqab region, displacing hundreds in ...
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[PDF] Making the Bedouin Towns Work
In recent years, the Government of Israel has attempted to “solve” the problem of the Bedouins living in the Negev by moving a large number of them into seven.
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Israel's population nears ten million, Central Bureau of Statistics finds
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Are Israelis very religious? : r/Israel - Reddit
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End Orthodox Monopoly on Jewish Marriage in Israel - The Forward
May 22, 2013 · If a Jewish woman in Israel wants to divorce her husband she is required to go through the Orthodox rabbinical courts. If her husband does not ...
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Half of Israeli Jews would prefer to marry in non-Orthodox wedding ...
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[100]
72% Jewish Israelis support public transportation on Shabbat
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High Court strikes down law that postponed ultra-Orthodox draft
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Intergroup marriage and friendship in Israel - Pew Research Center
Mar 8, 2016 · Religious intermarriage is exceedingly rare among Jews in Israel. Only about 2% of Jews who are married or living with a romantic partner ...
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Jun 5, 2020 · This article describes Israeli society and immigration flows under the Law of Return and examines labor migration and the rise in asylum seekers.Missing: halachic | Show results with:halachic
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Religiosity Major Influence on Attitude Toward Judicial Overhaul
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Protests against judicial reform in Israel reveal tensions with ultra ...
May 5, 2023 · Opposing protestors face off over exempting ultra-Orthodox Jews from compulsory military service, on May 4, 2023, in Jerusalem.
[110]
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Sep 21, 2025 · ... 2023 judicial overhaul and a national security emergency following Hamas' October 7 attack. Either event alone could have destabilized ...Missing: societal | Show results with:societal
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Oct 15, 2010 · The process began on October 13th 1881, as Eliezer Ben-Yehuda and his friends agreed to exclusively speak Hebrew in their conversations.
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Eliezer Ben-Yehuda & the Revival of Hebrew - Jewish Virtual Library
On the same principle, Ben-Yehuda preached that rabbis and teachers should use Hebrew as the language of instruction in the Jewish schools in Palestine, and for ...
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Eliezer Ben-Yehuda: Father of Modern-Day Hebrew - Aish.com
Ben-Yehuda introduced Hebrew as the language of instruction and study in schools. He gained the support of educators who were enthusiastic Jewish nationalists.
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The language of Israel is Hebrew, which the majority of the population speaks. However, additional languages are widely spoken in Israel, including Arabic, ...
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What Languages are Spoken in Israel? - CCJK
Hebrew and Arabic are the official languages. 49% speak Hebrew, 15% Russian, 18% Arabic, 20% French, 2% English, and 1.6% Spanish. 34 languages are spoken in ...Important Languages of Israel · Languages Spoken in Israel · Hebrew · Arabic<|separator|>
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Feb 24, 2017 · Hence, for all practical purposes, Israel remains a largely multilingual society. Street signs are frequently trilingual or at least bilingual.
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Languages Spoken in Israel: Explore the Rich Linguistic Tapestry
Mar 13, 2024 · Israel's official languages are Hebrew and Arabic. Other languages include Russian, Yiddish, French, Spanish, Amharic, and English.
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Dec 22, 2020 · Additionally, a large section of the Russian immigrants in the country speaks their native language. Other minority languages include Amharic, ...
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[PDF] EF EPI 2023 - Israel
Israel. Proficiency trends. #54. 700. 650. Ranked no. 54 out of 113 countries. 600. 550. EF EPI score : 514. 500. Global average score : 502. 450. Position in ...
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"Israel's multicultural and multilingual diversity and the role of media ...
Dec 20, 2021 · Different religious, linguistic and ethnic social groups make up the living diversity of Israeli society. ... Israeli Russian-language media.
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Poll: A Majority Of Israelis Aged 18-29 Are Fully Shabbat-Observant
Jun 10, 2025 · The data shows that 53% of Israelis aged 18–29 observe Shabbat according to Jewish law – the highest percentage among all age groups.
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Public Holidays in Israel in 2025
List of Holidays in Israel in 2025 ; Wednesday, Apr 30, Memorial Day ; Thursday, May 01, Independence Day ; Friday, May 09, Victory Day ; Monday, May 26, Jerusalem ...
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Public holidays in Israel 2025-2029 - Worlddata.info
Other important holidays include Rosh ha-Shanah (Jewish New Year), Yom Kippur (Day of Atonement) and Sukkot, the week-long Feast of Tabernacles.
[124]
Jewish women's fertility rate outpaces Muslims in Israel - JNS.org
Jun 5, 2025 · 2024 data from the Central Bureau of Statistics revealing that Jewish women's fertility rate, at 3.06 children per woman, now exceeds that of Muslim women.
[125]
Why Israeli falafel sandwich is, well, Israeli - Vered's Israeli Cooking
Falafel most likely originated in Egypt (though others claim it comes from India), where it is called ta'amiya and is made from fava beans. Jews who lived in ...<|separator|>
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Shmuel Agnon – Facts - NobelPrize.org
Shmuel Yosef Agnon Nobel Prize in Literature 1966. Born: 17 July 1888, Buczacz, Austria-Hungary (now Buchach, Ukraine). Died: 17 February 1970, Rehovot, ...
[127]
'The world is diminished by the death of Amos Oz, it has narrowed ...
Dec 29, 2018 · The world has been “narrowed down” by the death of the Israeli literary giant Amos Oz, according to his close friend and fellow author David Grossman.
[128]
Biography - David Grossman - Stichting Praemium Erasmianum
David Grossman is one of the leading Israeli writers of our time. After starting out as a radio presenter, he made his international breakthrough in 1989.<|separator|>
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The Complete Guide to Tel Aviv Street Art | Bein Harim Tours
Jul 12, 2023 · From powerful murals with social and political messages to fun and funky pieces guaranteed to make you smile.
[130]
Waltz with Bashir - Golden Globes
82nd Annual Golden Globes® LIVE COVERAGE. Awards Database. 1 Nomination. 1 Win. Waltz with Bashir. An Israeli film director interviews fellow veterans of the ...
[131]
Israel - RSF
Press freedom, media plurality and editorial independence have been increasingly restricted in Israel since the start of the war in Gaza.
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Israeli military censor bans highest number of articles in over a decade
May 20, 2024 · The Israeli military censor barred the publication of 613 articles by media outlets in Israel, setting a new record for the period since +972 Magazine began ...
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RSF's World Press Freedom Index aims to compare the level of press freedom enjoyed by journalists and media in 180 countries and territories.Israel · Palestine · World Press Freedom Index · Press freedom ranking
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PISA 2022 Results (Volume I and II) - Country Notes: Israel | OECD
Dec 5, 2023 · When they sat the PISA test in 2022, 84% of 15-year-old students in Israel were enrolled in 10th grade. · In Israel, 98% reported that they had ...
[135]
Israel - Student performance (PISA 2022) - Education GPS - OECD
In Israel, the average performance in science of 15-year-olds is 465 points, compared to an average of 485 points in OECD countries. In Israel, 63% of students ...
[136]
About the Technion - הטכניון
The Technion is one of the world's leading universities for training scientists and engineers. Its alumni fill central positions in the Israeli and global ...
[137]
Israel - Research And Development Expenditure (% Of GDP)
Research and development expenditure (% of GDP) in Israel was reported at 6.0192 % in 2022, according to the World Bank collection of development indicators.
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Israel Startup Ecosystem - Rankings, Startups, and Insights
Israel's startup ecosystem grew +20.6% in 2025, ranks #3 globally, with 3007 startups and total startup funding over $6.72B.
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IDF Powers Israel's Tech Miracle | James Ogunleye - The Blogs
Jul 28, 2025 · It has been a catalyst for technological transfer, taking innovations developed for military purposes and transitioning them into the civilian ...
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The Primary Challenge for Integrating Haredim into the Workforce
This in turn led to a sharp decline in formal education rates, culminating in the present situation in which only 5% of young haredi men (ages 20-24), have a ...
[142]
OECD finds record educational gulf between Hebrew, Arabic ...
Dec 3, 2019 · In mathematics, Hebrew speakers remained at 490 points but Arabic speakers scored 379, a drop of 12 points. The OECD average is 489, with ...
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The Arab education system in Israel: Are the gaps closing? - מרכז טאוב
More Arab Israeli students are enrolled in school and in higher education than in the past, and their scholastic achievements have risen in a number of subjects ...
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IDF offers one-time amnesty to thousands of draft dodgers, citing ...
Aug 17, 2025 · There will be no delays, and they will be required to serve the full mandatory service time, which is 32 months for most male troops and 24 ...Missing: length | Show results with:length
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Facing manpower shortage, government backs raising mandatory ...
Jul 15, 2024 · Facing manpower shortage, government backs raising mandatory IDF service to 3 years. Attorney General's Office questions legality of measure ...
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IDF reserve duty age cut off extended amid heavy criticism
Jun 16, 2024 · The government gave three-month extension of measure to raise the cutoff age for reserve duty from 40 to 41 for regular soldiers and 45 to 46 for officers.
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Opening All Combat Positions in the IDF to Women - INSS
... IDF is the people's army and service is mandatory for men and women. According to the law, positions can only be closed to women when this is necessary "due ...
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Over 5000 female combat soldiers recruited to IDF
Aug 18, 2025 · New IDF record: Over 5,000 women recruited for combat roles last year. Female combat soldiers currently serve in a variety of combat units ...
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A Year Since the Supreme Court's Conscription Ruling – Was It Real ...
Jun 25, 2025 · The IDF's absorption capacity has also increased. In addition to the 4,800 Haredi recruits it could absorb by summer 2025, the military ...
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Silicon Valley's Hot Talent Pipeline Is an Israeli Army Unit - WSJ
Aug 31, 2024 · Unit 8200 has become an incubator for cybersecurity startups defending the world's biggest companies against hackers.
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Unity is Israel's most powerful weapon - JNS.org
Jul 14, 2025 · The aftermath of Oct. 7 showed that unity can return even after bitter division. But sustaining it, especially as war continues, hostages remain ...
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Israeli high-tech breaks records in 2025, but growth stalls | Ctech
Sep 17, 2025 · In 2024, only about 400 new companies were founded in Israel, almost half the annual average of the previous decade. The slowdown is ...
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Israel's natural gas saved the economy over NIS 316b. in past decade
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Ovadia Yosef's Economic Legacy: A Culture of Poverty and Ignorance
Oct 18, 2013 · Israel's Mizrahim have made dramatic progress in closing the income gap with Ashkenazim by doing exactly the opposite of what Shas wanted ...Missing: class | Show results with:class<|control11|><|separator|>
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Israel Gini inequality index - data, chart | TheGlobalEconomy.com
The latest value from 2021 is 37.9 index points, an increase from 37.8 index points in 2020. In comparison, the world average is 35.28 index points.
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Housing and health in Israel: the need for local policy-oriented ...
Mar 29, 2025 · Of all housed people in Israel, over 30% are spending more than one-third of their disposable income on housing alone [89].
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2024 Investment Climate Statements - Israel - State Department
The war took an economic toll on Israel, with GDP dropping 20.7 percent between October-December 2023, but GDP expanded in the first quarter of 2024 by 3.35% ...
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Israel: A resilient economy will be boosted by long-lasting ceasefire
2024 was marked by volatility due to the conflict, resulting in estimated growth of +0.5%. In 2025, growth is expected to rebound to +3%.
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The Economic Impact of Israel's Conflicts with its Neighbors
Jul 16, 2025 · In the final quarter of 2023, Israel's GDP plummeted by an annualized 21%, driven by drops in private consumption, exports and business investment.
[164]
The electoral system in Israel - Gov.il
In other words, a party must receive at least 2% of the votes in order to be elected. According to this system, the voters vote for a list of candidates, and ...
[165]
[PDF] UNDERSTANDING ELECTORAL SYSTEMS IN THE MIDDLE EAST ...
This means that a political party needs a minimum of 3.25% of the total vote to guarantee themselves seats in the Israeli parliament. • Never in Israel's ...
[166]
16 16 Israel: The Politics of an Extreme Electoral System
Israel had a closed list PR system that was so proportional that it resulted in a large multi-party system with a very fragmented parliament.
[167]
Israel, Electoral System —
In the ultra-religious parties their spiritual leaders appoint the candidates. The Knesset elections take place once every four years, but the Knesset or the ...The electoral system · The frequency of elections · Who can participate in elections?
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https://www.inss.org.il/publication/elections-2022-arab-society/
[169]
Arab Votes in the 2022 Election - The Israel Democracy Institute
Nov 9, 2022 · Dr. Arik Rudnitzky breaks down the Arab vote to the 25th Knesset elections – it seems that Ra'am's gamble paid off and they emerged the big winner.
[170]
Arab Society in Israel and the Elections to the 25th Knesset - INSS
Nov 20, 2022 · A majority of the Arab public voted in the recent Knesset elections. An analysis of the voting patterns in the sector provides an interesting picture.
[171]
Former Prime Ministers - Gov.il
Former Prime Ministers. The First Prime Minister. David Ben-Gurion. First Tenure: 1948 - 1954. Second Tenure: 1955 - 1963 · The Second Prime Minister.
[172]
Prime Ministers of Israel - Jewish Virtual Library
(1948 - Present) ; Ehud Barak. (1999-2001) ; Benjamin Netanyahu. (1996-1999) ; Shimon Peres. (1995-1996) ; Yitzhak Rabin. (1992-1995) ; Yitzhak Shamir. (1986-1992).
[173]
Israeli Life in 2025 in 7 Charts - Gallup News
Sep 30, 2025 · In 2025, 44% of Israelis say they approve of their national leadership, and 40% express confidence in their national government.
[174]
Can Israel Survive Post-Zionism? - Middle East Forum
At its essence, post-Zionism holds that the State of Israel is an immoral phenomenon because it was established on the basis of the destruction of another ...
[175]
'You have to be a real Zionist': Two years after Oct. 7, new dreamers ...
Oct 6, 2025 · The movement counts 56 kibbutzim evacuated after October 7 and says kibbutz communities lost 318 people in the attacks, close to a quarter of ...
[176]
The Law of Return
The Law of Return grants every Jew the right to settle in Israel, with a visa required, unless they are engaged in activities against the Jewish people or ...Missing: halachic enforcement
[177]
What to Know About the Arab Citizens of Israel
Arabs represent one-fifth of Israel's population. Systemic discrimination, outbreaks of communal violence, and the broader Israeli-Palestinian conflict continue ...Missing: conscription | Show results with:conscription<|separator|>
[178]
FAQ: Arab Citizens of Israel - The iCenter
What is the legal status of Arab citizens of Israel? Officially, Arab citizens of Israel have legal rights and status equal to all other Israeli citizens.
[179]
The Many Civil and Human Rights Challenges Facing Israel's ...
Feb 28, 2024 · Israel does not have a constitution that guarantees equality for all before the law. Instead, important privileges and rights are conferred ...
[180]
Most Arab Israelis do not consider Israeli identity primary, CBS finds
May 22, 2025 · The poll, which asked respondents to self-identify, said that only 3% of Arabs define themselves as Israeli citizens first, with 27% saying that ...
[181]
Missed Signals that Led to a Strategic Surprise: Israeli Arab Riots in ...
Jul 19, 2024 · In the early days, the police initially framed the riots as local public protests and tried to lower the “flames,” even when this meant not ...
[182]
Poll: Overwhelming majority of Jewish Israelis don't trust Arab ...
Feb 2, 2025 · ... riots in mixed Jewish-Arab cities that accompanied a previous conflict with Hamas in 2021. Only 30% of Jews were willing to participate or ...
[183]
Income from employment in Arab Israeli society grows faster than ...
Jul 11, 2024 · The average annual income from labor among Israeli Arabs has grown at a faster pace than among Haredi and non-religious populations in Israel.
[184]
Only 1.8% of Israeli tech workers are Arab, new research shows
Sep 29, 2022 · In fact, while the share of Arab employees in high-tech reached 2.2% in 2018, it declined to 1.8% in 2021 and only 0.8% of tech CEOs are Arab.
[185]
Why Israel outlawed the Northern Branch of the Islamic Movement
Dec 7, 2015 · An increasingly important segment of Israel's Arab citizenry is tied to the Islamic Movement, a branch of which Israel banned in November.Missing: tensions | Show results with:tensions
[186]
Islamic Movement (Northern Branch) | ECFR
The southern branch chose to engage in the Israeli political system and formed the Ra'am party. By contrast, the northern branch chose to boycott the political ...Missing: tensions | Show results with:tensions
[187]
Arab Israelis have less income, die younger than Jewish peers, data ...
Jun 20, 2023 · The report found that in 2021, 76.5 percent of Jewish households could cover their expenses, compared to 53.7% of Arab households.
[188]
Horizontal Inequality in Israel's Welfare State: Do Arab Citizens ...
Moreover, as the National Insurance Institute (NII) documents year after year, the welfare state in Israel lifts far fewer Arab than Jewish families out of ...
[189]
The War's Unexpected Impact on Coexistence in Israel | Tel Aviv ...
Dec 18, 2024 · According to the survey, 57.8% believe that the ongoing war has fostered a sense of shared destiny between Arabs and Jews in Israel.
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Palestinian Rockets in May Killed Civilians in Israel, Gaza
Aug 12, 2021 · Of the more than 4,360 rocket and mortar attacks by Palestinian armed groups, 3,573 “penetrated Israeli airspace,” according to Israeli ...
[191]
Israel marks 2 years since Oct. 7 attack as Gaza war grinds on - PBS
Oct 7, 2025 · Israelis are mourning the dead and fearing for the remaining hostages as they mark two years since Hamas' Oct. 7 attack plunged the region ...
[192]
Israel spy agency lists failures in preventing Oct. 7 attack - NPR
Mar 5, 2025 · Israel's domestic security agency had Hamas' battle plans for the Oct. 7, 2023 attacks but didn't take them seriously.
[193]
[PDF] Investigative Report: Walls Work – IRLI's Tour of Israel's Border
Aug 21, 2023 · The Gaza Border Wall resulted in a 100 percent reduction in suicide bomb attacks. • The Lebanon, Jordan and Golan Border Walls appear to ...
[194]
Israel Targets Hezbollah & Hamas Officials - Wilson Center
Sep 20, 2024 · The following is a rundown of the Israeli assassinations. Oct. 17, 2023: Ayman Nofal, a key member of the General Military Council, was killed ...
[195]
Counter-Terrorism Targeted Killing of Hassan Nasrallah. Is ...
Oct 1, 2024 · And Nasrallah's predecessor, Abbas al-Musawi, was killed in an Israeli decapitation strike in 1992. The core rationale for targeted killing or ...
[196]
An assessment on Israel's 'Iron Dome' Defense System
The IDF (Israel Defense Force) claims an 85% - 90% success rate for the “Iron Dome” in intercepting incoming projectiles. Operational in March 2011, to date ...Missing: empirical | Show results with:empirical
[197]
Examining the effect of repressive and conciliatory government ...
An increase in repressive actions leads to a reduction in terrorist attacks. •. An increase in conciliatory actions has no effect on terrorism. •. Terrorists' ...
[198]
[PDF] Hamas' use of human shields in Gaza
▫ Israel commits war crimes, indiscriminately killing Palestinian civilians. ... Hamas records most incidents in which civilians are killed and injured by ...<|separator|>
[199]
Israel Supreme Court strikes down judicial reforms - BBC
Jan 1, 2024 · This removed the power of the Supreme Court and lower courts in Israel to cancel government decisions it deemed to be "extremely unreasonable".
[200]
Israel's Judicial Reforms: What to Know | Council on Foreign Relations
Jul 26, 2023 · The Israeli parliament's new legislation limiting Supreme Court oversight of government policies has raised alarm over deepening societal divisions and ...
[201]
Israel judicial reform explained: What is the crisis about? - BBC
Sep 11, 2023 · It follows months of turmoil over the government's plans to change the way the judicial system works. Here is a brief guide to what is going on.
[202]
Development of the Haredi Exemption Law - Israel Democracy Institute
Mar 7, 2024 · The Minister of Defense ruling, which found exemption with a specific enabling law to be legally impermissible. The Committee discussed the ...
[203]
[PDF] Annual Statistical Report on Ultra-Orthodox (Haredi) Society in Israel ...
While there has been a sizable decline in the poverty rate among the ultra-Orthodox since 2015, it remains very high, standing at 34% in 2021— significantly ...
[204]
Israel passes law to conscript ultra-Orthodox Jews into military
Mar 12, 2014 · Under the law, the army would be required to draft an increasing number of ultra-Orthodox Jews each year, with the goal of enlisting 5,200 ultra ...<|separator|>
[205]
The Battle over the Enlistment of Ultra-Orthodox Jews in Israel - ISPI
Jul 25, 2024 · On Thursday 18 July 2024, Gallant instructed the IDF to send out 3,000 draft orders to members of the Haredi community in three waves, starting ...
[206]
Socioeconomic mobility between generations is relatively low in Israel
Jun 21, 2022 · Only 14% of children born into Israel's lowest income quartile climb to the top quartile, with even lower rates for ultra-Orthodox and Arab Israelis, the study ...
[207]
Intergenerational Mobility in Israel is Relatively Low
Jun 21, 2022 · New IDI study finds that only 14% of Israeli children in the bottom income quartile will reach the top quartile.
[208]
Socio-Economic Mobility of Development Towns in Israel - ifo Institut
This study reveals that, over the past six decades, development towns have improved their socio-economic status both in terms of absolute mobility.
[209]
In Depth: Arafat Rejected Peace in 2000 | HonestReporting
This article will review the old and new evidence showing the tragedy of Arafat's “no” response to an attractive peace deal.
[210]
Clinton, Arafat, and a Century of Rejection - Commentary Magazine
Dec 6, 2024 · Eight years after Arafat's Camp David rejection, Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Olmert and Palestinian President Mahmoud Abbas—Arafat's successor— ...
[211]
Abbas Admits Rejecting Two-State Peace Plan With Israel in 2008
Nov 18, 2015 · Palestinian President Mahmoud Abbas has publicly admitted for the first time that he turned down a chance for a two-state peace deal with Israel in 2008.
[212]
Abbas admits he rejected 2008 peace offer from Olmert
Nov 19, 2015 · PA president says he declined proposal -- which included near-total withdrawal from West Bank and relinquishing Israeli control of ...
[213]
Abbas Admits He Said No to Israel's Peace Offer
Nov 18, 2015 · “I did not agree,” Abbas replied. “I rejected it out of hand.” The interviews (including with Olmert) contain detail that will be of great ...
[214]
The Abraham Accords - United States Department of State
Abraham Accords Peace Agreement: Treaty of Peace, Diplomatic Relations and Full Normalization Between the United Arab Emirates and the State of Israel ...
[215]
The Abraham Accords at five - Atlantic Council
Sep 15, 2025 · The Abraham Accords, signed in September 2020, are in many ways the realization of Sadat's unfinished mission. Unlike the Egypt-Israel peace, ...
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Abraham Accords Promote Peace and Growth in the Middle East
In September 2020, the United Arab Emirates and Israel announced the Abraham Accords, a historic normalization agreement that is transforming the Middle ...
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Allegation: Israel is an Apartheid State - ADL
Aug 7, 2021 · Apartheid usually refers to the guiding policy of racial segregation in pre-1990s South Africa. Apartheid was a racist, repressive system, by ...
[218]
Amnesty International's Big Lie about Israel - CAMERA.org
Jan 31, 2022 · ... Israel is not apartheid, and that Arab citizens can and do have equal rights. It's obvious why Amnesty engaged in this deception – including ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[219]
2024 UNGA Resolutions on Israel vs. Rest of the World - UN Watch
Nov 3, 2024 · From 2015 through 2023, the UN General Assembly has adopted 154 resolutions against Israel and 71 against other countries.
[220]
thinc. briefing concerning the Advisory Opinion of the International ...
The Advisory Opinion focusses exclusively on Israel's alleged misconduct. As several of the judges have observed, it is one-sided and biased.Missing: criticisms ignoring
[221]
Summary of the Advisory Opinion of 19 July 2024
Jul 19, 2024 · The Court considers that Israel's policies and practices, including its forcible evictions, extensive house demolitions and restrictions on ...
[222]
[PDF] Public Law 112–150 112th Congress An Act
''. (2) To help the Government of Israel preserve its qualitative military edge amid rapid and uncertain regional political trans- formation.
[223]
U.S. Aid to Israel in Four Charts | Council on Foreign Relations
Since the start of Israel's war with Hamas on October 7, 2023, the United States has enacted legislation providing at least $16.3 billion in direct military aid ...How much U.S. aid does Israel... · What military aid has the...
[224]
Over 10000 Antisemitic Incidents Recorded in the U.S. since Oct. 7 ...
... antisemitic incidents in the U.S. in the year since the Oct. 7 Hamas terrorist attack in Israel, according to ADL (the Anti-Defamation League) preliminary data.
[225]
Antisemitic and anti-Israeli attacks rise since October 7, 2023 | Reuters
Oct 2, 2025 · Attacks against Jews and Jewish targets have risen worldwide since war erupted in Gaza in October 2023 following an attack on Israel by Hamas- ...
[226]
Antisemitic incidents slow worldwide from post-Oct. 7 spike, but ...
Antisemitic attacks have increased dramatically since ...